3.

Defects in Metal Crystal

3.1 Perfect and imperfect crystal

The crystalline arrangement of atoms is the lowest energy type of structure, the
regular arrangement exists over great numbers of atoms, and the distances between atom
are consistent. However, there are geometrically possible ways in crystal can depart from
the ideal structure, but imperfect crystal retain the crystal structure in the aggregate of
atoms, and have energies increased by only a small percentage.

3.2 Classification of imperfections

Lattice distortions and definite imperfections in real metal crystal are related to the
position of the atoms, and can be broadly classified into groups on a geometric basis, i.e.
point, surface, and line defects.

3.2.1 Point defects

The possible point defects may be sub-divided into lattice vacancies, interstitial
atoms, substitutional atoms, and complex point defects.

Simple vacant sites exist in a certain proportion in a crystal in thermal equilibrium.

Leading to an increase in the randomness of the structure. Vacancies are able to move in
and out of a crystal, Fig. 3.1, which is effected by movement of an atom into an adjoining
vacancy. The atom and the vacancy, therefore, exchange positions, and a sequence of
such movements allows a vacancy to move about within a crystal.

An atom may move into an intersititial position, especially when a foreign atom that
has a much smaller atomicsize is present. This may give rise to local distortions in the
lattice.

Substitutional atoms may cause similiar lattice distortions, depending upon the size of
the foreign atom relative to the one displaced on the solvent lattice.

It is probable thet lattice vacancies and foreign atoms may form a stable pair in a
crystal, which would cause a complex point defect.

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3.2.2 Surface imperfections

These may include grain boundaries, sub-boundaries, twin boundaries. Stacking

faults, ferromagnetic domain walls, and coherent and incoherent precipitate interfaces. The
energy of a grain with an interface is greater than that of an equivalent amoun of material in
the grain interior. A grain boundary is either a perfect plane of a grain contact, or a transition
region, and it is a three-dimensional surface. Alternatively, a boundary may be regarded as an
array of dislocations, Fig. 3.2. By rotation of an axis in the boundary it is possible to bring the
axes of the two bordering grains into coincidence, i.e. a tilt boundary, in which case :

(angle of tilt) = b = length of Burgers vector

h= dislocation spacing

Where rotation is about an axis normal to the boundary it is called a twist boundary.
The arrangement in Fig. 3.2 constitutes a small angle boundary. Where the boundary
misorientation is less than one degree it is called a sub-boundary. Most sub-boundaries are of
the tilt type, and can be made to move by stress application.

Volume defects such as cracks or stacking faults may arise, the latter, where there is only
small dissimilarity electrostatically between the stacking sequences of close-packed planes in
f.c.c. and c.p.h. metals, e.g. A B C A B C and A B A B A B. It is possible for one atom layer to
be out of sequence relative to the atoms of the layers above and below, giving a mistake,
e.g. A B C B C A B C.

3.2.3 Line imperfections

Dislocations are found in real crystal when they have extension in one dimension.
Resulting in the actual strengths of such crystal being 100 to 10.000 times less tha those
calculated.

A dislocation may be regarded as a flexible line of disturbed atoms passing through

the crystal, forming a boundary between slipped and unslipped regions.

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 Considering a perfect crystal, it is possible to produce a closed circuit A B C D where
A B is made up of n vectors units, Fig. 3.3(a). The presence of a line imperfection results in
Fig. 3.3(b), where the loop does not close, and the amount b is called the Burgers vector.
When the dislocation line lies perpendicular to its Burgers vector it is called an edge
dislocaion, and when it lies parallel, a screw dislocation.

3.3 Dislocations and their characteristic

3.3.1 Edge dislocations

The atomic structure of an edge dislocation i shown Fig. 3.4(a). Where an extra half
plane of atoms is present above the slip plane it is called a positive edge dislocation (L) and
where the half plane is below it is called a negative edge dislocation (T). (These symbols
are rather misleading because the actual dislocation is spread over a number of atom rows).
The distinction is important only because positive and negative dislocations move in opposite
directions under the action of the shear stress.

A boundary between the slipped and unslipped regions lies normal to the direction of
slip, and is called an edge dislocation line. It forms either a closed loop in the interior of the
crystal, Fig. 3.4(b), or emerges at the surface. Also, the amount of slip across the dislocation
line is constant, and the Burgers vector must be the same at all points. The dislocation need
not be either perpendicular or parallel to its vector but it is convenient to consider ideal
dislocations because it is possible to resolve them into pure edge and screw components.

An edge dislocation moves at right angles to its own length but parallel to the
direction of slip. In a positive dislocation the atoms above the plane are in compression, and
those below are in tension. Two adjacent dislocations of the same sign repel each other, the
repulsive force varying inversely as the distance between them. Coversely, dislocations of
opposite sign are attracted an may run together and annihilate each other. In general, the
dislocations interact to take up position of minimum energy.

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 An edge dislocationd may move normally to its slip plane only by a process known
as climb. If vacancies arrive at the dislocation line it can climb up, usually one atom at a
time, and the extra half-plane shortens.

3.3.2 Screw dislocations

This term follows from the characteristic continuous spiral path that can be outlined
round the dislocation, so that the path does not at any point move from one atom plane to
another, Fig. 3.4(c). The screw of the helix of atoms may be left handed or right handed, the
two kinds moving in opposite directions under the same shear stress. An essential
characteristic is that is Burgers vector is parallel to its axis (i.e. the boundary line between the
slipped and unslipped region lies parallel to the slip direction).

The screw dislocation is cylindically symmetrical and the motion is not restricted to a
single plane, as in the case of the edge dislocation. Its motion is at right angles to its own
length and to the direction of slip, and the movement into another slip plane of common
direction with the original is called cross-slip. Fig. 3.5. Where the dislocation jumps from
one to another it is known as a jog, which has a short length of dislocation that does not lie
in the same slip line as the main dislocation but has the same Burgers vector.

At the surface, screw dislocation forms a spiral ramp that grows indefinitely, on
adding atoms, without nucleation of fresh layers. Growth spiral are observed in a wide range
of substances, including both metals and non-metals, in a variety of conditions, Fig. 3.6.

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3.3.3 Energy of a dislocation

A dislocation is a region of higher energy, and a crystal containing dislocation has a

higher energy than that of a perfect crystal. The energy corresponds to the strain of the
crystal, and the order of the energy is 1 eV/atom plane (e.g. for copper total strain energy = 6
eV/atom plane), where the energy is approximately assumed to be proportional to b2, where
b is the Burgers vector, and is the shear modulus.

A crystal containing dislocations is less ordered, having a greater entropy than a

perfect crystal, but the ease of energy is greater than the entropy effect.

3.3.4 Complete and imperfect dislocations

A complete, or perfect dislocation, assumses that a perfect crystal exis on each side of
the dislocation, i.e. the Burgers vector, which defines the atomic displacement caused by the
dislocation movement, allows a matched stable lattice structure before and after movement.
This requires that the Burgers vector is equal to one lattice vector and the energy is a
minimum when the dislocation Burgers vector is equal to the minimum lattice vector. Where
the complex crystal structures are involed, certain atom sites do not have a matched lattice,
and the Burgers vector is not equal to a whole lattice vector. This constitutes an imperfect or
patrial dislocation. A typical case is where the crystal on one side of a dislocation is perfect
and that on the other has an incorrect plane sequence and has developed a stacking fault, as is
found in the dislocation mechanism of twinning, or in slip, where conditions allow a pair of
dislocations to pass through the lattice.

A complete dislocation may decrease in energy by dissociating into two partials,

separated by a stacking fault, and the sum of the two vectors for the partials is equal to the
vector for the complete dislocation. If this is carried out by movement in the slip plane a
Shockley partial results, and is called glissile because it can move in the slip plane.

If a dislocation is prevented from gliding in the usual manner, it becomes sessile,

which is found in the Frank partial dislocation, where a half-plane of atoms is removed and a
stacking fault forms where rejoining occurs, Fig. 3.7.

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 If slip occurs as a two-step process, involving a pair of partial dislocations gliding
together as a unit dislocation, the intermediate position is one of low energy, and the
displacement of a layer of atoms creates a stacking vault. The boundary between the slipped
and the unslipped region separates into two lines, with a region of intermediate slip between
them, Fig. 3.8.

The combination of O A and O B is called an extended dislocation, and its

component parts are partial dislocations, with a stacking fault ribbon between them that is not
corrected until after the passage of the second half of the extended dislocation. A two-step,
zigzag movement corresponds to the movement of the extended dislocation as a whole. There
is a force of repulsion between the two partials, which diminishes as the separation increase,
but the higher energy of the stacking fault compared with the normal lattice prevents the
partials from separating too far. Creation of a stacking fault involves energy changes of the
same order as that required for twin formation and, in f.c.c. metals, the more numerous the
twin, the greater the separation of the partials, d. Copper has a low stacking fault energy (),
numerous annealing twins, and a calculated value of 10 atom diameters for d, while
aluminium has fewer annealing twins, a higher , and d 1-2 atom diameters.

The significance of extended dislocations lies in the fact that the larger the value of d,
the less likely that obstacles can be surmounted by cross-slip. This explains the function of
cobalt, when added to f.c.c. metals intended for high temperature applications, in improving
their properties by hindering cross-slip.

3.4 Generation of dislocation

Dislocations increase in density during deformation, and for a visible slip step (at least
3000 in height) at least 1000 dislocations must operate on a given slip plane. It is, therefore,
necessary for a mechanism that creates large numbers of new dislocations.

3.4.1 The Frank-Read source

This mechanism is dependent upon the expansion and subdivision of existing

dislocations. It regards the source as a segment or length of dislocation line, lying in the slip
plane, which is anchored at both ends either by intersection with other dislocation
components (nodes) or by particles or impurities, Fig. 3.9. On application of stress, the line
bows out and eventually a loop is sprung away, while a new line, similiar to the original, is
formed at the same time, Fig. 3.9. The cycle may be repeated over and over again if a large
enough shear stress is maintained., and it is calculated that there are 1012 potential Frank-
Read sources for each cubic centimetre of metal. With the aid of this mechanism, slip can
begin locally and spread out over the slip plane, and once a source is operating there will be
considerable slip on the active plane as the source produces more and more dislocation loops.

Calculated values for the speed of formation of a slip band show that a time of only
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10 seconds is required, and it is known if a Frank-Read source can produce a slip band at
this speed.

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 Smallman has expressed the view that this is probably not the only mechanism, and
direct evidence for the exsistence of dislocation sources has been obtained in only a few
cases. Fig. 3.10.

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3.5 Experimental evidence of the existence of dislocations

Early postulations of dislocations were largely by theory based on calculations or by

measurement of physical properties, or from X-ray reflections. Stored energy measurements,
either calorimetrically or from line broadening on X-ray powder patterns. Together with the
calculated energy of one centimetre of dislocation, gives the dislocation density. These
methods assume that the dislocations are arranged at random, and correction factors are
necessary. However, new techniques are now available which produce visible evidence.

3.5.1 Etching

Suitable etching reagents bring out dislocation etch figures because of prefential
attack at the high-energy dislocation sites. The patterns show line characteristic by etching at
a series of levels, small angle boundaries, and dislocation pile-ups, and also the movement of
dislocations under stress and at elevated temperatures. One disavantage is that only survace
arrangements are shown, no interior detail being revealed.

3.5.2 Electron microscopy

Direct-transmission thin-film electron microscopy has revealed dislocations as dark

lines in the optical image due to the Bragg scattering of the electron beam, Fig. 3.11.
Individual dislocations move under the stress caused by the heating due to the elctron beam.
Stacking faults are visible because they produce a phase diffrence, giving interference
fringes. As well as electron beam scattering, individual dislocations produce X-ray diffraction
effects without sectioning, but the resolution is limited.

3.5.3 Decoration of dislocation

Edge dislocation are surrounded by compression, tension, and shear strain, and screw
dislocations by shear strain and solute atoms from the lowest energy configuration when they
are near these regions. Therefore, the atoms tend to segregate to dislocations and give
prevential [recipitation, called dislocation decoration, which allows the outlining of internal
dislocations but requires high temperature heat-treatment. In aluminium-copper alloys, alkali
halides, and in silicon, precipitation of visible particles can be caused within the crystal,
which reveals dislocation network.