Biomedical engineering

and biology for healthcare purposes (e.g. diagnostic

or therapeutic). This eld seeks to close the gap be-
tween engineering and medicine, combining the design
and problem solving skills of engineering with medi-
cal and biological sciences to advance health care treat-
ment, including diagnosis, monitoring, and therapy.[1]
Biomedical engineering has only recently emerged as
its own study, as compared to many other engineering
elds. Such an evolution is common as a new eld
transitions from being an interdisciplinary specialization
among already-established elds, to being considered a
eld in itself. Much of the work in biomedical engi-
neering consists of research and development, spanning a
broad array of subelds (see below). Prominent biomed-
ical engineering applications include the development of
biocompatible prostheses, various diagnostic and thera-
peutic medical devices ranging from clinical equipment
to micro-implants, common imaging equipment such as
MRIs and EEGs, regenerative tissue growth, pharmaceu-
tical drugs and therapeutic biologicals.

1 Bioinformatics

Main article: Bioinformatics

Ultrasound representation of urinary bladder (black buttery-
like shape) a hyperplastic prostate. An example of practical sci-
ence and medical science working together.
Bioinformatics is an interdisciplinary eld that develops
methods and software tools for understanding biological
data. As an interdisciplinary eld of science, bioinfor-
matics combines computer science, statistics, mathemat-
ics, and engineering to analyze and interpret biological
data.
Bioinformatics is both an umbrella term for the body of
biological studies that use computer programming as part
of their methodology, as well as a reference to specic
analysis pipelines that are repeatedly used, particularly
in the eld of genomics. Common uses of bioinformat-
ics include the identication of candidate genes and nu-
cleotides (SNPs). Often, such identication is made with
the aim of better understanding the genetic basis of dis-
Example of an approximately 40,000 probe spotted oligo ease, unique adaptations, desirable properties (esp. in
microarray with enlarged inset to show detail. agricultural species), or dierences between populations.
In a less formal way, bioinformatics also tries to under-
Biomedical engineering (BME) is the application of stand the organisational principles within nucleic acid and
engineering principles and design concepts to medicine protein sequences.

1
2 8 PHARMACEUTICAL ENGINEERING

2 Biomechanics
Main article: Biomechanics

See Biomechanics.

3 Biomaterial
Micromass cultures of C3H-10T1/2 cells at varied oxygen ten-
Main article: Biomaterial sions stained with Alcian blue.

A biomaterial is any matter, surface, or construct that

interacts with living systems. As a science, biomateri-
als is about fty years old. The study of biomaterials is
called biomaterials science or biomaterials engineer-
ing. It has experienced steady and strong growth over its
history, with many companies investing large amounts of
money into the development of new products. Biomate-
rials science encompasses elements of medicine, biology,
chemistry, tissue engineering and materials science.
4 Biomedical optics
Main article: Biomedical optics
Genetic engineering, recombinant DNA technology, ge-
netic modication/manipulation (GM) and gene splicing
are terms that apply to the direct manipulation of an or-
ganisms genes. Unlike traditional breeding, an indirect
method of genetic manipulation, genetic engineering uti-
lizes modern tools such as molecular cloning and trans-
formation to directly alter the structure and characteris-
tics of target genes. Genetic engineering techniques have
found success in numerous applications. Some examples
include the improvement of crop technology (not a med-
ical application, but see biological systems engineering),
the manufacture of synthetic human insulin through the
use of modied bacteria, the manufacture of erythropoi-
etin in hamster ovary cells, and the production of new
types of experimental mice such as the oncomouse (can-
cer mouse) for research.

5 Tissue engineering
Main article: Tissue engineering 7 Neural engineering
Tissue engineering, like genetic engineering (see below),
Neural engineering (also known as neuroengineering) is a
is a major segment of biotechnology - which overlaps sig-
discipline that uses engineering techniques to understand,
nicantly with BME.
repair, replace, or enhance neural systems. Neural engi-
One of the goals of tissue engineering is to create arti- neers are uniquely qualied to solve design problems at
cial organs (via biological material) for patients that need the interface of living neural tissue and non-living con-
organ transplants. Biomedical engineers are currently re- structs.
searching methods of creating such organs. Researchers
have grown solid jawbones[2] and tracheas[3] from hu-
man stem cells towards this end. Several articial uri-
nary bladders have been grown in laboratories and trans-
planted successfully into human patients.[4] Bioarticial 8 Pharmaceutical engineering
organs, which use both synthetic and biological compo-
nent, are also a focus area in research, such as with hep-
atic assist devices that use liver cells within an articial Pharmaceutical engineering is an interdisciplinary sci-
bioreactor construct.[5] ence that includes drug engineering, novel drug delivery
and targeting, pharmaceutical technology, unit operations
of Chemical Engineering, and Pharmaceutical Analysis.
It may be deemed as a part of pharmacy due to its focus
6 Genetic engineering on the use of technology on chemical agents in providing
better medicinal treatment. The ISPE is an international
Main article: Genetic engineering body that certies this now rapidly emerging interdisci-
plinary science.
9.1 Medical imaging 3

9 Medical devices 2. Class II devices are subject to special controls in

Main articles: Medical devices, medical equipment, and
Medical technology
This is an extremely broad categoryessentially covering
all health care products that do not achieve their intended
results through predominantly chemical (e.g., pharma-
ceuticals) or biological (e.g., vaccines) means, and do not
involve metabolism.
A medical device is intended for use in:
the diagnosis of disease or other conditions, or
in the cure, mitigation, treatment, or prevention of
disease.
addition to the general controls of Class I devices.
Special controls may include special labeling re-
quirements, mandatory performance standards, and
postmarket surveillance. Devices in this class are
typically non-invasive and include X-ray machines,
PACS, powered wheelchairs, infusion pumps, and
surgical drapes.
3. Class III devices generally require premarket ap-
proval (PMA) or premarket notication (510k), a
scientic review to ensure the devices safety and
eectiveness, in addition to the general controls
of Class I. Examples include replacement heart
valves, hip and knee joint implants, silicone gel-
lled breast implants, implanted cerebellar stimu-
lators, implantable pacemaker pulse generators and
endosseous (intra-bone) implants.

Some examples include pacemakers, infusion pumps, the

heart-lung machine, dialysis machines, articial organs, 9.1 Medical imaging
implants, articial limbs, corrective lenses, cochlear im-
plants, ocular prosthetics, facial prosthetics, somato pros- Main article: Medical imaging
thetics, and dental implants.
Medical/biomedical imaging is a major segment of
V1 R2 R3 medical devices. This area deals with enabling clinicians
to directly or indirectly view things not visible in plain
R1 sight (such as due to their size, and/or location). This can
involve utilizing ultrasound, magnetism, UV, radiology,
and other means.
Rgain Vout

R1

V2 R2 R3

Biomedical instrumentation amplier schematic used in mon-

itoring low voltage biological signals, an example of a
biomedical engineering application of electronic engineering to
electrophysiology.

Stereolithography is a practical example of medical mod-

eling being used to create physical objects. Beyond mod-
eling organs and the human body, emerging engineering
techniques are also currently used in the research and
development of new devices for innovative therapies,[6]
treatments,[7] patient monitoring,[8] of complex diseases.
Medical devices are regulated and classied (in the US)
as follows (see also Regulation): An MRI scan of a human head, an example of a biomedical engi-
neering application of electrical engineering to diagnostic imag-
1. Class I devices present minimal potential for harm ing. Click here to view an animated sequence of slices.
to the user and are often simpler in design than Class
II or Class III devices. Devices in this category in- Imaging technologies are often essential to medical di-
clude tongue depressors, bedpans, elastic bandages, agnosis, and are typically the most complex equipment
examination gloves, and hand-held surgical instru- found in a hospital including: uoroscopy, magnetic res-
ments and other similar types of common equip- onance imaging (MRI), nuclear medicine, positron emis-
ment. sion tomography (PET), PET-CT scans, projection ra-
4 10
diography such as X-rays and CT scans, tomography, 9.3 Bionics
ultrasound, optical microscopy, and electron microscopy.
Further information: Bionics In medicine
9.2 Implants
An implant is a kind of medical device made to replace
and act as a missing biological structure (as compared
with a transplant, which indicates transplanted biomedi-
cal tissue). The surface of implants that contact the body
might be made of a biomedical material such as titanium,
silicone or apatite depending on what is the most func-
tional. In some cases, implants contain electronics, e.g.
articial pacemakers and cochlear implants. Some im-
plants are bioactive, such as subcutaneous drug delivery
devices in the form of implantable pills or drug-eluting
stents.
Articial limbs: The right arm is an example of a prosthesis, and
the left arm is an example of myoelectric control.
A prosthetic eye, an example of a biomedical engineering appli-
cation of mechanical engineering and biocompatible materials to
ophthalmology.
CLINICAL ENGINEERING
Articial body part replacements are one of the many ap-
plications of bionics. Concerned with the intricate and
thorough study of the properties and function of human
body systems, bionics may be applied to solve some en-
gineering problems. Careful study of the dierent func-
tions and processes of the eyes, ears, and other organs
paved the way for improved cameras, television, radio
transmitters and receivers, and many other useful tools.
These developments have indeed made our lives better,
but the best contribution that bionics has made is in the
eld of biomedical engineering (the building of useful re-
placements for various parts of the human body). Mod-
ern hospitals now have available spare parts to replace
body parts badly damaged by injury or disease [Citation
Needed]. Biomedical engineers work hand in hand with
doctors to build these articial body parts.
10 Clinical engineering
Main article: Clinical engineering
Clinical engineering is the branch of biomedical en-
gineering dealing with the actual implementation of
medical equipment and technologies in hospitals or other
clinical settings. Major roles of clinical engineers include
training and supervising biomedical equipment techni-
cians (BMETs), selecting technological products/services
and logistically managing their implementation, work-
ing with governmental regulators on inspections/audits,
and serving as technological consultants for other hospi-
tal sta (e.g. physicians, administrators, I.T., etc.). Clin-
ical engineers also advise and collaborate with medical
device producers regarding prospective design improve-
ments based on clinical experiences, as well as monitor
the progression of the state of the art so as to redirect
procurement patterns accordingly.
Their inherent focus on practical implementation of tech-
nology has tended to keep them oriented more towards
incremental-level redesigns and recongurations, as op-
posed to revolutionary research & development or ideas
that would be many years from clinical adoption; how-
ever, there is a growing eort to expand this time-horizon
over which clinical engineers can inuence the trajectory
of biomedical innovation. In their various roles, they
form a bridge between the primary designers and the
end-users, by combining the perspectives of being both 1)
close to the point-of-use, while 2) trained in product and
process engineering. Clinical engineering departments
will sometimes hire not just biomedical engineers, but
also industrial/systems engineers to help address opera-
tions research/optimization, human factors, cost analysis,
 5

etc. Also see safety engineering for a discussion of the 12 Regulatory issues
procedures used to design safe systems.

Regulatory issues have been constantly increased in the

last decades to respond to the many incidents caused by
11 Rehabilitation engineering devices to patients. For example, from 2008 to 2011,
in US, there were 119 FDA recalls of medical devices
Main article: Rehabilitation engineering classied as class I. According to U.S. Food and Drug
Administration (FDA), Class I recall is associated to a
situation in which there is a reasonable probability that
Rehabilitation engineering is the systematic applica-
the use of, or exposure to, a product will cause serious
tion of engineering sciences to design, develop, adapt,
adverse health consequences or death [9]
test, evaluate, apply, and distribute technological solu-
tions to problems confronted by individuals with dis- Regardless of the country-specic legislation, the main
abilities. Functional areas addressed through rehabilita- regulatory objectives coincide worldwide.[10] For exam-
tion engineering may include mobility, communications, ple, in the medical device regulations, a product must be:
hearing, vision, and cognition, and activities associated 1) safe and 2) eective and 3) for all the manufactured
with employment, independent living, education, and in- devices
tegration into the community.[1] A product is safe if patients, users and third parties do
While some rehabilitation engineers have masters de- not run unacceptable risks of physical hazards (death, in-
grees in rehabilitation engineering, usually a subspecialty juries, ) in its intended use. Protective measures have
of Biomedical engineering, most rehabilitation engineers to be introduced on the devices to reduce residual risks
have undergraduate or graduate degrees in biomedical at acceptable level if compared with the benet derived
engineering, mechanical engineering, or electrical engi- from the use of it.
neering. A Portuguese university provides an undergrad- A product is eective if it performs as specied by
uate degree and a masters degree in Rehabilitation En- the manufacturer in the intended use. Eectiveness
gineering and Accessibility.[2][4] Qualication to become is achieved through clinical evaluation, compliance to
a Rehab' Engineer in the UK is possible via a Univer- performance standards or demonstrations of substantial
sity BSc Honours Degree course such as Health Design equivalence with an already marketed device.
& Technology Institute, Coventry University.[5]
The previous features have to be ensured for all the manu-
The rehabilitation process for people with disabilities of- factured items of the medical device. This requires that a
ten entails the design of assistive devices such as Walking quality system shall be in place for all the relevant entities
aids intended to promote inclusion of their users into the and processes that may impact safety and eectiveness
mainstream of society, commerce, and recreation. over the whole medical device lifecycle.
QRS The medical device engineering area is among the most
Complex
heavily regulated elds of engineering, and practicing
R biomedical engineers must routinely consult and coop-
erate with regulatory law attorneys and other experts.
The Food and Drug Administration (FDA) is the prin-
cipal healthcare regulatory authority in the United States,
having jurisdiction over medical devices, drugs, biolog-
ics, and combination products. The paramount objectives
ST driving policy decisions by the FDA are safety and eec-
Segment
PR
Segment T tiveness of healthcare products that have to be assured
P
through a quality system in place as specied under 21
CFR 829 regulation. In addition, because biomedical en-
gineers often develop devices and technologies for con-
Q sumer use, such as physical therapy devices (which are
PR Interval
also medical devices), these may also be governed in
S some respects by the Consumer Product Safety Commis-
QT Interval sion. The greatest hurdles tend to be 510K clearance
(typically for Class 2 devices) or pre-market approval
(typically for drugs and class 3 devices).
Schematic representation of a normal ECG trace showing sinus
rhythm; an example of widely used clinical medical equipment In the European context, safety eectiveness and quality
(operates by applying electronic engineering to electrophysiology is ensured through the Conformity Assessment that is
and medical diagnosis). dened as the method by which a manufacturer demon-
strates that its device complies with the requirements of
6 12 REGULATORY ISSUES
the European Medical Device Directive". The directive
species dierent procedures according to the class of
the device ranging from the simple Declaration of Con-
formity (Annex VII) for Class I devices to EC verica-
tion (Annex IV), Production quality assurance (Annex
V), Product quality assurance (Annex VI) and Full qual-
ity assurance (Annex II). The Medical Device Directive
species detailed procedures for Certication. In gen-
eral terms, these procedures include tests and verica-
tions that are to be contained in specic deliveries such
as the risk management le, the technical le and the
quality system deliveries. The risk management le is
the rst deliverable that conditions the following design
and manufacturing steps. Risk management stage shall
drive the product so that product risks are reduced at an
acceptable level with respect to the benets expected for
the patients for the use of the device. The technical le
contains all the documentation data and records support-
ing medical device certication. FDA technical le has
similar content although organized in dierent structure.
The Quality System deliverables usually includes proce-
dures that ensure quality throughout all product life cycle.
The same standard (ISO EN 13485) is usually applied for
quality management systems in US and worldwide.
Implants, such as articial hip joints, are generally extensively into the design and verication of a wide range of home
regulated due to the invasive nature of such devices.
In the European Union, there are certifying entities
named "Notied Bodies", accredited by European Mem-
ber States. The Notied Bodies must ensure the eec-
tiveness of the certication process for all medical de-
vices apart from the class I devices where a declaration
of conformity produced by the manufacturer is sucient
for marketing. Once a product has passed all the steps
required by the Medical Device Directive, the device is
entitled to bear a CE marking, indicating that the device is
believed to be safe and eective when used as intended,
and, therefore, it can be marketed within the European
Union area.
The dierent regulatory arrangements sometimes result
in particular technologies being developed rst for either AS/ANS 3551:2012 is the Australian and New Zealand
the U.S. or in Europe depending on the more favorable standards for the management of medical devices. The
form of regulation. While nations often strive for sub-
stantive harmony to facilitate cross-national distribution,
philosophical dierences about the optimal extent of reg-
ulation can be a hindrance; more restrictive regulations
seem appealing on an intuitive level, but critics decry the
tradeo cost in terms of slowing access to life-saving de-
velopments.
12.1 RoHS II
Directive 2011/65/EU, better known as RoHS 2 is a re-
cast of legislation originally introduced in 2002. The
original EU legislation Restrictions of Certain Haz-
ardous Substances in Electrical and Electronics Devices
(RoHS Directive 2002/95/EC) was replaced and super-
seded by 2011/65/EU published in July 2011 and com-
monly known as RoHS 2. RoHS seeks to limit the dan-
gerous substances in circulation in electronics products,
in particular toxins and heavy metals, which are subse-
quently released into the environment when such devices
are recycled.
The scope of RoHS 2 is widened to include products pre-
viously excluded, such as medical devices and industrial
equipment. In addition, manufacturers are now obliged
to provide conformity risk assessments and test reports
or explain why they are lacking. For the rst time, not
only manufacturers, but also importers and distributors
share a responsibility to ensure Electrical and Electronic
Equipment within the scope of RoHS comply with the
hazardous substances limits and have a CE mark on their
products.
12.2 IEC 60601
The new International Standard IEC 60601 for home
healthcare electro-medical devices dening the require-
ments for devices used in the home healthcare environ-
ment. IEC 60601-1-11 (2010) must now be incorporated
use and point of care medical devices along with other
applicable standards in the IEC 60601 3rd edition series.
The mandatory date for implementation of the EN Eu-
ropean version of the standard is June 1, 2013. The US
FDA requires the use of the standard on June 30, 2013,
while Health Canada recently extended the required date
from June 2012 to April 2013. The North American
agencies will only require these standards for new device
submissions, while the EU will take the more severe ap-
proach of requiring all applicable devices being placed on
the market to consider the home healthcare standard.
12.3 AS/NZS 3551:2012
13.2 Licensure/certication
standard species the procedures required to maintain a
wide range of medical assets in a clinical setting (e.g.
Hospital).[11] The standards are based on the IEC 606101
standards.
The standard covers a wide range of medical equipment
management elements including, procurement, accep-
tance testing, maintenance (electrical safety and preven-
tative maintenance testing) and decommissioning.
13 Training and certication
13.1 Education
Biomedical engineers require considerable knowledge of
both engineering and biology, and typically have a Bache-
lors (B.Tech, B.S) or Masters (M.S., M.Tech, M.S.E., or
M.Eng.) or a Doctoral (Ph.D.) degree in BME (Biomed-
ical Engineering) or another branch of engineering with
considerable potential for BME overlap. As interest in
BME increases, many engineering colleges now have a
Biomedical Engineering Department or Program, with
oerings ranging from the undergraduate (B.Tech, B.S.,
B.Eng or B.S.E.) to doctoral levels. Biomedical engineer-
ing has only recently been emerging as its own discipline
rather than a cross-disciplinary hybrid specialization of
other disciplines; and BME programs at all levels are be-
coming more widespread, including the Bachelor of Sci-
ence in Biomedical Engineering which actually includes
so much biological science content that many students use
it as a "pre-med" major in preparation for medical school.
The number of biomedical engineers is expected to rise
as both a cause and eect of improvements in medical
technology.[12]
In the U.S., an increasing number of undergraduate
programs are also becoming recognized by ABET as
accredited bioengineering/biomedical engineering pro-
grams. Over 65 programs are currently accredited by
ABET.[13][14]
In Canada and Australia, accredited graduate programs
in Biomedical Engineering are common, for example in
Universities such as McMaster University, and the rst
Canadian undergraduate BME program at Ryerson Uni-
versity oering a four-year B.Eng program.[15][16][17][18]
The Polytechnique in Montreal is also oering a bache-
lorss degree in biomedical engineering.
As with many degrees, the reputation and ranking of
a program may factor into the desirability of a degree
holder for either employment or graduate admission. The
reputation of many undergraduate degrees are also linked
to the institutions graduate or research programs, which
have some tangible factors for rating, such as research
funding and volume, publications and citations. With
BME specically, the ranking of a universitys hospital
and medical school can also be a signicant factor in the
perceived prestige of its BME department/program.
7
Graduate education is a particularly important aspect in
BME. While many engineering elds (such as mechani-
cal or electrical engineering) do not need graduate-level
training to obtain an entry-level job in their eld, the
majority of BME positions do prefer or even require
them.[19] Since most BME-related professions involve
scientic research, such as in pharmaceutical and medical
device development, graduate education is almost a re-
quirement (as undergraduate degrees typically do not in-
volve sucient research training and experience). This
can be either a Masters or Doctoral level degree; while
in certain specialties a Ph.D. is notably more common
than in others, it is hardly ever the majority (except in
academia). In fact, the perceived need for some kind of
graduate credential is so strong that some undergradu-
ate BME programs will actively discourage students from
majoring in BME without an expressed intention to also
obtain a masters degree or apply to medical school after-
wards.
Graduate programs in BME, like in other scientic elds,
are highly varied, and particular programs may empha-
size certain aspects within the eld. They may also
feature extensive collaborative eorts with programs in
other elds (such as the Universitys Medical School or
other engineering divisions), owing again to the interdis-
ciplinary nature of BME. M.S. and Ph.D. programs will
typically require applicants to have an undergraduate de-
gree in BME, or another engineering discipline (plus cer-
tain life science coursework), or life science (plus certain
engineering coursework).
Education in BME also varies greatly around the world.
By virtue of its extensive biotechnology sector, its numer-
ous major universities, and relatively few internal barri-
ers, the U.S. has progressed a great deal in its develop-
ment of BME education and training opportunities. Eu-
rope, which also has a large biotechnology sector and
an impressive education system, has encountered trouble
in creating uniform standards as the European commu-
nity attempts to supplant some of the national jurisdic-
tional barriers that still exist. Recently, initiatives such
as BIOMEDEA have sprung up to develop BME-related
education and professional standards.[20] Other countries,
such as Australia, are recognizing and moving to cor-
rect deciencies in their BME education.[21] Also, as high
technology endeavors are usually marks of developed na-
tions, some areas of the world are prone to slower devel-
opment in education, including in BME.
13.2 Licensure/certication
See also: Professional engineer
Engineering licensure in the US is largely optional, and
rarely specied by branch/discipline. As with other
learned professions, each state has certain (fairly simi-
lar) requirements for becoming licensed as a registered
8 15 FOUNDING FIGURES
Professional Engineer (PE), but in practice such a license
is not required to practice in the majority of situations
(due to an exception known as the private industry ex-
emption, which eectively applies to the vast majority
of American engineers). This is notably not the case in
many other countries, where a license is as legally neces-
sary to practice engineering as it is for law or medicine.
Biomedical engineering is regulated in some countries,
such as Australia, but registration is typically only rec-
ommended and not required.[22]
In the UK, mechanical engineers working in the areas of
Medical Engineering, Bioengineering or Biomedical en-
gineering can gain Chartered Engineer status through the
Institution of Mechanical Engineers. The Institution also
runs the Engineering in Medicine and Health Division.[23]
The Institute of Physics and Engineering in Medicine
(IPEM) has a panel for the accreditation of MSc courses
in Biomedical Engineering and Chartered Engineering
status can also be sought through IPEM.
The Fundamentals of Engineering exam the rst (and
more general) of two licensure examinations for most
U.S. jurisdictionsdoes now cover biology (although
technically not BME). For the second exam, called the
Principles and Practices, Part 2, or the Professional En-
gineering exam, candidates may select a particular engi-
neering disciplines content to be tested on; there is cur-
rently not an option for BME with this, meaning that any
biomedical engineers seeking a license must prepare to
take this examination in another category (which does not
aect the actual license, since most jurisdictions do not
recognize discipline specialties anyway). However, the
Biomedical Engineering Society (BMES) is, as of 2009,
exploring the possibility of seeking to implement a BME-
specic version of this exam to facilitate biomedical en-
gineers pursuing licensure.
Beyond governmental registration, certain private-sector
professional/industrial organizations also oer certica-
tions with varying degrees of prominence. One such ex-
ample is the Certied Clinical Engineer (CCE) certica-
tion for Clinical engineers.
14 Career prospects
In 2012 there were about 19,400 biomedical engineers
employed in the US, and the eld was predicted to grow
by 27% (much faster than average) from 2012-2022.[24]
Biomedical engineering has the highest percentage of
women engineers compared to other common engineer-
ing professions.
15 Founding gures
Forrest Bird aviator and pioneer in the invention
of mechanical ventilators
Kenneth R. Diller Chaired and Endowed Profes-
sor in Engineering, University of Texas at Austin.
Founded the BME department at UT Austin. Pio-
neer in bioheat transfer, mass transfer, and biotrans-
port
Y. C. Fung professor emeritus at the University of
California, San Diego, considered by many to be the
founder of modern biomechanics[25]
Leslie Geddes (deceased) professor emeritus at
Purdue University, electrical engineer, inventor, and
educator of over 2000 biomedical engineers, re-
ceived a National Medal of Technology in 2006
from President George Bush[26] for his more than
50 years of contributions that have spawned inno-
vations ranging from burn treatments to miniature
debrillators, ligament repair to tiny blood pressure
monitors for premature infants, as well as a new
method for performing cardiopulmonary resuscita-
tion (CPR).
Willem Johan Kol (deceased) pioneer of
hemodialysis as well as in the eld of articial or-
gans
Robert Langer Institute Professor at MIT, runs the
largest BME laboratory in the world, pioneer in drug
delivery and tissue engineering[27]
Herbert Lissner (deceased) Professor of Engineer-
ing Mechanics at Wayne State University. Initiated
studies on blunt head trauma and injury thresholds
beginning in 1939 in collaboration with E.S. Gur-
djian, a neurosurgeon at Wayne States School of
Medicine. Individual for whom the American Soci-
ety of Mechanical Engineers' top award in Biomed-
ical Engineering, the Herbert R. Lissner Medal, is
named.
John James Rickard Macleod (deceased) one of
the co-discoverers of insulin at Case Western Re-
serve University.
Alfred E. Mann Physicist, entrepreneur and phi-
lanthropist. A pioneer in the eld of Biomedical
Engineering.[28]
Nicholas A. Peppas Chaired Professor in
Engineering, University of Texas at Austin, pioneer
in drug delivery, biomaterials, hydrogels and
nanobiotechnology.
Robert Plonsey professor emeritus at Duke Uni-
versity, pioneer of electrophysiology[29]
Robert M. Nerem professor emeritus at Georgia
Institute of Technology. Pioneer in regenerative tis-
sue, biomechanics, and author of over 300 published
works. His works have been cited more than 20,000
times cumulatively.

Otto Schmitt (deceased) biophysicist with sig-
nicant contributions to BME, working with
biomimetics
Ascher Shapiro (deceased) Institute Professor at
MIT, contributed to the development of the BME
eld, medical devices (e.g. intra-aortic balloons)
Frederick Thurstone (deceased) professor emer-
itus at Duke University, pioneer of diagnostic
ultrasound[30]
John G. Webster professor emeritus at the
University of WisconsinMadison, a pioneer in the
eld of instrumentation ampliers for the recording
of electrophysiological signals
U. A. Whitaker (deceased) provider of the vice Regulations Global overview and guiding princi-
Whitaker Foundation, which supported research and
education in BME by providing over $700 million
to various universities, helping to create 30 BME
programs and helping nance the construction of 13 [11] . Standards Australia. 2016-10-18 http://infostore.
buildings[31]
Seymour Ben-Zvi, ScD, CCE; - Established the Sci-
entic and Medical Instrumentation Center (SMIC)
at SUNY Downstate[32][33]
16 See also
Biomechanics
Biomedicine
Cardiophysics
Medical physics
Physiome
17 References
[1] John Denis Enderle; Joseph D. Bronzino (2012).
Introduction to Biomedical Engineering. Academic Press.
pp. 16. ISBN 978-0-12-374979-6.
[2] Jaw bone created from stem cells. BBC News. October
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[3] Walles T. Tracheobronchial bio-engineering: biotechnol-
ogy fullling unmet medical needs. Adv Drug Deliv Rev.
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[4] Doctors grow organs from patients own cells. CNN.
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[5] Trial begins for rst articial liver device using human
cells, University of Chicago, February 25, 1999
[6] ""Nano": The new nemesis of cancer Hede S, Huilgol N
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Nanotechnology: Intelligent Design to Treat Com-
plex Disease. Pharmaceutical Research. 23 (7):
14171450(34). PMID 16779701. doi:10.1007/s11095-
006-0284-8. Archived from the original on October 2,
2007.
[8] Curtis, Adam SG; Dalby, Matthew; Gadegaard,
Nikolaj (2006). Cell signaling arising from nan-
otopography: implications for nanomedical devices.
Nanomedicine. 1 (1): 6772. ISSN 1743-5889.
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[9] U.S. Food and Drug Administration, Medical & Radiation
Emitting Device Recalls http://www.accessdata.fda.gov/
scripts/cdrh/cfdocs/cfres/res.cfm
[10] World Health Organization (WHO), 2003 Medical De-
ples. http://www.who.int/medical_devices/publications/
en/MD_Regulations.pdf (last visit Sept 2013)
saiglobal.com/store/details.aspx?ProductID=1595659.
Retrieved 2016-10-18. Missing or empty |title= (help)
[12] U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics - Prole for Engineers
Archived February 19, 2006, at the Wayback Machine.
[13] Accredited Biomedical Engineering Programs.
Bmes.org. Archived from the original on 2011-09-28.
Retrieved 2011-09-24.
[14] ABET List of Accredited Engineering Programs
Archived August 23, 2006, at the Wayback Machine.
[15] McMaster School of Biomedical Engineering.
Msbe.mcmaster.ca. Retrieved 2011-09-24.
[16] Biomedical Engineering - Electrical and Computer Eng.
Ryerson. Ee.ryerson.ca. 2011-08-04. Archived from the
original on September 27, 2011. Retrieved 2011-09-24.
[17] Ryerson Biomedical Engineering Students Invent Brain-
Controlled Prosthetic Arm. STUDY Magazine. 2011-
04-01. Retrieved 2011-09-24.
[18] Biomedical Engineering. Retrieved 8 December 2011.
[19] Job Outlook for Engineers. U.S. Bureau of Labor Statis-
tics. Archived from the original on December 19, 2011.
[20] BIOMEDEA. September 2005. Archived from the
original on May 6, 2008.
[21] Lithgow, B. J. (October 25, 2001). Biomedical Engi-
neering Curriculum: A Comparison Between the USA,
Europe and Australia. Archived from the original on
May 1, 2008.
[22] National Engineering Registration Board - Areas Of Prac-
tice - NPER Areas Archived January 5, 2008, at the
Wayback Machine.
[23] Medical Engineering: Homepage. Institution of Me-
chanical Engineers. Archived from the original on May
2, 2007.
10 19 EXTERNAL LINKS

[24] Bureau of Labor Statistics, U.S. Department of La-

bor. Occupational Outlook Handbook, 2014-15 Edition:
Biomedical Engineers

[25] Kassab, Ghassan S. (2004). YC Bert Fung: The Fa-

ther of Modern Biomechanics (PDF). MCB. Tech Sci-
ence Press. 1 (1): 522. doi:10.3970/mcb.2004.001.005.
Archived from the original (PDF) on December 2, 2007.

[26] Leslie Geddes - 2006 National Medal of Technology.

YouTube. 2007-07-31. Retrieved 2011-09-24.

[27] O'Neill, Kathryn M. (July 20, 2006). Colleagues honor

Langer for 30 years of innovation. MIT News Oce.

[28] Gallegos, Emma (2010-10-25). Alfred E. Mann Foun-

dation for Scientic Research (AMF)". Aemf.org. Re-
trieved 2011-09-24.

[29] Faculty - Duke BME. Fds.duke.edu. Retrieved 2011-

09-24.

[30] Biomedical Engineering Professor Emeritus Fredrick L.

Thurstone Dies. Pratt.duke.edu. Retrieved 2011-09-24.

[31] The Whitaker Foundation. Whitaker.org. Retrieved

2011-09-24.

[32] Clinical Engineering Handbook (PDF).

[33] Dyro, Joseph F. (2004). Clinical Engineering Handbook.

Academic Press. ISBN 9780122265709.

18 Further reading
Bronzino, Joseph D. (April 2006). The Biomedical
Engineering Handbook (Third ed.). [CRC Press].
ISBN 978-0-8493-2124-5.
Villafane, Carlos (June 2009). Biomed: From
the Students Perspective (First ed.). [Technicians-
friend.com]. ISBN 978-1-61539-663-4.

19 External links
Biomedical Engineering at DMOZ
 11

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