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3.3.5. Tuberculosis testing 46

3.3.6. Drug screening 48
3.3.7. Breath sensing 49
3.3.8. Enhancements with nanomaterials 51

4. CAPACITIVE SENSORS 57
4.1. Same structure, different materials available 57
4.2. Key players 58
4.3. Touch sensors for touchscreens 58
4.4. Formable capacitive switches 60
4.4.1. A case study: the Ford Fusion 60
4.4.2. Integration with Injection Moulding 61
4.4.3. 3D shaped sensors based on PEDOT 64
4.5. Capacitive pressure sensing 66
4.6. Fluid level sensor 68
4.7. Fingerprint sensors: will they be printed? 69

5. PIEZORESISTIVE SENSORS 71
5.1. Pressure sensors with thick-film technology 71
5.1.1. Ceramic vs. other common types of pressure sensors 71
5.1.2. Construction of a ceramic pressure sensor 72
5.2. Fully printed force sensors 73
5.2.1. Sensor construction 73
5.3. Key players 77
5.4. Applications and markets 78
5.4.2. Consumer electronics 78
5.4.3. Automotive 80
5.4.4. Medical 81
5.4.5. Musical instruments 82
5.4.6. Strain and bend sensors 82
5.5. New technologies in piezoresistive sensors 83
5.5.1. Quantum tunnelling composite (QTC) 83
5.5.2. Interpolation for large area sensing 85
5.5.3. Piezoresistive textile 87
5.5.4. Artificial skin made with gold nanoparticles 87

6. PIEZOELECTRIC SENSORS 89
6.1. Key players 89
6.2. Printed PZT (inorganic) 90
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6.2.2. Temperature requirements 90

6.2.3. Inkjet printing technology from Ricoh 92
6.3. Piezoelectric polymers 94
 Printed and Flexible Sensors 2017-2027

2.2.4. Other charts

Fig. 2.8 Printed and flexible sensors: revenues by category

Source IDTechEx

Fig. 2.9 Comparison of each segment size by 2021 (excl. glucose strips)

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Source IDTechEx

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 Printed and Flexible Sensors 2017-2027

Fig. 3.12 Smart Integrated Miniaturised Sensor (SIMS)

Source: University of the West of England

3.3.4. BreathDX
BreathDX was founded by Prof Tony Killard to commercialise a new printed ammonia sensor. Ammonia
testing is used with Urea Cycle Disorder patients.

Initial clinical evaluations have shown that ammonia measurements have the same level of accuracy as
standard blood-based tests when it comes to detecting liver and kidney function, a critical indicator of a
range of disease conditions, Killard says. Our test, which uses advanced, nanotechnology-based sensors
to detect and measure trace levels of ammonia in the breath, is painless to perform and an immediate
alternative to taking blood samples.

The development of the technology was supported by Enterprise Ireland from the off and Killard estimates
the costs involved to date at around 900,000. BreathDX has now raised a further 1.4 million to drive the
launch and initial growth of the business.

No one has been able to do ammonia breath testing in a way which is accurate without using a large piece
of equipment, he said. There are instruments in existence which can do it but they are not economically
viable. The AmBeR device will be more like glucose testing strips where you use the sensor test strip once
and throw it away when finished. We are trying to make this a game-changer commercially. AmBeR is
based on polyaniline, a conductive polymer. Formed into nanoparticles, the material becomes extremely
sensitive, and can still be printed.

3.3.5. Tuberculosis testing

In 2014, Sapient Sensors (UK) said they wanted to develop a new tuberculosis diagnostic tool. The
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company has started to raise funding for this project. They are working on two applications: one for bovine
diagnostic, and another one for human.

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Fig. 4.7 The touch sensor as the main interface of a car centre stack

Source: IDTechEx

New DuPont In-Mold electronic inks withstand thermoforming and injection molding. These can be use to
make integrated capacitive sensors and antennas on molded parts. The main benefit is a simplified
assembly process with only a single connection point and no wires behind the console.

Fig. 4.8 In-Mold Electronics

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Source: DuPont

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Fig. 6.9 PyzoFlex, a pressure-sensing input device.

Source: Media Interaction Lab, University of Applied Sciences Upper Austria

Since the PVDF-TrFE sensing layer itself has a transparency over 85 percent, the main limitations in terms
of transparency come from the black carbon electrodes, as shown in the figure below:

Fig. 6.10 PyzoFlex sensor array overlaid on a LCD screen.

Source: Media Interaction Lab, University of Applied Sciences Upper Austria

Another limitation comes from the fact that the piezoelectric voltage is only transient. The team behind
PyzoFlex wrote the following comment:
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PVDF-TrFE, like all piezoelectric materials, is a dynamic material developing an electrical charge
proportional to a change in mechanical stress. As a consequence, piezoelectric materials itself are not
suitable for static measurements due to their internal resistance. The electric charges generated in the
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at this temperature. Further improvement of the sensing performance is achieved when the gas-sensitive
metal oxide is doped with a noble metal.
Pros: High sensitivity to low concentration gas, low cost, and long life. Can operate in harsh
environments (in car exhaust pipes for example)
Cons: A microheater is necessary to reach the operating temperature (increase power consumption).
Influenced by ambient temperature and humidity. Low selectivity. Presence of oxygen is required.

Fig. 10.1 Metal-oxide gas sensor

Source: Capteur Sensors and Analysers (acquired by First Technology Plc)

In the ideal case, the gas reacts with the sensor surface in a completely reversible reaction. Due to their
chemical composition and properties, metal oxide gas sensors are well-suited for a wide range of
applications and for the detection of all reactive gases. Depending on the material used and the gases that
need to be detected, typical operating temperatures range between 300C and 900C.

The metal oxide layer is usually deposited by screen-printing, which is simple, low-cost and with good
reproducibility. After deposition, the material has to be fired (sintered) at high temperatures to obtain a
rigid solid. Consequently, manufacturing on plastic and flexibility are not possible.

Organic
Chemiresistors made with organic sensing layers are currently under development.

With organic materials, a wide range of compounds can be synthesised, offering almost limitless
possibilities of tailoring the sensor to respond to particular gases. A simple chemiresistor device can be
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fabricated by depositing a thin film of the material onto a microelectrode structure.

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