LOGO

TON RI RC
Phm Th Bo
email: ptbao@hcmus.edu.vn

www.math.hcmus.edu.vn/~ptbao/TRR/
 Ni dung

Ni dung: gm 5 phn

- C s logic
- Php m
- Quan h
- Hm Bool
- th

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 Ti liu tham kho

Ti liu tham kho

1. ThS. Nguyn Duy Nht, ThS. Nguyn

Vn Phong, PGS.TS inh Ngc Thanh,
Ton ri rc.
2. TS. Trn Ngc Hi, Ton ri rc.
3. GS.TS Nguyn Hu Anh, Ton ri rc,
Nh xut bn gio dc.
4. Rosen, Discrete Mathematics and Its
Applications, 6th edition, 2007.

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 Kim tra

Kim tra

Kim tra gia k: 30%

Kim tra cui k: 70%
im thng: 5-10%

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 C s Logic

Chng I: C s logic

- Mnh
- Dng mnh
- Qui tc suy din
- V t, lng t
- Tp hp
- nh x
- Qui np ton hc

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 C s Logic

I. Mnh
1. nh ngha: Mnh l mt khng nh c gi tr chn l
xc nh, ng hoc sai.
Cu hi, cu cm thn, mnh lnh khng l mnh .

V d:
- mt tri quay quanh tri t
- 1+1 =2
- Hm nay tri p qu ! (ko l mnh )
- Hc bi i ! (ko l mnh )
- 3 l s chn phi khng? (ko l mnh )

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 C s Logic

I. Mnh
K hiu: ngi ta dng cc k hiu P, Q, R ch mnh .

Chn tr ca mnh :
Mt mnh ch c th ng hoc sai, khng th
ng thi va ng va sai. Khi mnh P ng ta
ni P c chn tr ng, ngc li ta ni P c chn tr
sai.
Chn tr ng v chn tr sai s c k hiu ln
lt l 1 (hay ,T) v 0 (hay S,F)

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 C s Logic

I. Mnh
Kim tra cc khng nh sau c phi l mnh khng?

- Paris l thnh ph ca M.
- n l s t nhin.
- con nh ai m xinh th!
- 3 l s nguyn t.
- Ton ri rc l mn bt buc ca ngnh Tin hc.
- Bn c khe khng?
- x2 +1 lun dng.

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 C s Logic

I. Mnh
2. Phn loi: gm 2 loi
a. Mnh phc hp: l mnh c xy dng t cc
mnh khc nh lin kt bng cc lin t (v, hay, khi
v ch khi,) hoc trng t khng.
b. Mnh s cp (nguyn thy): L mnh khng th
xy dng t cc mnh khc thng qua lin t hoc
trng t khng.
V d:
- 2 khng l s nguyn t
- 2 l s nguyn t (s cp)
- Nu 3>4 th tri ma
- An ang xem phim hay An ang hc bi
- Hm nay tri p v 1 +1 =3
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 C s Logic

I. Mnh

3. Cc php ton: c 5 php ton

a. Php ph nh: ph nh ca mnh P c k
hiu l P hay (c l khng P hay ph nh
ca P).
Bng chn tr :

V d :
- 2 l s nguyn t
Ph nh: 2 khng l s nguyn t
- 1 >2
Ph nh : 1 2

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 C s Logic

I. Mnh

b. Php ni lin (hi): ca hai mnh P, Q c k hiu

bi P Q (c l P v Q), l mnh c nh bi :
P Q ng khi v ch khi P v Q ng thi ng.

Bng chn tr

V d:
- 3>4 v Trn Hng o l v tng
- 2 l s nguyn t v l s chn
- An ang ht v ung nc

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 C s Logic

I. Mnh

c. Php ni ri (tuyn): ca hai mnh P, Q c k

hiu bi P Q (c l P hay Q), l mnh c nh
bi : P Q sai khi v ch khi P v Q ng thi sai.

Bng chn tr

V d:
- >4 hay >5
- 2 l s nguyn t hay l s chn

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 C s Logic

I. Mnh

V d
- Hm nay, An gip m lau nh v ra chn
- Hm nay, c y p v thng minh
- Ba ang c bo hay xem phim

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 C s Logic

I. Mnh

d. Php ko theo: Mnh P ko theo Q ca hai mnh

P v Q, k hiu bi P Q (c l P ko theo Q hay
Nu P th Q hay P l iu kin ca Q hay Q l
iu kin cn ca P) l mnh c nh bi:
P Q sai khi v ch khi P ng m Q sai.

Bng chn tr

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 C s Logic

I. Mnh

V d:
- Nu 1 = 2 th Lenin l ngi Vit Nam
- Nu tri t quay quanh mt tri th 1 +3 =5
- >4 ko theo 5>6
- < 4 th tri ma
- Nu 2+1=0 th ti l ch tch nc

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 C s Logic

I. Mnh

e. Php ko theo hai chiu: Mnh P ko theo Q v

ngc li ca hai mnh P v Q, k hiu bi P Q
(c l P nu v ch nu Q hay P khi v ch khi Q hay
P l iu kin cn v ca Q), l mnh xc nh
bi:
P Q ng khi v ch khi P v Q c cng chn tr

Bng chn tr

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 C s Logic

I. Mnh
V d:
- 2=4 khi v ch khi 2+1=0
- 6 chia ht cho 3 khi v chi khi 6 chia ht cho 2
- London l thnh ph nc Anh nu v ch nu thnh ph
HCM l th ca VN
- >4 l iu kin cn v ca 5 >6

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 C s Logic

II. Dng mnh

1. nh ngha: l mt biu thc c cu to t:
- Cc mnh (cc hng mnh )
- Cc bin mnh p, q, r, , tc l cc bin ly gi tr l
cc mnh no
- Cc php ton , , , , v du ng m ngoc ().

V d:
E(p,q) = (p q)

F(p,q,r) = (p q) (q r)

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 C s Logic

II. Dng mnh

Bng chn tr ca dng mnh E(p,q,r): l bng ghi tt c
cc trng hp chn tr c th xy ra i vi dng mnh
E theo chn tr ca cc bin mnh p, q, r.
Nu c n bin, bng ny s c 2n dng, cha k dng
tiu .

V d:
E(p,q,r) =(p q) r . Ta c bng chn tr sau

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 C s Logic

II. Dng mnh

Mnh E(p,q,r) =(p q) r theo 3 bin p,q,r c bng chn

tr sau
p q r pq (p q) r
0 0 0 0 1
0 0 1 0 1
0 1 0 1 0
0 1 1 1 1
1 0 0 1 0
1 0 1 1 1
1 1 0 1 0
1 1 1 1 1

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 C s Logic

II. Dng mnh

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 C s Logic

II. Dng mnh

Bi tp: Lp bng chn tr ca nhng dng mnh sau

E(p,q) = (p q) p

F(p,q,r) = p (q r) q

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 C s Logic

II. Dng mnh

2. Tng ng logic: Hai dng mnh E v F c gi l
tng ng logic nu chng c cng bng chn tr (hay
mnh AB l hng ng).

K hiu E F (hay E F).

V d
(p q) p q

nh l: Hai dng mnh E v F tng ng vi nhau khi

v ch khi EF l hng ng.

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 C s Logic

II. Dng mnh

H qu logic: F c gi l h qu logic ca E nu EF l
hng ng.
K hiu E F

V d: (p q) p
Trong php tnh mnh ngi ta khng phn bit nhng
mnh tng ng logic vi nhau. Do i vi nhng
dng mnh c cng thc phc tp, ta thng bin i
n tng ng vi nhng mnh n gin hn.

thc hin cc php bin i ta s dng qui tc thay th

v quy lut logic.

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 C s Logic

II. Dng mnh

Qui tc thay th: Trong dng mnh E, nu ta thay th biu

thc con F bi mt dng mnh tng ng logic th dng
mnh thu c vn cn tng ng logic vi E.

V d. (p q) r (p q) r

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 C s Logic

II. Dng mnh

Cc lut logic
1. Ph nh ca ph nh
p p
2. Lut De Morgan
(p q) p q
(p q) p q

3. Lut giao hon pqqp

pqqp

4. Lut kt hp (p q) r p (q r)
(p q) r <=> p (q r)

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 C s Logic

II. Dng mnh

5. Lut phn phi (b)
p (q r) (p q) (p r)
p (q r) (p q) (p r)

6. Lut ly ng ppp
ppp

7. Lut trung ha p 0 p
p 1 p

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 C s Logic

II. Dng mnh

8. Lut v phn t b
p p 0
p p1

9. Lut thng tr p00

p11

10. Lut hp th p (p q) p
p (p q) p

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 C s Logic

II. Dng mnh

11. Lut v php ko theo:
p q p q
q p

V d: Nu tri ma th ng trn nu ng
khng trn th tri khng ma

Bi tp:
Cho p, q, r l cc bin mnh . Chng minh rng:

(p r) (q r) (p q) r

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 C s Logic

II. Dng mnh

(p r) (q r)
( p r ) ( q r)
( p q ) r
( p q ) r
( p q ) r
(pq)r

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 C s Logic

III. qui tc suy din

Trong cc chng minh ton hc, xut pht t mt s khng

nh ng p, q, r(tin ), ta p dng cc qui tc suy din
suy ra chn l ca mt mnh h m ta gi l kt lun.

Ni cch khc, dng cc qui tc suy din chng minh:

(pqr ) c h qu logic l h
Ta thng m hnh ha php suy lun di dng:
p
q
r

h

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 C s Logic

III. Qui tc suy din

Cc qui tc suy din

1. Qui tc khng nh (Modus Ponens)
Qui tc ny c th hin bng hng ng:

Hoc di dng s

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 C s Logic

III. Qui tc suy din

Nu An hc chm th An hc tt.
M An hc chm
Suy ra An hc tt.

Tri ma th ng t.
M chiu nay tri ma.
Suy ra Chiu nay ng t.

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 C s Logic

III. Qui tc suy din

2. Quy tc ph nh
Qui tc ny c th hin bng hng ng:

Hoc di dng s

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 C s Logic

III. Qui tc suy din

Nu An i hc y th An u ton ri rc.
An khng u ton ri rc.

Suy ra: An khng i hc y

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 C s Logic

III. Qui tc suy din

3. Qui tc tam on lun
Qui tc ny c th hin bng hng ng:

Hoc di dng s

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 C s Logic

III. Qui tc suy din

Nu tri ma th ng t.
Nu ng t th ng trn
Suy ra nu tri ma th ng trn.

Mt con nga r l mt con nga him

Ci g him th t
Suy ra mt con nga r th t ()

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 C s Logic

III. Qui tc suy din

4. Qui tc tam on lun ri
Qui tc ny c th hin bng hng ng:

Hoc di dng s

ngha ca qui tc: nu mt trong hai trng hp c th

xy ra, chng ta bit c mt trng hp khng xy ra th
chc chn trng hp cn li s xy ra.

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 C s Logic

III. Qui tc suy din

Ch nht, An thng ln th vin hoc v qu

Ch nht ny, An khng v qu

Suy ra: Ch nht ny, An ln th vin

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 C s Logic

III. Qui tc suy din

5. Quy tc ni lin
Qui tc ny c th hin bng hng ng:

Hoc di dng s

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 C s Logic

III. Qui tc suy din

Hm nay An hc bi.
Hm nay An ph m nu n.

Suy ra: Hm nay An hc bi v ph m nu n.

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 C s Logic

III. Qui tc suy din

6. Quy tc n gin
Qui tc ny c th hin bng hng ng:

Hoc di dng s

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 C s Logic

III. Qui tc suy din

Hm nay An i hc Ton ri rc v hc Anh vn.

Suy ra: Hm nay An hc Ton ri rc.

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 C s Logic

III. Qui tc suy din

7. Qui tc mu thun (chng minh bng phn chng)

Ta c tng ng logic

chng minh v tri l mt hng ng ta chng minh nu

thm ph nh ca h vo cc tin th c mt mu thun.

V d. Cho a, b, c l 3 ng thng phn bit v a//c v

b//c chng minh a//b.

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 C s Logic

III. Qui tc suy din

Dng s

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 C s Logic

III. Qui tc suy din

Hy chng minh: Cm bng phn chng.

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 C s Logic

III. Qui tc suy din

8. Qui tc chng minh theo trng hp

Da trn hng ng:

ngha: nu p suy ra r v q suy ra r th p hay q cng c

th suy ra r.

Chng minh rng:

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 C s Logic

III. Qui tc suy din

9. Phn v d
chng minh mt php suy lun l sai hay

khng l mt hng ng. Ta ch cn ch ra

mt phn v d.

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 C s Logic

Suy lun sau c ng ko?

ng Minh ni rng nu khng p: ng Minh c tng
c tng lng th ng ta lng.
s ngh vic. Mt khc, nu q: ng Minh ngh vic.
ng y ngh vic v v ng r: v ng Minh mt vic.
y b mt vic th phi bn
xe. Bit rng nu v ng s: gia nh phi bn xe.
Minh hay i lm tr th trc t: v ng hay i lm tr.
sau g cng s b mt vic
v cui cng ng Minh s=0
c tng lng. t=1
p=1
Suy ra nu ng Minh khng
q=0
bn xe th v ng ta r=1
khng i lm tr

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 C s Logic

III. Qui tc suy din

Chng minh suy lun sau:

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 C s Logic

III. Qui tc suy din

Theo lut logic, ta c

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 C s Logic

III. Qui tc suy din

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 C s Logic

III. Qui Tc Suy Din

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 C s Logic

III. Qui Tc Suy Din

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 C s Logic

III. Qui Tc Suy Din

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 C s Logic

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 C s Logic

IV. Logic v t
Tp hp: L mt b su tp gm cc vt. Mi vt c gi
l mt phn t ca tp hp.
K hiu: A, B , X,
Nu x l phn t ca tp hp A, ta k hiu x A
V d:
- N ={0,1,2,} l tp hp cc s t nhin.
- Z = {0,1,-1,2,-2,} tp hp cc s nguyn.
- Q = {m/n | m,n Z, n0 } tp hp cc s hu t.
- R: tp hp cc s thc.
- C: Tp hp cc s phc.

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 C s Logic

IV. Logic v t

1. nh ngha V t l mt khng nh p(x,y,..), trong x,y...l

cc bin thuc tp hp A, B,.. Cho trc sao cho:
- Bn thn p(x,y,..) khng phi l mnh .
- Nu thay x,y, thnh gi tr c th th p(x,y,..) l mnh .

V d.
- p(n) = n +1 l s nguyn t.
- q(x,y) = x2 + y = 1 .
- r(x,y,z) = x2 + y2 >z.

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 C s Logic

IV. Logic v t

2. Cc php ton trn v t Cho trc cc v t p(x), q(x)

theo mt bin x A. Khi y, ta cng c cc php ton tng
ng nh trn mnh

- Ph nh p(x)
- Php ni lin p(x)q(x)
- Php ni ri p(x)q(x)
- Php ko theo p(x)q(x)
- Php ko theo hai chiu p(x) q(x)

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 C s Logic

IV. Logic v t
Khi xt mt mnh p(x) vi x A. Ta c cc trng hp
sau
- TH1. Khi thay x bi 1 phn t a ty A, ta c p(a) ng.
- TH2. Vi mt s gi tr a A, ta c p(a) ng.
- TH3. Khi thay x bi 1 phn t a ty A, ta c p(a) sai.

V d. Cho v t p(x) vi xR
- p(x) = x2 +1 >0
- p(x) = x2 -2x+1=0
- p(x) = x2 -2x+3=0

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 C s Logic

IV. Logic v t
nh ngha. Cho p(x) l mt v t theo mt bin xc nh trn
A. Ta nh ngha cc mnh lng t ha ca p(x) nh
sau:
- Mnh Vi mi x thuc A, p(x) , k hiu bi
x A, p(x),
l mnh ng khi v ch khi p(a) lun ng vi mi gi tr
a A.
- Mnh Tn ti (t nht )hay c (t nht) mt x thuc A,
p(x)) k hiu bi :
x A, p(x) ,
l mnh ng khi v ch khi c t nht mt gi tr x = a0
no sao cho mnh p(a0) ng.
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 C s Logic

IV. Logic v t

: c gi l lng t ph dng
: c gi l lng t tn ti

V d. Cc mnh sau ng hay sai

- x R, x2 + 3x + 1 0 (S)
- x R, x2 + 3x + 1 0 ()
- x R, x2 + 1 2x ()
- x R, x2 + 1 < 0 (S)

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 C s Logic

IV. Logic v t

nh ngha. Cho p(x, y) l mt v t theo hai bin x, y xc nh

trn AB. Ta nh ngha cc mnh lng t ha ca p(x, y)
nh sau:
x A,y B, p(x, y) = x A, (y B, p(x, y))
x A, y B, p(x, y) = x A, (y B, p(x, y))
x A, y B, p(x, y) = x A, (y B, p(x, y))
x A, y B, p(x, y) = x A, (y B, p(x, y))

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 C s Logic

IV. Logic v t

V d.
- Mnh x R, y R, x + 2y < 1 ng hay sai?
Mnh sai v tn ti x0 = 0, y0 = 1 R m x0 + 2y0 1.

- Mnh x R, y R, x + 2y < 1 ng hay sai?

Mnh ng v vi mi x = a R, tn ti ya R nh
ya = a/2, sao cho a + 2ya < 1.

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 C s Logic

IV. Logic v t

V d.
- Mnh x R, y R, x + 2y < 1 ng hay sai?
Mnh sai v tn ti x0 = 0, y0 = 1 R m x0 + 2y0 1.

- Mnh x R, y R, x + 2y < 1 ng hay sai?

Mnh ng v vi mi x = a R, tn ti ya R nh
ya = a/2, sao cho a + 2ya < 1.

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 C s Logic

IV. Logic v t
V d.
- Mnh x R, y R, x + 2y < 1 ng hay sai
Mnh sai v khng th c x = a R bt ng thc
a + 2y < 1 c tha vi mi y R (chng hn, y = a/2 + 2
khng th tha bt ng thc ny).

- Mnh x R, y R, x + 2y < 1 ng hay sai?

Mnh ng v tn ti x0 = 0, y0 = 0 R chng hn tha
x0 + 2y0 < 1.

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 C s Logic

IV. Logic v t
nh l. Cho p(x, y) l mt v t theo hai bin x, y xc nh
trn AB. Khi :
1) x A, y B, p(x, y) y B, x A, p(x, y)
2) x A, y B, p(x, y) y B, x A, p(x, y)
3) x A, y B, p(x, y) y B, x A, p(x, y)

Chiu o ca 3) ni chung khng ng.

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 C s Logic

IV. Logic v t

Ph nh ca mnh lng t ha v t p(x,y,..) c c

bng cc thay thnh , thay thnh v v t p(x,y,..)
thnh p(x,y,..).

Vi v t theo 1 bin ta c :

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 C s Logic

IV. Logic v t

Vi v t theo 2 bin.

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 C s Logic

IV. Logic v t

V d ph nh cc mnh sau

- x A, 2x + 1 0

- > 0, > 0, x R, | x a| < |f(x) f(a)| < .

Tr li

x A, 2x + 1 > 0

> 0, > 0, x R, | x a| < (|f(x) f(a)| ).

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 C s Logic

IV. Logic v t

Qui tc c bit ha ph dng:

Nu mt mnh ng c dng lng t ha trong
mt bin x A b buc bi lng t ph dng , khi y nu
thay th x bi a A ta s c mt mnh ng

V d:
Mi ngi u cht
Socrate l ngi
Vy Socrate cng cht

71
V. Tp hp
1. Khi nim
Tp hp l mt khi nim
c bn ca Ton hc.
V d:
1) Tp hp sinh vin ca
mt trng i hc.
2) Tp hp cc s nguyn
3) Tp hp cc tri to
trn mt cy c th.
 V. Tp hp
Lc lng ca tp hp
S phn t ca tp hp A c gi l lc lng ca tp
hp, k hiu |A|.
Nu A c hu hn phn t, ta ni A hu hn.
Ngc li, ta ni A v hn.

V d.
N, Z, R, l cc tp v hn
X={1,3,4,5} l tp hu hn |X|=4
a. Cch xc nh tp hp
Lit k tt c cc phn t ca tp hp
A={1,2,3,4,a,b}
a ra tnh cht c trng
B={ n N | n chia ht cho 3}

b. Quan h gia cc tp hp
Tp hp con
 V. Tp hp
2. Cc php ton tp hp
a. Php hp
Hp ca 1 tp hp A
v B l tp hp to bi
B
tt c cc phn t
A
thuc A hoc thuc B.

K hiu:
V d:
V. Tp hp
Tnh cht:
1. Tnh ly ng
2. Tnh giao hon
3. Tnh kt hp
4. Hp vi tp rng

b. Php giao
Giao ca 2 tp hp A v B l tp hp to bi cc
phn t va thuc A va thuc B.

A B
K hiu:
V. Tp hp
Tnh cht:
1) Tnh ly ng
2) Tnh giao hon
3) Tnh kt hp
4) Giao vi tp rng

Tnh phn phi ca php giao v hp

V. Tp hp

Lut De Morgan:
 V. Tp hp
3. Tp cc tp con ca mt tp hp

Cho X l mt tp hp. Khi tp tt c cc tp con

ca X c k hiu l P(X)
V d
V. Tp hp

4. Tch Cc:
Tch cc ca tp hp A vi tp hp B l tp hp
bao gm tt c cc cp th t (x,y) vi

K hiu A.B hoc

Ch : Tch ca 2 tp hp khng c tnh cht giao
hon.
 V. Tp hp
Cc php ton giao, hp, tch c th m rng cho nhiu tp
hp
 VI. nh x
1. nh ngha. Cho hai tp hp X, Y . nh x gia hai
tp X v Y l mt qui tc sao cho mi x thuc X tn ti
duy nht mt y thuc y y = f(x)
Ta vit:

Ngha l
VI. nh x

Khng l nh x
 VI. nh x
Hai nh x bng nhau. Hai nh x f v g t X vo Y c
gi l bng nhau nu x X, f(x) = g(x).
V d: Xt nh x f(x)=(x-1)(x+1) v g(x) =x2-1 t R->R

nh v nh ngc.
Cho nh x f t X vo Y v A X, B Y. Ta nh ngha:
f(A) = {f(x) | x A} = {y Y | x A, y = f(x)} c gi l
nh ca A
 VI. nh x
f(A) = {f(x) | x A} = {y Y | x A, y = f(x)}
Nh vy y f(A) x A, y = f(x);
y f(A) x A, y f(x).

f1(B) = {x X | f(x) B} c gi l nh ngc ca B

f1(B)

Nh vy x f1(B) f(x) B
 VI. nh x
V d. Cho f: R R c xc nh f(x)=x2 +1
Ta c
f([1,3])=[2,10]
f([-2,-1])=[2,5]
f([-1,3])=[1,10]
f((1,5)) = (2,26)

f1(1)={0}
f1(2)={-1,1}
f1(-5)=
f1([2,5])= [-2,-1] [1,2]
 VI. nh x
2. Phn loi nh x
a. n nh Ta ni f : X Y l mt n nh nu hai phn t
khc nhau bt k ca X u c nh khc nhau, ngha l:

V d. Cho f: N R c xc nh f(x)=x2 +1 (l n nh)

g: R R c xc nh g(x)=x2 +1 (khng n nh)

 VI. nh x
x, x' X, x x' f(x) f(x' )
Nh vy f : X Y l mt n nh
(x, x' X, f(x) = f(x') x = x').
(y Y, f1(y) c nhiu nht mt phn t).
(y Y, phng trnh f(x) = y (y c xem nh tham s)
c nhiu nht mt nghim x X.
f : X Y khng l mt n nh
(x, x' X, x x' v f(x) = f(x')).
(y Y, phng trnh f(x) = y (y c xem nh tham
s) c t nht hai nghim x X
 VI. nh x
b. Ton nh Ta ni f : X Y l mt ton nh f(X)=Y, ngha l:

V d. Cho f: R R c xc nh f(x)=x3 +1 (l ton nh)

g: R R c xc nh g(x)=x2 +1 (khng l ton

nh)
 VI. nh x

Ton nh f(X)=Y. Nh vy

f : X Y l mt ton nh
(y Y, x X, y = f(x))
(y Y, f1(y) );
y Y, phng trnh f(x) = y (y c xem nh tham
s) c nghim x X.

f : X Y khng l mt ton nh
(y Y, x X, y f(x));
(y Y, f1(y) );
 VI. nh x
c. Song nh Ta ni f : X Y l mt song nh nu f
va l n nh va l ton nh.

V d. Cho f: R R c xc nh f(x)=x3 +1 (l song nh)

g: R R c xc nh g(x)=x2 +1 (khng l song

nh)
VI. nh x
Tnh cht.
f : X Y l mt song nh
(y Y, !x X, y = f(x));
(y Y, f1(y) c ng mt phn t);
y Y, phng trnh f(x) = y (y c xem nh tham
s) c duy nht mt nghim x X.
 VI. nh x
nh x ngc.
Xt f : X Y l mt song nh. Khi , theo tnh cht trn, vi
mi y Y, tn ti duy nht mt phn t x X tha f(x) = y. Do
tng ng y x l mt nh x t Y vo X. Ta gi y l
nh x ngc ca f v k hiu f1. Nh vy:
f1 : Y X
y f1(y) = x vi f(x) = y.

V d. Cho f l nh x t R vo R f(x) =2x+1.

Khi f1(x)=(y-1)/2
 VI. nh x
3. Tch nh x. Cho hai nh x f : X Y v g : Y' Z
trong Y Y'. nh x tch h ca f v g l nh x t X vo Z
xc nh bi: h : X Z
x h(x) = g(f(x))
Ta vit: h = gof : X Y Z
VI. nh x

V d. Tm gof, fog
 V. Quy np
Chng minh 1 + 3 + 5 + 7 + + (2n-1)= n2 vi n 1

1. Phng php
Vi nhng bi ton chng minh tnh ng n ca mt biu
thc mnh c cha tham s n, nh P(n). Quy np ton
hc l mt k thut chng minh P(n) ng vi mi s t
nhin n N0.
- Qu trnh chng minh quy np bao gm 2 bc:
Bc c s: Ch ra P(N0) ng.
Bc quy np: Chng minh nu P(k) ng th P(k+1)
ng. Trong P(k) c gi l gi thit quy np.
 V. Quy np
V d. Chng minh 1+3++(2n-1)=n2 vi mi s nguyn
dng n.
Gi P(n) = 1+3+(2n-1)=n2
+ Bc c s:
Hin nhin P(1) ng v 1= 12.
V. Quy np
+ Bc quy np:
- Gi s P(k) ng, tc l

- Ta phi ch ra rng P(k+1) ng, tc l

T gi thit quy np ta c:

- Suy ra, P(k+1) ng.

Vy theo nguyn l quy np P(n) ng vi mi s
nguyn dng n
V. Quy np