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analyze them easily. In the previous chapters, we have mastered the ability to solve networks
containing independent and dependent sources making use of either mesh or nodal analysis. In
this chapter, we will introduce new techniques to strengthen our armoury to solve complicated
networks. Also, these new techniques in many cases do provide insight into the circuits operation
that cannot be obtained from mesh or nodal analysis. Most often, we are interested only in the
detailed performance of an isolated portion of a complex circuit. If we can model the remainder
of the circuit with a simple equivalent network, then our task of analysis gets greatly reduced and
simplified. For example, the function of many circuits is to deliver maximum power to load such
as an audio speaker in a stereo system. Here, we develop the required relationship betweeen a
load resistor and a fixed series resistor which can represent the remaining portion of the circuit.
Two of the theorems that we present in this chapter will permit us to do just that.
The principle of superposition is applicable only for linear systems. The concept of superposition
can be explained mathematically by the following response and excitation principle :
i1 ! v1
i2 ! v2
then; i1 + i2 ! v1 + v2
The quantity to the left of the arrow indicates the excitation and to the right, the system
response. Thus, we can state that a device, if excited by a current i1 will produce a response
v1 . Similarly, an excitation i2 will cause a response v2 . Then if we use an excitation i1 + i2 , we
will find a response v1 + v2 .
The principle of superposition has the ability to reduce a complicated problem to several easier
problems each containing only a single independent source.
160 j Network Theory
(i) In a circuit comprising of many independent sources, only one source is allowed to be active
in the circuit, the rest are deactivated (turned off).
(ii) To deactivate a voltage source, replace it with a short circuit, and to deactivate a current
source, replace it with an open circuit.
(iii) The response obtained by applying each source, one at a time, are then added algebraically
to obtain a solution.
Limitations: Superposition is a fundamental property of linear equations and, therefore, can be
applied to any effect that is linearly related to the cause. That is, we want to point out that,
superposition principle applies only to the current and voltage in a linear circuit but it cannot be
used to determine power because power is a non-linear function.
EXAMPLE 3.1
Find the current in the 6 resistor using the principle of superposition for the circuit of Fig. 3.1.
Figure 3.1
SOLUTION
As a first step, set the current source to zero. That is, the current source appears as an open circuit
as shown in Fig. 3.2.
6 6
i1 = = A
3+6 9
Circuit Theorems j 161
As a next step, set the voltage to zero by replacing it with a short circuit as shown in Fig. 3.3.
i2 =
2 3 6
= A
3+6 9
Figure 3.4
SOLUTION
As a first step, set the current source to zero. That is, the current source appears as an open circuit
as shown in Fig. 3.5.
Figure 3.5
162 j Network Theory
6
0
io = = 0:3 mA
(8 + 12) 103
As a second step, set the voltage source to zero. This means the voltage source in Fig. 3.4 is
replaced by a short circuit as shown in Figs. 3.6 and 3.6(a). Using current division principle,
iR2
iA =
R1 + R2
where R1 jj
= (12 k 12 k) + 12 k
= 6 k + 12 k
= 18 k
and R2 = 12 k
)
4 10 3 12 103
iA =
(12 + 18) 103
= 1:6 mA Figure 3.6
Again applying the current division principle,
00
io =
iA 12= 0:8 mA
12 + 12
Thus; io = io 0 + io 00 = 0:3 + 0:8 = 0:5 mA
Figure 3.6(a)
Circuit Theorems j 163
EXAMPLE 3.3
Use superposition to find io in the circuit shown in Fig. 3.7.
Figure 3.7
SOLUTION
As a first step, keep only the 12 V source active and rest of the sources are deactivated. That is,
2 mA current source is opened and 6 V voltage source is shorted as shown in Fig. 3.8.
12
0
io =
(2 + 2) 103
= 3 mA
Figure 3.8
As a second step, keep only 6 V source active. Deactivate rest of the sources, resulting in a
circuit diagram as shown in Fig. 3.9.
164 j Network Theory
2 10 3
io
00
2 10 3
io
00
6=0
) io
00
=
4
6
103
= 1:5 mA
Figure 3.9
As a final step, deactivate all the independent voltage sources and keep only 2 mA current
source active as shown in Fig. 3.10.
Figure 3.10
io = io 0 + io 00 + io 000
=3 1:5 + 1
= 2:5 mA
Circuit Theorems j 165
EXAMPLE 3.4
Find the current i for the circuit of Fig. 3.11.
Figure 3.11
SOLUTION
5i1 + 3i1 24 = 0
) i1 =
24
8
= 3A
As a second step, we set the voltage source to zero and determine the current i2 due to the
current source. For this condition, refer to Fig. 3.13 for analysis.
Figure 3.16
Circuit Theorems j 167
EXAMPLE 3.6
Use the principle of superposition to solve for vx in the circuit of Fig. 3.17.
Figure 3.17
SOLUTION
According to the principle of superposition,
vx = vx 1 + vx 2
where vx1 is produced by 6A source alone in the circuit and vx2 is produced solely by 4A current
source.
To find vx1 , deactivate the 4A current source. This results in a circuit diagram as shown in
Fig. 3.18.
KCL at node x1 :
vx 1 vx 1 4ix1
+ =6
2 8
vx 1
But ix1 =
2
v
vx 1 vx 1 4 x21
Hence; + =6
2 8
) vx 1
2
+
vx 1
8
2vx1
=6
) vx 1 =
48
3
= 16V
168 j Network Theory
To find vx2 , deactivate the 6A current source, resulting in a circuit diagram as shown in Fig.
3.19.
KCL at node x2 :
vx 2 ( 4ix2 )
v x2
+ =4
8 2
) vx 2
8
vx + 4ix2
+ 2
2
=4 (3.3)
vx 2 + 4ix2 2ix2 = 0
) vx 2 = 2ix2 or ix2 =
vx 2
2
(3.4)
) vx 2 vx 2
=4
)
8 2
vx 2 4vx2 = 32
) vx 2 =
32
3
V
vx = vx 1 + vx 2 Figure 3.19
32
= 16 = 5:33V
2
EXAMPLE 3.7
Which of the source in Fig. 3.20 contributes most of the power dissipated in the 2 resistor ?
The least ? What is the power dissipated in 2 resistor ?
Figure 3.20
Circuit Theorems j 169
SOLUTION
The Superposition theorem cannot be used to identify the individual contribution of each source
to the power dissipated in the resistor. However, the superposition theorem can be used to find the
total power dissipated in the 2 resistor.
Figure 3.21
Total current,
i1 = i01 + i02
= 1:22 1:024
= 0:196 A
Thus; P2 = (0:196)2 2
= 0:0768 Watts
= 76:8 mW
EXAMPLE 3.8
Find the voltage V1 using the superposition principle. Refer the circuit shown in Fig.3.24.
Figure 3.24
SOLUTION
According to the superposition principle,
V1 = V10 + V100
where V10 is the contribution from 60V source alone and V100 is the contribution from 4A current
source alone.
To find V10 , the 4A current source is opened, resulting in a circuit as shown in Fig. 3.25.
Figure 3.25
Circuit Theorems j 171
30ia 60 + 30ia
30 0:4ia = 0
) ia =
60
= 1:25A
48
ib = 0:4ia = 0:4 1:25
= 0:5A
Hence; V1
0
= (ia ib ) 30
= 22:5 V
Figure 3.26
00 00
V1 V1 0:4Va
Va
Hence; + =
30 10 20
) 7:2Va + 8V100 = 0 (3.8)
172 j Network Theory
EXAMPLE 3.9
(a) Refer to the circuit shown in Fig. 3.27. Before the 10 mA current source is attached to
terminals x y , the current ia is found to be 1.5 mA. Use the superposition theorem to find
the value of ia after the current source is connected.
(b) Verify your solution by finding ia , when all the three sources are acting simultaneously.
Figure 3.27
SOLUTION
According to the principle of superposition,
where ia1 , ia2 and ia3 are the contributions to ia from 20V source, 5 mA source and 10 mA source
respectively.
As per the statement of the problem,
To find ia3 , deactivate 20V source and the 5 mA source. The resulting circuit diagram is
shown in Fig 3.28.
10mA 2k
ia3 = = 1 mA
18k + 2k
Hence, total current
Figure 3.28
18
Vy
103
+
Vy
2
20
103
= (10+5) 10 3
In section 3.1, we saw that the analysis of a circuit may be greatly reduced by the use of su-
perposition principle. The main objective of Thevenins theorem is to reduce some portion of a
circuit to an equivalent source and a single element. This reduced equivalent circuit connected to
the remaining part of the circuit will allow us to find the desired current or voltage. Thevenins
theorem is based on circuit equivalence. A circuit equivalent to another circuit exhibits identical
characteristics at identical terminals.
Figure 3.30 A Linear two terminal network Figure 3.31 The Thevenins equivalent circuit
According to Thevenins theorem, the linear circuit of Fig. 3.30 can be replaced by the one
shown in Fig. 3.31 (The load resistor may be a single resistor or another circuit). The circuit to
the left of the terminals x y in Fig. 3.31 is known as the Thevenins equivalent circuit.
174 j Network Theory
In general, circuit B is the load which may be linear or non-linear. Circuit A is the balance of
the original network exclusive of load and must be linear. In general, circuit A may contain
independent sources, dependent sources and resistors or other linear elements.
(ii) If the circuit contains resistors, dependent and independent sources, follow the instructions
described below:
(a) Determine the open circuit voltage voc with the sources activated.
(b) Find the short circuit current isc when a short circuit is applied to the terminals a b
voc
(c) Rt =
isc
(iii) If the circuit contains resistors and only dependent sources, then
(a) voc = 0 (since there is no energy source)
(b) Connect 1A current source to terminals
a b and determine vab .
vab
(c) Rt =
1
Figure 3.32
For all the cases discussed above, the Thevenins equivalent circuit is as shown in Fig. 3.32.
EXAMPLE 3.10
Using the Thevenins theorem, find the current i through R = 2 . Refer Fig. 3.33.
Figure 3.33
SOLUTION
Figure 3.34
176 j Network Theory
Since we are interested in the current i through R, the resistor R is identified as circuit B and
the remainder as circuit A. After removing the circuit B, circuit A is as shown in Fig. 3.35.
Figure 3.35
To find Rt , we have to deactivate the independent voltage source. Accordingly, we get the
circuit in Fig. 3.36.
Rt jj
= (5 20 ) + 4
=
5 20
+4=8
5 + 20 Rt
50 + 25I = 0 ) I = 2A
Figure 3.36
Hence Vab = Voc = 20(I ) = 40V
Reconnecting the circuit B to the Thevenins equivalent circuit as shown in Fig. 3.38, we get
40
i = = 4A
2+8
Circuit Theorems j 177
EXAMPLE 3.11
(a) Find the Thevenins equivalent circuit with respect to terminals a b for the circuit shown
in Fig. 3.39 by finding the open-circuit voltage and the shortcircuit current.
(b) Solve the Thevenin resistance by removing the independent sources. Compare your result
with the Thevenin resistance found in part (a).
Figure 3.39
SOLUTION
Figure 3.40
(a) To find Voc :
Apply KCL at node 2 :
V2 V2 30
+ 1:5 = 0
)
60 + 20 40
V2 = 60 Volts
Hence; Voc =I
V 60 0
=
2
60 + 20
60
= 60
60
80
= 45 V
178 j Network Theory
To find isc :
The Thevenin equivalent circuit with respect to the terminals a b is as shown in Fig. 3.40(a).
(b) Let us now find Thevenin resistance Rt by deactivating all the independent sources,
Rt Rt
Rt jj
= 60 (40 + 20)
60
= = 30 (veried)
2
It is seen that, if only independent sources are present, it is easy to find Rt by deactivating all
the independent sources.
Circuit Theorems j 179
EXAMPLE 3.12
Find the Thevenin equivalent for the circuit shown in Fig. 3.41 with respect to terminals a b.
Figure 3.41
SOLUTION
To find Voc = Vab :
Applying KVL around the mesh of
Fig. 3.42, we get
20 + 6i 2i + 6i = 0
) i = 2A
20 + 6i1 2i + 6 (i1 i2 ) =0
) 12i1 6i2 = 20 + 2i
Since i = i1 i2 , we get
) 10i1 4i2 = 20
10i2 + 6 (i2 i1 ) =0
) 6i1 + 16i2 = 0 Figure 3.43
180 j Network Theory
i2 =
120
136
A ) isc = i2 =
120
136
A
voc 12
Rt = = = 13:6
isc 120
136
EXAMPLE 3.13
Find Vo in the circuit of Fig. 3.44 using Thevenins theorem.
Figure 3.44
SOLUTION
To find Voc :
Since we are interested in the voltage across 2 k resistor, it is removed from the circuit of
Fig. 3.44 and so the circuit becomes as shown in Fig. 3.45.
Figure 3.45
By inspection, i1 = 4 mA
Applying KVL to mesh 2 :
12 + 6 10 3
(i2
+ 3 103 i2 = 0
i1 )
3
) 12 + 6 10 3
i2 4 10 3
+3 10 i2 =0
Circuit Theorems j 181
Solving, we get i2 = 4 mA
Applying KVL to the path 4 k ! a b ! 3 k, we get
4 10 3
i1 + Voc 3 10 = 03
i2
) Voc = 4 10 + 3 10
3
i1
3
i2
= 4 10 4 10 + 3 10 4 10
3 3 3 3
= 28V
To find Rt :
Deactivating all the independent sources, we get the circuit diagram shown in Fig. 3.46.
Figure 3.46
Rt jj
= Rab = 4 k + (6 k 3 k) = 6 k
Hence, the Thevenin equivalent circuit is as shown in Fig. 3.47.
If we connect the 2 k resistor to this equivalent network, we obtain the circuit of Fig. 3.48.
Vo =i 2 10 3
=
28
(6 + 2) 10
2 10
3
3
= 7V
EXAMPLE 3.14
The wheatstone bridge in the circuit shown in Fig. 3.49 (a) is balanced when R2 = 1200 . If the
galvanometer has a resistance of 30 , how much current will be detected by it when the bridge
is unbalanced by setting R2 to 1204 ?
182 j Network Theory
Figure 3.49(a)
SOLUTION
To find Voc :
We are interested in the galavanometer current. Hence, it is removed from the circuit of Fig.
3.49 (a) to find Voc and we get the circuit shown in Fig. 3.49 (b).
120 120
i1 = = A
900 + 600 1500
120 120
i2 = = A
1204 + 800 2004
Applying KVL clockwise along the path
1204 ! b a !
900 , we get
1204i2 Vt 900i1 = 0
) Vt = 1204i2900i1
= 1204
120
2004
900 1500
120
= 95:8 mV
Figure 3.49(b)
To find Rt :
Deactivate all the independent sources and look into the terminals a b to determine the
Thevenins resistance.
Rt jj
= Rab = 600 900 + 800 1204 jj
=
900 600 1204 800
+
1500 2004
= 840:64
iG =
95:8 10 3
= 110:03 A
840:64 + 30
EXAMPLE 3.15
For the circuit shown in Fig. 3.51, find the Thevenins equivalent circuit between terminals a and b.
Figure 3.51
SOLUTION
With ab shorted, let Isc = I . The circuit after
transforming voltage sources into their equiv-
alent current sources is as shown in Fig 3.52.
Writing node equations for this circuit,
At a : 0:2Va 0:1 Vc + I = 3
At c : 0:1Va + 0:3 Vc 0:1 Vb = 4
At b : 0:1Vc + 0:2 Vb I =1
0:2Va 0:1 Vc + I = 3
0:2Va + 0:3 Vc = 4
0:2Va 0:1 Vc 1=1
Solving the above equations, we get the short circuit current, I = Isc = 1 A.
Next let us open circuit the terminals a and b and this makes I = 0. And the node equations
written earlier are modified to
0:2Va 0:1 Vc = 3
0:1Va + 0:3 Vc 0:1 Vb = 4
0:1Vc + 0:2 Vb = 1
EXAMPLE 3.16
Refer to the circuit shown in Fig. 3.54. Find the Thevenin equivalent circuit at the terminals a b.
Figure 3.54
SOLUTION
To begin with let us transform 3 A current source and 10 V voltage source. This results in a
network as shown in Fig. 3.55 (a) and further reduced to Fig. 3.55 (b).
Circuit Theorems j 185
Figure 3.55(a)
Again transform the 30 V source and following the reduction procedure step by step from
Fig. 3.55 (b) to 3.55 (d), we get the Thevenins equivalent circuit as shown in Fig. 3.56.
EXAMPLE 3.17
Find the Thevenin equivalent circuit as seen from the terminals a b. Refer the circuit diagram
shown in Fig. 3.57.
186 j Network Theory
Figure 3.57
SOLUTION
Since the circuit has no independent sources, i = 0 when the terminals a b are open. There-
fore, Voc = 0.
The onus is now to find Rt . Since Voc = 0 and isc = 0, Rt cannot be determined from
Voc
Rt = . Hence, we choose to connect a source of 1 A at the terminals a b as shown in Fig.
isc
3.58. Then, after finding Vab , the Thevenin resistance is,
Vab
Rt =
1
KCL at node a : Va 2i Va
+ 1=0
5 10
Va
Also; i =
Va
10
Va 2 10 Va
Hence; + 1=0
5 10
) Va =
50
13
V
50 Va
Hence; Rt =
=
1 13
Alternatively one could find Rt by connecting a 1V source at the terminals a b and then find
1
the current from b to a. Then Rt = . The concept of finding Rt by connecting a 1A source
iba
between the terminals a b may also be used for circuits containing independent sources. Then
set all the independent sources to zero and use 1A source at the terminals a b to find Vab and
Vab
hence, Rt = .
1
For the present problem, the Thevenin equivalent circuit as seen between the terminals a b
is shown in Fig. 3.58 (a).
EXAMPLE 3.18
Determine the Thevenin equivalent circuit between the terminals a b for the circuit of Fig. 3.59.
Figure 3.59
SOLUTION
As there are no independent sources in the circuit, we get Voc = Vt = 0:
To find Rt , connect a 1V source to the terminals a b and measure the current I that flows
from b to a. (Refer Fig. 3.60 a).
1
Rt =
I
Figure 3.60(a)
0:5Vx +
Vx
4
=1 ) Vx = 1:33V
Vab Vx
Hence Rt = = = 1:33
1 1
An American engineer, E.L. Norton at Bell Telephone Laboratories, proposed a theorem similar
to Thevenins theorem.
Nortons theorem states that a linear two-terminal network can be replaced by an
equivalent circuit consisting of a current source iN in parallel with resistor RN , where iN
is the short-circuit current through the terminals and RN is the input or equivalent resistance
at the terminals when the independent sources are turned off. If one does not wish to turn off
the independent sources, then RN is the ratio of open circuit voltage to shortcircuit current
at the terminal pair.
Figure 3.61(b) shows Nortons equivalent circuit as seen from the terminals a b of the
original circuit shown in Fig. 3.61(a). Since this is the dual of the Thevenin circuit, it is clear that
voc
RN = Rt and iN = . In fact, source transformation of Thevenin equivalent circuit leads to
Rt
Nortons equivalent circuit.
Procedure for finding Nortons equivalent circuit:
(1) If the network contains resistors and independent sources, follow the instructions below:
(a) Deactivate the sources and find RN by circuit reduction techniques.
(b) Find iN with sources activated.
(2) If the network contains resistors, independent and dependent sources, follow the steps given
below:
(a) Determine the short-circuit current iN with all sources activated.
Circuit Theorems j 189
(3) If the network contains only resistors and dependent sources, follow the procedure
described below:
The opencircuit and shortcircuit test are sufficient to find any Thevenin or Norton equiva-
lent.
The principle of superposition is employed to provide the proof of Thevenins and Nortons
theorems.
Let us consider a linear circuit having two accessible terminals x y and excited by an external
current source i. The linear circuit is made up of resistors, dependent and independent sources. For
the sake of simplified analysis, let us assume that the linear circuit contains only two independent
voltage sources v1 and v2 and two independent current sources i1 and i2 . The terminal voltage v
may be obtained, by applying the principle of superposition. That is, v is made up of contributions
due to the external source and independent sources within the linear network.
Hence; v = a0 i + a1 v1 + a2 v2 + a3 i1 + a4 i2 (3.9)
= a0 i + b0 (3.10)
where b0 = a1 v1 + a2 v2 + a3 i1 + a4 i2
= contribution to the terminal voltage v by
independent sources within the linear network.
(i) When the terminals x and y are opencircuited, i = 0 and v = voc = vt . Making use of
this fact in equation 3.10, we find that b0 = vt .
190 j Network Theory
(ii) When all the internal sources are deactivated, b0 = 0. This enforces equation 3.10 to
become
v = a0 i = Rt i ) a0 = Rt
Rt
Vt
Figure 3.62 Current-driven circuit Figure 3.63 Thevenins equivalent circuit of Fig. 3.62
where Rt is the equivalent resistance of the linear network as viewed from the terminals x y .
Also, a0 must be Rt in order to obey the ohms law. Substuting the values of a0 and b0 in equation
3.10, we find that
v = Rt i + v1
which expresses the voltage-current relationship at terminals x y of the circuit in Fig. 3.63.
Thus, the two circuits of Fig. 3.62 and 3.63 are equivalent.
Let us now assume that the linear circuit described earlier is driven by a voltage source v as shown
in Fig. 3.64.
The current flowing into the circuit can be obtained by superposition as
i = c0 v + d 0 (3.11)
where c0 v is the contribution to i due to the external voltage source v and d0 contains the contri-
butions to i due to all independent sources within the linear circuit. The constants c0 and d0 are
determined as follows :
(i) When terminals x y are short-circuited, v =
0 and i = isc . Hence from equation (3.11),
we find that i = d0 = isc , where isc is the
short-circuit current flowing out of terminal x,
which is same as Norton current iN
Thus, d0 = iN
Figure 3.64
Voltage-driven circuit
(ii) Let all the independent sources within the linear network be turned off, that is d0 = 0. Then,
equation (3.11) becomes
i = c0 v
Circuit Theorems j 191
This expresses the voltage-current relationship at the terminals x y of the circuit in Fig.
(3.65), validating that the two circuits of Figs. 3.64 and 3.65 are equivalents.
EXAMPLE 3.19
Find the Norton equivalent for the circuit of Fig. 3.66.
Figure 3.66
SOLUTION
As a first step, short the terminals a b. This
results in a circuit diagram as shown in Fig. 3.67.
Applying KCL at node a, we get
0 24
3 + isc = 0
)
4
isc = 9A
RN =
4 12
=3
4 + 12
192 j Network Theory
EXAMPLE 3.20
Refer the circuit shown in Fig. 3.69. Find the value of ib using Norton equivalent circuit. Take
R = 667 .
Figure 3.69
SOLUTION
Since we want the current flowing through R, remove
R from the circuit of Fig. 3.69. The resulting circuit
diagram is shown in Fig. 3.70.
To find iac or iN referring Fig 3.70(a) :
0
ia = = 0A
1000
12
isc = A = 2 mA Figure 3.70
6000
Figure 3.70(a)
Circuit Theorems j 193
To find RN :
The procedure for finding RN is same that of Rt
in the Thevenin equivalent circuit.
voc
Rt = RN =
isc
) voc = ia 4
1000 = V
3
4
voc
Therefore; RN = = 3 = 667
isc 2 10 3
The Norton equivalent circuit along with resistor R is as shown below:
isc 2mA
ib = = = 1mA
2 2
EXAMPLE 3.21
Find Io in the network of Fig. 3.72 using Nortons theorem.
Figure 3.72
194 j Network Theory
SOLUTION
We are interested in Io , hence the 2 k resistor is removed from the circuit diagram of Fig. 3.72.
The resulting circuit diagram is shown in Fig. 3.73(a).
To find iN or isc :
Refer Fig. 3.73(b). By inspection, V1 = 12 V
Applying KCL at node V2 :
V2 V1 V2 V2 V1
+ + =0
6 k 2 k 3 k
Substituting V1 = 12 V and solving, we get
V2 = 6V
V1 V2 V1
isc = + = 5 mA
3 k 4 k
To find RN :
Deactivate all the independent sources (refer Fig. 3.73(c)).
RN jj jj
= Rab = 4 k [3 k + (6 k 2 k)] = 2:12 k
Io =
isc RN
= 2:57mA
R + RN
Figure 3.73(e)
EXAMPLE 3.22
Find Vo in the circuit of Fig. 3. 74.
Figure 3.74
SOLUTION
Since we are interested in Vo , the voltage across 4 k resistor, remove this resistance from the
circuit. This results in a circuit diagram as shown in Fig. 3.75.
Figure 3.75
196 j Network Theory
Constraint equation :
i1 i2 = 4mA (3.12)
KVL around supermesh :
4+2 10 3
i1 +4 10 3
i2 =0 (3.13)
KVL around mesh 3 :
8 10 ( 3
i3 i2 ) +2 10 ( 3
i3 i1 ) =0
Since i3 = isc , the above equation becomes,
8 10 ( 3
isc i2 ) +2 10 ( 3
isc i1 ) =0 (3.14)
Solving equations (3.12), (3.13) and (3.14) simultaneously, we get isc = 0:1333 mA.
To find RN :
Deactivate all the sources in Fig. 3.75. This yields a circuit diagram as shown in Fig. 3.76.
Figure 3.76
RN = 6 k 10 kjj
=
6 10
= 3:75 k
6 + 10
Hence, the Norton equivalent circuit is as shown
in Fig 3.76 (a).
To the Norton equivalent circuit, now connect the
4 k resistor that was removed earlier to get the Figure 3.76(a)
network shown in Fig. 3.76(b).
198 j Network Theory
Vo = isc (RN jj R)
RN R
= isc
RN +R
= 258 mV
EXAMPLE 3.23
Find the Norton equivalent to the left of the terminals a b for the circuit of Fig. 3.77.
Figure 3.77
SOLUTION
To find isc :
To find RN or Rt :
EXAMPLE 3.24
Find the Norton equivalent of the network shown in Fig. 3.78.
Figure 3.78
200 j Network Theory
SOLUTION
Since there are no independent sources present in the network of Fig. 3.78, iN = isc = 0.
To find RN , we inject a current of 1A between the terminals a b. This is illustrated in
Fig. 3.79.
KCL at node 1:
v1 v1 v2
1= +
)
100 50
0:03v1 0:02v2 = 1
KCL at node 2: v2 v2 v1
+ + 0:1v1 = 0
)
200 50
0:08v1 + 0:025v2 = 0
Solving the above two nodal equations, we get
v1 = 10:64 volts )
voc = 10:64 volts
10:64
voc
Hence; R N = Rt = = = 10:64
1 1
Norton equivalent circuit for the network shown in Fig. 3.78 is as shown in Fig. 3.79(a).
EXAMPLE 3.25
Find the Thevenin and Norton equivalent circuits for the network shown in Fig. 3.80 (a).
Figure 3.80(a)
Circuit Theorems j 201
SOLUTION
To find Voc :
Performing source transformation on 5A current source, we get the circuit shown in
Fig. 3.80 (b).
Applying KVL around Left mesh :
50 + 2ia 20 + 4ia = 0
) ia =
70
6
A
4 (isc ia ) + 20 + 10ia = 0
) 6ia + 4isc = 20
Figure 3.80(c)
EXAMPLE 3.26
If an 8 k load is connected to the terminals of the
network in Fig. 3.81, VAB = 16 V. If a 2 k load is
connected to the terminals, VAB = 8V. Find VAB if a
20 k load is connected across the terminals.
SOLUTION
Figure 3.81
If RL = 2 k; I = 10 mA ) Voc = 20 + 0:01Rt
If RL = 10 k; I = 6 mA ) Voc = 60 + 0:006Rt
Vt
2
2
p =i RL = RL (3.16)
Rt + RL
Circuit Theorems j 203
Assuming that Vt and Rt are fixed for a given source, the maximum power is a function of
RL .In order to determine the value of RL that maximizes p, we differentiate p with respect to
RL and equate the derivative to zero.
" #
dp (Rt + RL )2 2 (Rt + RL )
= Vt2 =0
dRL (RL + Rt )2
which yields RL = Rt (3.17)
The maximum power transfer theorem states that the maximum power delivered by a source
represented by its Thevenin equivalent circuit is attained when the load RL is equal to the
Thevenin resistance Rt .
EXAMPLE 3.27
Find the load RL that will result in maximum power delivered to the load for the circuit of Fig.
3.84. Also determine the maximum power Pmax .
Figure 3.84
SOLUTION
Disconnect the load resistor RL . This results in a circuit diagram as shown in Fig. 3.85(a).
Next let us determine the Thevenin equivalent circuit as seen from a b.
204 j Network Theory
180
i = = 1A
150 + 30
Voc = Vt = 150 i = 150 V
Rt = Rab = 30 150 jj
=
30 150 = 25
Figure 3.85(a)
30 + 150
The Thevenin equivalent circuit connected to the
load resistor is shown in Fig. 3.86.
Maximum power transfer is obtained when
RL = Rt = 25 :
Then the maximum power is
(150)2
2
Vt
Pmax
4RL
=
4 25
=
Figure 3.85(b)
= 2:25 Watts
The Thevenin source Vt actually provides a total
power of
Pt = 150 i
= 150
150
25 + 25
= 450 Watts
Thus, we note that one-half the power is dissipated in RL .
Figure 3.86
EXAMPLE 3.28
Refer to the circuit shown in Fig. 3.87. Find the value of RL for maximum power transfer. Also
find the maximum power transferred to RL .
Figure 3.87
Circuit Theorems j 205
SOLUTION
Disconnecting RL , results in a circuit diagram as shown in Fig. 3.88(a).
Figure 3.88(a)
Rt jj
= Rab = 6 k 6 k 6 k jj
= 2 k
To find Vt :
Refer the Fig. 3.88(d).
Constraint equation :
V3 V1 = 12 V
By inspection, V2 =3V
KCL at supernode :
V3 V2 V1 V1 V2
+ + =0
6k 6k 6k
) V3
6k
3
+
V3
6k
12
+
V3 12 3
6k
=0
Figure 3.88(d)
206 j Network Theory
) V3 3 + V3 12 + V3 15 = 0
) 3V3 = 30
) V3 = 10
) Vt = Vab = V3 = 10 V
Figure 3.88(e)
The Thevenin equivalent circuit connected to the load resistor RL is shown in Fig. 3.88(e).
Pmax = i2 RL
Vt
2
= RL
2RL
= 12:5 mW
Alternate method :
It is possible to find Pmax , without finding the Thevenin equivalent circuit. However, we have to
find Rt . For maximum power transfer, RL = Rt = 2 k. Insert the value of RL in the original
circuit given in Fig. 3.87. Then use any circuit reduction technique of your choice to find power
dissipated in RL .
Refer Fig. 3.88(f). By inspection we find that, V2 = 3 V.
Constraint equation :
V3 V1 = 12
) V1 = V3 12
KCL at supernode :
V3 V2 V1 V2 V3 V1
+ + + =0
6k 6k 2k 6k
) V3
6k
3
+
V3 12
6k
3
+
2k
+
V3
6k
=0
V3 12
) V3 3 + V3 15 + 3V3 + V3 12 = 0
) 6V3 = 30
) V3 =5 V Figure 3.88(f)
V3
2 25
Hence; Pmax = = = 12:5 mW
RL 2k
Circuit Theorems j 207
EXAMPLE 3.29
Find RL for maximum power transfer and the maximum power that can be transferred in the
network shown in Fig. 3.89.
Figure 3.89
SOLUTION
Disconnect the load resistor RL . This results in a circuit as shown in Fig. 3.89(a).
Figure 3.89(a)
To find Rt , let us deactivate all the independent sources, which results the circuit as shown in
Fig. 3.89(b).
Rt = Rab = 2 k + 3 k + 5 k = 10 k
Figure 3.89(b)
5k + 3k (
i2 i1 ) + 2k + = 0
i2 i1 Vt
) 5 10 1 10
3 3 +3 1032 10 1 10 3 +2 10 2 10 3 3 3 + Vt = 0
) 5 9 4 + Vt = 0
) Vt = 18 V:
The Thevenin equivalent circuit with load resistor RL is as shown in Fig. 3.89 (d).
18
i =
(10 + 10) 103
= 0:9 mA
Then,
Pmax = PL = (0:9 mA)2 10 k
= 8:1 mW
EXAMPLE 3.30
Find the maximum power dissipated in RL . Refer the circuit shown in Fig. 3.90.
Figure 3.90
Circuit Theorems j 209
SOLUTION
Disconnecting the load resistor RL from the original circuit results in a circuit diagram as shown
in Fig. 3.91.
Figure 3.91
As a first step in the analysis, let us find Rt . While finding Rt , we have to deactivate all the
independent sources. This results in a network as shown in Fig 3.91 (a) :
Figure 3.91(a)
Rt jj
= Rab = [140 60 ] + 8
=
140 60
+ 8 = 50 :
140 + 60
For maximum power transfer, RL = Rt = 50 . Next step in the analysis is to find Vt .
Refer Fig 3.91(b), using the principle of
current division,
i1 =
i R2
+
R1 R2
20 170
= = 17 A
170 + 30
i2 =
= 20 30
i R1
R1 + R2 170 + 30
600
= = 3A
200
Figure 3.91(a)
210 j Network Theory
EXAMPLE 3.31
Find the value of RL for maximum power transfer in the circuit shown in Fig. 3.92. Also
find Pmax .
Figure 3.92
SOLUTION
Disconnecting RL from the original circuit, we get the network shown in Fig. 3.93.
Figure 3.93
Circuit Theorems j 211
Let us draw the Thevenin equivalent circuit as seen from the terminals a b and then insert
the value of RL = Rt between the terminals a b. To find Rt , let us deactivate all independent
sources which results in the circuit as shown in Fig. 3.94.
Figure 3.94
Rt = Rab
jj
=8 2
=
8 2
= 1:6
8+2
Next step is to find Voc or Vt .
By performing source transformation on the circuit shown in Fig. 3.93, we obtain the circuit
shown in Fig. 3.95.
Figure 3.95
Pmax = i2T RL
Vt
2
Figure 3.95(a) Thevenin equivalent
= = 625 mW
4Rt circuit
EXAMPLE 3.32
Find the value of RL for maximum power transfer. Hence find Pmax .
Figure 3.96
SOLUTION
Removing RL from the original circuit gives us the circuit diagram shown in Fig. 3.97.
Figure 3.97
To find Voc :
KCL at node A :
0
ia 0:9 + 10i0a = 0
) 0
ia = 0:1 A
Hence; Voc = 3 10i0a
=3 10 0 1 = 3 V
:
Circuit Theorems j 213
3
iT = = 0:5 A
3+3
Pmax = i2T RL
= (0:5)2 3
= 0.75 W
Figure 3.97(a)
EXAMPLE 3.33
Find the value of RL in the network shown that will achieve maximum power transfer, and deter-
mine the value of the maximum power.
Figure 3.98(a)
SOLUTION
Removing RL from the circuit of Fig. 3.98(a), we
get the circuit of Fig 3.98(b).
Applying KVL clockwise we get
12 + 2 103 i + 2Vx0 = 0
Also 0
Vx =1 10 3
i
Hence; 12 + 2 10 3i +2 1 10 3i =0
12
4 10
i = = 3 mA Figure 3.98(b)
3
214 j Network Theory
1 10 3
i + 2Vx0 Vt =0
) Vt =1 10 + 2 1 10
3
i
3
i
= 1 10 + 2 10 3 3
i
= 3 10 3 10 3 3
=9V
12 + Vx 00 + 0 = 0
) Vx
00
= 12
) 1 10 3
i1 = 12 ) i1 = 12 mA
1 10
3
i2 + 2Vx 00 = 0
) 1 10 3
i2 = 24
i2 = 24 mA
Applying KCL at node a:
isc = i1 i2
= 12 + 24 = 36 mA
Vt Voc
Hence; Rt = =
isc isc
9
=
36 10 3
= 250
EXAMPLE 3.34
The variable resistor RL in the circuit of Fig. 3.99 is adjusted untill it absorbs maximum power
from the circuit.
(a) Find the value of RL .
(b) Find the maximum power.
Figure 3.99
SOLUTION
Disconnecting the load resistor RL from the original circuit, we get the circuit shown in
Fig. 3.99(a).
Figure 3.99(a)
KCL at node v1 :
v1 100 v1 13i0a v1 v2
+ + =0 (3.18)
2 5 4
Constraint equations :
0
100 v1
ia = (3.19)
2
v2 v1
= va0 (applying K C L at v2 ) (3.20)
4
0
va = v1 v2 (potential across 4 ) (3.21)
216 j Network Theory
)
4
v2 v1 = 4v1 4v2
) 5v1 5v2 = 0
) v1 = v2 (3.22)
The short circuit current is calculated using the circuit shown below:
00
100 v1
Here ia =
2
Applying KCL at node v1 :
v1 100 v1 13ia v1 0
+ + =0
2 5 4
(100 v1 )
) v1 100 v1 13 v1
+ 2 + =0
2 5 4
Circuit Theorems j 217
RL = Rt = 0:9
EXAMPLE 3.35
Refer to the circuit shown in Fig. 3.100 :
(a) Find the value of RL for maximum power transfer.
(b) Find the maximum power that can be delivered to RL .
Figure 3.100
218 j Network Theory
SOLUTION
Removing the load resistor RL , we get the circuit diagram shown in Fig. 3.100(a). Let us proceed
to find Vt .
Figure 3.100(a)
Constraint equation :
0
ia = i1 i3
= 20 ( 2:5 5)
= 150 V
Circuit Theorems j 219
2 (i2 i3 ) + 1 (i2 i1 ) =0
) i1 + 3i2 2i3 = 0
Pmax = i21 RL
2
=
150
2:5 + 2:5
25:
= 2250 W
EXAMPLE 3.36
A practical current source provides 10 W to a 250 load and 20 W to an 80 load. A resistance
RL , with voltage vL and current iL , is connected to it. Find the values of RL , vL and iL if
(a) vL iL is a maximum, (b) vL is a maximum and (c) iL is a maximum.
SOLUTION
Load current calculation:
r
10
10W to 250 corresponds to iL =
250
=r 200 mA
20
20W to 80 corresponds to iL =
80
= 500 mA
Using the formula for division of current between two parallel branches :
i2 =
i R1
R1 + R2
IN R N
In the present context, 0:2 = (3.23)
RN + 250
IN R N
and 0:5 = (3.24)
RN + 80
Circuit Theorems j 221
IN = 1:7 A
RN = 33:33
(a) If vL iL is maximum,
RL = RN = 33:33
iL = 1:7 33:33
33:33 + 33:33
= 850 mA
vL = iL RL = 850 10 33 33
3
:
= 28:33 V
(b) vL = IN (RN jj RL ) is a maximum when RN RL jj is a maximum, which occurs when
RL = . 1
Then, iL = 0 and
vL = 1:7 RN
= 1 7 33 33
: :
= 56:66 V
IN R N
(c) iL = is maxmimum when RL = 0
RN + RL
) iL = 1:7A and vL = 0 V
Circuits in the frequency domain with phasor currents and voltages and impedances are analogous
to resistive circuits.
To begin with, let us consider the principle of superposition, which may be restated as follows :
For a linear circuit containing two or more independent sources, any circuit voltage or
current may be calculated as the algebraic sum of all the individual currents or voltages caused
by each independent source acting alone.
Figure 3.101 Thevenin equivalent circuit Figure 3.102 Norton equivalent circuit
222 j Network Theory
The superposition principle is particularly useful if a circuit has two or more sources acting
at different frequencies. The circuit will have one set of impedance values at one frequency and a
different set of impedance values at another frequency. Phasor responses corresponding to differ-
ent frequencies cannot be superposed; only their corresponding sinusoids can be superposed. That
is, when frequencies differ, the principle of superposition applies to the summing of time domain
components, not phasors. Within a component, problem corresponding to a single frequency,
however phasors may be superposed.
Thevenin and Norton equivalents in phasor circuits are found exactly in the same manner
as described earlier for resistive circuits, except for the subtitution of impedance Z in place of
resistance R and subsequent use of complex arithmetic. The Thevenin and Norton equivalent
circuits are shown in Fig. 3.101 and 3.102.
The Thevenin and Norton forms are equivalent if the relations
(a) Zt = ZN (b) Vt = ZN IN
EXAMPLE 3.37
Find the Thevenin and Norton equivalent circuits at the terminals a b for the circuit in
Fig. 3.103.
Figure 3.103
SOLUTION
As a first step in the analysis, let us find Vt :
jj
Zt = j 10 (8 j 5)
(j 10)(8 j 5)
=
j 10 + 8 j5
= 10 /26
Vt 33:92 /58
IN = =
Zt 10 /26
= 3:392 /32 A
ZN = Zt = 10 /26
EXAMPLE 3.38
Find vo using Thevenins theorem. Refer to the circuit shown in Fig. 3.104.
Figure 3.104
SOLUTION
Let us convert the circuit given in Fig. 3.104 into a frequency domain equiavalent or phasor circuit
(shown in Fig. 3.105(a)). ! = 1
L = 1H ! j !L =j 11= 1 j
= 1F !
1 1
C
j !C
=
j11 = 1 j
Circuit Theorems j 225
Figure 3.105(a)
Disconnecting the capicator from the original circuit, we get the circuit shown in
Fig. 3.105(b). This circuit is used for finding Vt .
Figure 3.105(b)
KCL at node a :
Vt 10 / 45 Vt 5 / 60
+ =0
3 j1
Solving; Vt = 4:97 / 40:54
EXAMPLE 3.39
Find the Thevenin equivalent circuit of the circuit shown in Fig. 3.106.
Figure 3.106
SOLUTION
Since terminals a b are open,
Va = Is 10
= 20 /0 V
Applying KVL clockwise for the mesh on the right hand side of the circuit, we get
Voc = 4Va
= 80 /0 V
Let us transform the current source with 10 parallel resistance to a voltage source with 10
series resistance as shown in figure below :
EXAMPLE 3.40
Find the Thevenin and Norton equivalent circuits for the circuit shown in Fig. 3.107.
Figure 3.107
SOLUTION
The phasor equivalent circuit of Fig. 3.107 is shown in Fig. 3.108.
KCL at node a :
Voc 2Voc Voc
10 + =0
j 10 j5
) Voc = j
100 100
3
=
3
/ 90 V
228 j Network Theory
Figure 3.108
Since Voc = 0, the above circuit takes the form shown in Fig 3.108 (b).
Isc = 10 /0 A
100
Voc / 90 10
Hence; Zt = = 3 = / 90
Isc 10 /0
3
The Thevenin equivalent and the Norton equivalent circuits are as shown below.
EXAMPLE 3.41
Find the Thevenin and Norton equivalent circuits in frequency domain for the network shown in
Fig. 3.109.
Circuit Theorems j 229
Figure 3.109
SOLUTION
Let us find Vt = Vab using superpostion theorem.
(i) Vab due to 100 /0
100 /90
I2 =
j 100 j 300
Vab2 = I2 ( j 300)
100 /90
= ( j 300) = j 150 V
j 100 j 300
Hence; Vt = Vab1 + Vab2
= 50 + j 150
= 158:11 /108:43 V
Zt = j 100 jj j 300
j 100( j 300)
= = j 150
j 100 j 300
Hence the Thevenin equivalent circuit is as shown in Fig. 3.109(a). Performing source trans-
formation on the Thevenin equivalent circuit, we get the Norton equivalent circuit.
Vt 158:11 /108:43
IN = = = 1:054 /18:43 A
Zt 150 /90
ZN = Zt = j 150
We have earlier shown that for a resistive network, maximum power is transferred from a source to
the load, when the load resistance is set equal to the Thevenin resistance with Thevenin equivalent
source. Now we extend this result to the ac circuits.
In Fig. 3.110, the linear circuit is made up of impedances, independent and dependent sources.
This linear circuit is replaced by its Thevenin equivalent circuit as shown in Fig. 3.111. The load
impedance could be a model of an antenna, a TV, and so forth. In rectangular form, the Thevenin
impedance Zt and the load impedance ZL are
Zt = Rt + jXt
and ZL = RL + jXL
Vt Vt
I= =
Zt + ZL (Rt + jXt ) + (RL + jXL )
p
The phasors I and Vt are the maximum values. The corresponding RM S values are obtained
by dividing the maximum values by 2. Also, the RM S value of phasor current flowing in the
load must be taken for computing the average power delivered to the load. The average power
delivered to the load is given by
P =
2
jj
1 2
I RL
=
jV j
t
2 RL
2
(3.25)
(Rt + RL ) (Xt + XL )2
2
Our idea is to adjust the load parameters RL and XL so that P is maximum. To do this, we
@P @P
get and equal to zero.
@RL @XL
232 j Network Theory
@P
= h
j j
Vt
2
RL (Xt + XL )
i2
@XL
(Rt + RL )2 + (Xt + XL )2
h i
@P
j j
Vt
2
(Rt + RL )2 + (Xt + XL )2 2RL (Rt + RL )
@RL
= h i2
2 (Rt + RL )2 + (Xt + XL )2
@P
Setting = 0 gives
@XL
XL = Xt (3.26)
@P
and Setting = 0 gives
@RL
q
RL = Rt2 + (Xt + XL )2 (3.27)
Combining equations (3.26) and (3.27), we can conclude that for maximum average power
transfer, ZL must be selected such that XL = Xt and RL = Rt . That is the maximum aver-
age power of a circuit with an impedance Zt that is obtained when ZL is set equal to complex
conjugate of Zt .
Setting RL = Rt and XL = Xt in equation (3.25), we get the maximum average power as
P =
j jVt
2
8Rt
In a situation where the load is purely real, the condition for maximum power transfer is
obtained by putting XL = 0 in equation (3.27). That is,
q
RL = Rt2 + Xt2 = Zt j j
Hence for maximum average power transfer to a purely resistive load, the load resistance is
equal to the magnitude of Thevenin impedance.
Maximum average power can be delivered to ZL only if ZL = Zt . There are few situations in
which this is not possible. These situations are described below :
(i) RL and XL may be restricted to a limited range of values. With this restriction,
(ii) Magnitude of ZL can be varied but its phase angle cannot be. Under this restriction,
greatest amount of power is transferred to the load when [ZL ] = Zt . j j
Zt is the complex conjugate of Zt .
Circuit Theorems j 233
EXAMPLE 3.42
Find the load impedance that transfers the maximum power to the load and determine the maxi-
mum power quantity obtained for the circuit shown in Fig. 3.112.
Figure 3.112
SOLUTION
We select, ZL = Zt for maximum power transfer.
Hence ZL = 5 + j 6
10 /0
I= = 1 /0
5+5
Hence, the maximum average power transfered to the
load is
P =
1 2
2
jj
I RL
1
= (1)2 5 = 2:5 W
2
EXAMPLE 3.43
Find the load impedance that transfers the maximum average power to the load and determine the
maximum average power transferred to the load ZL shown in Fig. 3.113.
Figure 3.113
234 j Network Theory
SOLUTION
The first step in the analysis is to find the Thevenin equivalent circuit by disconnecting the load
ZL . This leads to a circuit diagram as shown in Fig. 3.114.
Figure 3.114
To find Zt , let us deactivate all the independent sources of Fig. 3.114. This leads to a circuit
diagram as shown in Fig 3.114 (a):
Zt = 3 + j 4
P = jj
It
2
RL = 4(3) = 12 W
1
It may be noted that the scaling factor is not taken since the phase current is already
2
expressed by its RM S value.
Circuit Theorems j 235
EXAMPLE 3.44
Refer the circuit given in Fig. 3.116. Find the value of RL that will absorb the maximum average
power.
Figure 3.116
SOLUTION
Disconnecting the load resistor RL from the original circuit diagram leads to a circuit diagram as
shown in Fig. 3.117.
Figure 3.117
Vt = Voc = I1 (j 20)
=
150 /30 j 20
(40 j 30 + j 20)
= 72:76 /134 Volts:
To find Zt , let us deactivate all the independent sources present in Fig. 3.117 as shown in
Fig 3.117 (a).
jj
Zt = (40 j 30) j 20
j 20 (40 j 30)
= = (9:412 + j 22:35)
j 20 + 40 j 30
236 j Network Theory
Pmax =
1
2
jj
It
2
RL
Figure 3.117 (a)
72:76 /134
where It =
(9:412 + j 22:35 + 24:25)
= 1:8 /100:2 A
) 1
Pmax = (1:8)
2
2
24:25
= 39:29 W
EXAMPLE 3.45
For the circuit of Fig. 3.118: (a) what is the value of ZL that will absorb the maximum average
power? (b) what is the value of maximum power?
Figure 3.118
SOLUTION
Disconnecting ZL from the original circuit we get the circuit as shown in Fig. 3.119. The first
step is to find Vt .
Circuit Theorems j 237
Vt = Voc = I1 ( j 10)
120 /0
= ( j 10)
10 + j 15 j 10
= 107:33 / 116:57 V
j 10 (10 + j 15)
=
j 10 + 10 + j 15
=8 j 14
Zt = 8 + j 14
107:33 / 116:57
It =
8 j 14 + 8 + j 14
107:33
= / 116:57 A
16
Hence; Pmax =
1
jj 2
It R L
2
=
1 107:33 2
2 16
8
= 180 Walts
238 j Network Theory
EXAMPLE 3.46
(a) For the circuit shown in Fig. 3.120, what is the value of ZL that results in maximum average
power that will be transferred to ZL ? What is the maximum power ?
(b) Assume that the load resistance can be varied between 0 and 4000 and the capacitive
reactance of the load can be varied between 0 and 2000 . What settings of RL and XC
transfer the most average power to the load ? What is the maximum average power that can
be transferred under these conditions?
Figure 3.120
SOLUTION
(a) If there are no constraints on RL and XL , the load indepedance ZL = Zt = (3000 j 4000) .
Since the voltage source is given in terms of its RM S value, the average maximum power
delivered to the load is
Pmax = Itjj 2
RL
10 /0
where It =
3000 + j 4000 + 3000 j 4000
10
=
2 3000
A
) 2
jj
Pmax = It RL
=
100
4 (3000)2
3000
= 8:33 mW
(b) Since RL and XC are restricted, we firstqset XC as close to 4000 as possible; hence
2
XC = 2000 . Next we set RL as close to Rt2 + (XC + XL ) as possible.
q
Thus, RL = 30002 + ( 2000 + 4000)2 = 3605:55
Since RL can be varied between 0 to 4000 , we can set RL to 3605:55 . Hence ZL is
adjusted to a value
ZL = 3605:55 j 2000 :
Circuit Theorems j 239
10 /0
It =
3000 + j 4000 + 3605:55 j 2000
= 1:4489 / 16:85 mA
Pmax jj
= It 2
RL
= 1:4489 10 3 2
3605 55
:
= 7:57 mW
Note that this is less than the power that can be delivered if there are no constraints on RL
and XL .
EXAMPLE 3.47
A load impedance having a constant phase angle of 45 is connected across the load terminals
a and b in the circuit shown in Fig. 3.121. The magnitude of ZL is varied until the average power
delivered, which is the maximum possible under the given restriction.
(a) Specify ZL in rectangular form.
(b) Calculate the maximum average power delivered under this condition.
Figure 3.121
SOLUTION
Since the phase angle of ZL is fixed at 45 , for maximum power transfer to ZL it is mandatory
that
jZ j = pjZ j
L t
= (3000)2 + (4000)2
= 5000 :
Hence; j j
ZL = ZL / 45
=
5000
2
j p
5000
2
p
240 j Network Theory
10 /0
It =
(3000 + 3535:53) + j (4000 3535:53)
= 1:526 / 4:07 mA
Pmax jj
= It 2
RL
= 1:526 10 3 2
3535 53
:
= 8:23 mW
This power is the maximum average power that can be delivered by this circuit to a load
impedance whose angle is constant at 45 . Again this quantity is less than the maximum
power that could have been delivered if there is no restriction on ZL . In example 3.46 part (a),
we have shown that the maximum power that can be delivered without any restrictions on ZL
is 8.33 mW.
The reciprocity theorem states that in a linear bilateral single source circuit, the ratio of exci-
tation to response is constant when the positions of excitation and response are interchanged.
EXAMPLE 3.48
Find the current in 2 resistor and hence verify reciprocity theorem.
Figure 3.122
Circuit Theorems j 241
SOLUTION
The circuit is redrawn with markings as shown in Fig 3.123 (a).
Current in 2; I1 = 1:32 8
10
= 1:05 A
Therefore,
Icd = 3:6842 8 +8 6 = 2 1053A
:
2:1053
I2 = = 1:05A
2
As I1 = I2 = 1:05 A, reciprocity theorem is verified.
EXAMPLE 3.49
In the circuit shown in Fig. 3.124, find the current through 1:375 resistor and hence verify
reciprocity theorem.
Figure 3.124
SOLUTION
Figure 3.125
KVL clockwise for mesh 1 :
6:375I1 2I2 3I3 = 0
KVL clockwise for mesh 2 :
2I1 + 14I2 10I3 = 0
KVL clockwise for mesh 3 :
3I1 10I2 + 14I3 = 10
Circuit Theorems j 243
Figure 3.126
The mesh equations in matrix form for the circuit shown in Fig. 3.126 is
2 32 0
3 2 3
6:375 2 3 I1 10
4 2 14 10 54 0
I2 5=4 0 5
0
3 10 14 I3 0
Using Cramers rule, we get
0
I3 = 2A
Since I1 = I30 = 2 A, the reciprocity theorem is verified.
EXAMPLE 3.50
Find the current Ix in the j 2 impedance and hence verify reciprocity theorem.
Figure 3.127
244 j Network Theory
SOLUTION
With reference to the Fig. 3.127, the current through j 2 impepance is found using series parallel
reduction techniques.
Total impedance of the circuit is
jj
ZT = (2 + j 3) + ( j 5) (3 + j 2)
( j 5)(3 + j 2)
= 2 + j3 +
j5 + 3 + j2
= 6:537 /19:36
The total current in the network is
36 /0
IT =
6:537 /19:36
= 5:507 / 19:36 A
Using the principle of current division, we find that
IT ( j 5)
Ix =
j5 + 3 + j2
= 6:49 / 64:36 A
Verification of reciprocity theorem :
The circuit is redrawn by changing the positions of excitation and response. This circuit is shown
in Fig. 3.128.
Total impedance of the circuit shown in
Fig. 3.128 is
jj
Z0T = (3 + j 2) + (2 + j 3) ( j 5)
(2 + j 3) ( j 5)
= (3 + j 2) +
2 + j3 j5
= 9:804 /19:36
EXAMPLE 3.51
Refer the circuit shown in Fig. 3.129. Find current through the ammeter, and hence verify reci-
procity theorem.
Circuit Theorems j 245
Figure 3.129
SOLUTION
I1 = 4:6 A
I2 = 5:4 A
Hence current through the ammeter = I2 I1 = 5:4 4:6 = 0:8A. Figure 3.130
Figure 3.132
SOLUTION
By inspection, we can write
2 32 3 2 3
12 0 2 I1 20
4 0 2 + j 10 2 54 I2 5=4 20 5
2 2 9 I3 0
Using Cramers rule, we get
I3 = 0:5376 / 126:25 A
Hence, current through 5 ohm resistor = 0:5376 / 126:25 A
Verification of reciprocity theorem:
The original circuit is redrawn by interchanging the excitation and response as shown in Fig.
3.133.
Figure 3.133
Circuit Theorems j 247
= 0:5376 / 126:25 A
The response in both cases remains the same. Thus verifying reciprocity theorem.
It is possible to combine number of voltage sources or current sources into a single equiva-
lent voltage or current source using Millmans theorem. Hence, this theorem is quite useful in
calculating the total current supplied to the load in a generating station by a number of generators
connected in parallel across a busbar.
Millmans theorem states that if n number of generators having generated emfs E1 , E2 ; En
and internal impedances Z1 ; Z2 ;
Zn are connected in parallel, then the emfs and impedances
can be combined to give a single equivalent emf of E with an internal impedance of equivalent
value Z.
E1 Y1 + E2 Y2 + : : : + En Yn
where E=
Y1 + Y2 + : : : + Yn
1
and Z=
Y1 + Y2 + : : : + Yn
where Y1 ; Y2
Yn are the admittances corresponding to the internal impedances Z1 ; Z2 Z n
and are given by
1
Y1 =
Z1
1
Y2 =
Z2
..
.
1
Yn =
Zn
Fig. 3.134 shows a number of generators having emfs E1 ; E2
En connected in parallel
across the terminals x and y . Also, Z1 ; Z2
Zn are the respective internal impedances of the
generators.
248 j Network Theory
Figure 3.134
The Thevenin equivalent circuit of Fig. 3.134 using Millmans theorem is shown in Fig. 3.135.
The nodal equation at x gives
E1 E E2 E
Z1
+
Z2
+
+
En E
Zn
=0
E E 1 1
) Z1
1
+
Z2
2
++
En
Zn
=E + + +
1
Z1 1 Z2 Zn
) E1 Y1 + E2 Y2 + + En Yn = E
Z
Figure 3.135
where Z = Equivalent internal impedance.
or + E Y ] = EY
[E1 Y1 + E2 Y2 + n n
E Y + E Y + + E Y
) E=
1 1
Y
2 2 n n
where Y = Y + Y + + Y
1 2 n
1 1
Y + Y + + Y
and Z= =
Y 1 2 n
EXAMPLE 3.53
Refer the circuit shown in Fig. 3.136. Find the current through 10 resistor using Millmans
theorem.
Figure 3.136
Circuit Theorems j 249
SOLUTION
Using Millmans theorem, the circuit shown in Fig. 3.136 is replaced by its Thevenin equivalent
circuit across the terminals P Q as shown in Fig. 3.137.
E1 Y1 + E2 Y2 E3 Y3
E=
Y1 + Y2 + Y3
1 1 1
22 + 48 12
5 12 4
=
1 1 1
+ +
5 12 4
= 10:13 Volts
1
R=
Y1 + Y2 + Y3
1 Figure 3.137
=
0:2 + 0:083 + 0:25
= 1:88
E
Hence; IL = = 0:853 A
R + 10
EXAMPLE 3.54
Find the current through (10 j 3) using Millmans theorem. Refer Fig. 3.138.
Figure 3.138
SOLUTION
The circuit shown in Fig. 3.138 is replaced by its Thevenin equivalent circuit as seen from the
terminals, A and B using Millmans theorem. Fig. 3.139 shows the Thevenin equivalent circuit
along with ZL = 10 j 3 :
250 j Network Theory
Figure 3.139
E1 Y1 + E2 Y2 E3 Y3
E=
Y1 + Y2 + Y3
1 1 1
100 /0 + 90 /45 + 80 /30
5 10 20
=
1 1 1
+ +
5 10 20
= 88:49 /15:66 V
1 1
Z=R= = 1 1 1 = 2:86
Y1 + Y2 + Y3 5 + 10 + 20
E 88:49 /15:66
I= = = 6:7 /28:79 A
Z + ZL 2:86 + 10 j 3
Alternately,
E1 Y1 + E2 Y2 + E3 Y3 + E4 Y4
E=
Y1 + Y2 + Y3 + Y4
=
100 5 1
+ 90 45 10 1 + 80 30 20 1
5 1 + 10 1 + 20 1 + (10 j 3) 1
= 70 /12 V
70 /12
Therefore; I =
10 j 3
= 6:7 /28:8 A
EXAMPLE 3.55
Refer the circuit shown in Fig. 3.140. Use Millmans theorem to find the current through (5+j 5)
impedance.
Circuit Theorems j 251
Figure 3.140
SOLUTION
The original circuit is redrawn after performing source transformation of 5 A in parallel with 4
resistor into an equivalent voltage source and is shown in Fig. 3.141.
Figure 3.141
= 1
4 2 1 + 8 3 1 + 20 4 1
2 + 3 1 + 4 1 + (5 j 5) 1
= 8:14 /4:83 V
Therefore current in (5 + j 5) is
8:14 /4:83
I= = 1:15 / 40:2 A
5 + j5
Alternately
EP Q with (5 + j 5) open
E1 Y1 + E2 Y2 + E3 Y3
EP Q =
Y1 + Y2 + Y3
=
4 2 1 + 8 3 1 + 20 4 1
2 1+3 1+4 1
= 8:9231V
252 j Network Theory
EXAMPLE 3.56
Find the current through 2 resistor using Millmans theorem. Refer the circuit shown
in Fig. 3.142.
Figure 3.142
SOLUTION
The Thevenin equivalent circuit using Millmans theorem for the given problem is as shown in
Fig. 3.142(a).
E1 Y1 + E2 Y2
where E=
Y1 + Y2
1
1
10 /10 + 25 /90
3 + j4 5
=
1 1
+
3 + j4 5
= 10:06 /97:12 V
1 1
Z= =
Y1 + Y2 1 1
+
3 + j4 5
= 2:8 /26:56
E 10:06 /97:12
Hence; IL = =
Z + 2 2:8 /26:56 + 2
= 2:15 /81:63 A
Figure 3.142(a)
Circuit Theorems j 253
Reinforcement problems
R.P 3.1
Find the current in 2 resistor connected between A and B by using superposition theorem.
SOLUTION
Fig. R.P. 3.1(a), shows the circuit with 2V-source acting alone (4V-source is shorted).
Resistance as viewed from 2V-source is 2 + R1 ,
3 2
where R1 = +1
12
5
=
(1:2 + 1) 12 = 1:8592
14:2
2
Hence; Ia = = 0:5182 A
2 + 1:8592
Then; Ib = Ia 12
12 + 1 + 1:2
= 0:438 A
I1 = 0:438
3
5
= 0:2628 A Figure R.P. 3.1(a)
With 4V-source acting alone, the circuit is as shown in Fig. R.P. 3.1(b).
Figure R.P.3.1(b)
254 j Network Theory
we get, IAB = I1 + I2
= 0:2628 + 0:555
= 0:818 A
R.P 3.2
For the network shown in Fig. R.P. 3.2, apply superposition theorem and find the current I.
SOLUTION
Open the 5A-current source and retain the voltage source. The resulting network is as shown in
Fig. R.P. 3.2(a).
Simplifying, we get
(8 + j 8)I1 + j 2I2 = j 50
and j 2I1 + (4 j 4)I2 = j 10
Solving, we get
8 + j 8 j 50
j2 j 10
Ib = I2 =
8 + j 8 j2
j2
4 j4
= 2:897 / 23:96 A
Figure R.P. 3.2(b)
Since, Ia and Ib are flowing in opposite directions, we
have
I = Ia Ib = 6:1121 /144:78 A
R.P 3.3
Apply superposition theorem and find the voltage across 1 resistor. Refer the circuit shown in
Fig. R.P. 3.3. Take v1 (t) = 5 cos (t + 10 ) and i2 (t) = 3 sin 2t A.
SOLUTION
To begin with let us assume v1 (t) alone is acting. Accordingly, short 10V - source and open i2 (t).
The resulting phasor network is shown in Fig. R.P. 3.3(a).
! = 1rad=sec
5 cos (t + 10 ) ! 5 /10
V
L1 = 1H ! j !L1 = j1
= 1F !
1
C1 = j1
j !C1
= H!
1 1
L2 j !L2 =j
2 2
= F!
1 1 Figure R.P. 3.3(a)
C2 = j2
2 j !C2
Va = 5 /10 V
) va (t) = 5 cos [t + 10 ]
Let us next assume that i2 (t) alone is acting. The resulting network is shown
in Fig. R.P. 3.3(b).
! = 2 rad=sec
3 sin 2t! 3 /0
A
= 1F !
1 1
C1 = j
j !C1 2
L1 = 1H ! j !L1 = j 2
= F!
1 1
C2 = j1
2 j !C2
= H!
1 Figure R.P. 3.3(b)
L2 j !L2 = j1
2
Vb = 3 /0 1 +1 51 5 = 2 5 /33 7
j :
j :
: :
A
) vb (t) = 2:5 sin [2t + 33:7 ] A
Finally with 10V-source acting alone, the network is as shown in Fig. R.P. 3.3(c). Since
! = 0, inductors are shorted and capacitors are opened.
Hence, Vc = 10 V
Applying principle of superposition, we
get.
R.P 3.4
Calculate the current through the galvanometer for the Kelvin double bridge shown in Fig. R.P.
3.4. Use Thevenins theorem. Take the resistance of the galvanometer as 30 .
SOLUTION
With G being open, the resulting network is as shown in Fig. R.P. 3.4(a).
Figure 3.4(a)
VA 100 = 450
= I1
10
100 = 209 V
10 5 =01
45 5
I2
I2 = = 1 66 := ; IB : I2
45 + 5
15+
:
= 05+ 10
50
Hence; VB I2 : IB
= 2:5 V
20 5
Thus; VAB = Vt = VA VB = 2:5 = Volts
9 18
258 j Network Theory
To find Rt , short circuit the voltage source. The resulting network is as shown in Fig. R.P. 3.4(b).
RB =
35 10 = 7 ; RE =
35 5
= 3:5 ; RF =
5 10 = 1
50 50 50
Hence; RAB = Rt =
350 100 4:5 1:5
+ +7
450 6
= 85:903
R.P 3.5
Find Is and R so that the networks N1 and N2 shown in Fig. R.P. 3.5 are equivalent.
Circuit Theorems j 259
SOLUTION
Terminals a and b are shorted. This results in a network as shown in Fig. R.P. 3.6(a)
9I1 = 30 and
25I2 = 50
30 30
Hence; I1 = A and I2 = A
9 25
Then; VX = 10I2 = 10
30
25
= 12 V
Hence; Vt = Voc = 15I2 6I1 4VX
= 50 V
Voc 50
Thus; Rt = = = 34
Isc 1:4706
Hence, Nortons equivalent circuit is as shown in Fig. R.P. 3.6(b).
R.P 3.7
For the network shown in Fig. R.P. 3.7, find the Thevenins equivalent to show that
V1
Vt = (1 + a + b ab)
2
3 b
and Zt =
2
SOLUTION
V1 aV1
With xy open, I1 =
2
Hence,
V1 (1 + a + b ab)
Isc = I2 =
3 b
262 j Network Theory
Voc V1 (1 + a + b ab)
Hence; Zt = = (3 b)
Isc 2 V1 (1 + a + b ab)
3 b
=
2
R.P 3.8
Use Nortons theorem to determine I in the network shown in Fig. R.P. 3.8. Resistance Values
are in ohms.
SOLUTION
Let IAE = x and IEF = y . Then by applying KCL at various junctions, the branch currents are
marked as shown in Fig. R.P. 3.8(a). Isc = 125 x = IAB on shorting A and B .
Applying KVL to the loop ABC F EA, we get
= 78:24 A
The circuit to calculate Rt is as shown in Fig. R.P. 3.8(b). All injected currents have been
opened.
Rt = 0:03 + 0:04 +
0:03 0:05
0:08
= 0:08875
I = 78:24 0 08875
0 08875
: + 0 04
:
:
= 53:9A
R.P 3.9
For the circuit shown in Fig. R.P. 3.9, find R such that the maximum power delivered to the load
is 3 mW.
SOLUTION
For a resistive network, the maximum power delivered to the load is
2
Vt
Pmax =
4Rt
The network with RL removed is as shown in Fig.
R.P. 3.9(a).
Let the opent circuit voltage between the termi-
nals a and b be Vt .
Then, applying KCL at node a, we get
Figure R.P. 3.9(a)
Vt 1 Vt 2 Vt 3
+ + =0
R R R
) Rt =
R
3
Circuit Theorems | 265
22 3
Hence, Pmax = = = 3 103
4 3 R R
R = 1 k
R.P 3.10
Refer Fig. R.P. 3.10, find X1 and X2 interms of R1 and R2 to give maximum power dissipation
in R2 .
SOLUTION
The circuit for finding Zt is as shown in Figure R.P. 3.10(a).
R1 (jX1 )
Zt =
R1 + jX1
R1 X12 + jR12 X1
=
R12 + X12
Figure R.P. 3.10(a)
For maximum power transfer,
ZL = Zt
R1 X12 R12 X1
R2 + jX2 = j
R12 + X12 R12 + X12
R1 X12
Hence, R2 =
R12 + X12
R2
X1 = R1 (3.37)
R1 R2
R12 X1
X2 = (3.38)
R12 + X12
Substituting equation (3.37) in equation (3.38) and simplifying, we get
X2 = R2 (R1 R2 )
266 j Network Theory
Exercise Problems
E.P 3.1
Find ix for the circuit shown in Fig. E.P. 3.1 by using principle of superposition.
E.P 3.4
Find the current through 3 + j 4 using superposition theorem.
E.P 3.5
Find the current through Ix using superposition theorem.
E.P 3.6
Determine the current through 1 resistor using superposition theorem.
Ans : 0.406 A
268 j Network Theory
E.P 3.7
Obtain the Thevenin equivalent circuit at terminals a b of the network shown in Fig. E.P. 3.7.
E.P 3.8
Find the Thevenin equivalent circuit at terminals x y of the circuit shown in Fig. E.P. 3.8.
E.P 3.9
Find the Thevenin equivalent of the network shown in Fig. E.P. 3.9.
E.P 3.10
Find the Thevenin equivalent circuit across a b. Refer Fig. E.P. 3.10.
Ans : Vt = 30 V, Rt = 10 k
E.P 3.11
Find the Thevenin equivalent circuit across a b for the network shown in Fig. E.P. 3.11.
E.P 3.12
Find the current through 20 ohm resistor using Norton equivalent.
E.P 3.13
Find the current in 10 ohm resistor using Nortons theorem.
E.P 3.15
Determine the Norton equivalent circuit across the terminals P Q for the network shown in
Fig. E.P. 3.15.
E.P 3.16
Find the Norton equivalent of the network shown in Fig. E.P. 3.16.
E.P 3.17
Determine the value of RL for maximum power transfer and also find the maximum power trans-
ferred.
E.P 3.18
Calculate the value of ZL for maximum power transfer and also calculate the maximum power.
E.P 3.19
Determine the value of RL for maximum power transfer and also calculate the value of maximum
power.
E.P 3.20
Determine the value of ZL for maximum power transfer. What is the value of maximum power?
E.P 3.21
Obtain the Norton equivalent across x y.
E.P 3.22
Find the Norton equivalent circuit at terminals a b of the network shown in Fig. E.P. 3.22.
Circuit Theorems j 273
E.P 3.23
Find the Norton equivalent across the terminals X Y of the network shown in Fig. E.P. 3.23.
E.P 3.24
Determine the current through 10 ohm resistor using Nortons theorem.
Ans : 0.15A
274 j Network Theory
E.P 3.25
Determine the current I using Nortons theorem.
E.P 3.26
Find Vx in the circuit shown in Fig. E.P. 3.26 and hence verify reciprocity theorem.
E.P 3.27
Find Vx in the circuit shown in Fig. E.P. 3.27 and hence verify reciprocity theorem.
E.P 3.28
Find the current ix in the bridge circuit and hence verify reciprocity theorem.
Ans : I = 2.05 A
E.P 3.30
Find the current through the impedance of (10 + j 10) using Millmans theorem.
E.P 3.31
Using Millmans theorem, find the current flowing through the impedance of (4 + j 3) .