PREPARATION AND QUALITY EVALUATION OF LOW OXALATE

CONTENT TARO (Colocasia esculenta) CHIPS.

By

Arjun K.C.

Department of Food Technology

Central Campus of Technology

Institute of science and Technology

Tribhuvan University,

Hattisar, Dharan

2017
 Preparation and Quality Evaluation of Low Oxalate Content Taro
(Colocasia esculenta) Chips

A dissertation submitted to the Department of Food Technology, Central campus of

technology, Tribhuvan University, in partial fulfillment of the requirements
for the degree of B.Tech. in Food Technology

by

Arjun K.C.

Department of Food Technology

Central Campus of Technology, Dharan

Institute of Science and Technology

Tribhuvan University, Nepal

August, 2017

ii
 Tribhuvan University
Institute of Science and Technology
Department of Food Technology
Central Campus of Technology, Dharan

Approval Letter
This dissertation entitled Preparation and Quality Evaluation of Low Oxalate Content
Taro (Colocasia esculenta) Chips by Arjun K.C. has been accepted as the partial
fulfillment of the requirements for the B. Tech. in Food Technology.

Dissertation Committee

1. Chairperson
(Mr. Basanta Kumar Rai, Assoc. Prof.)

2. External Examiner
(Mr. Achyut Mishra, Senior Scientist, NARC)

3. Supervisor
(Mrs. Babita Adhikari, Lecturer)

4. Internal Examiner
(Mr. Devraj Acharya, Lecturer)

Date: August 4, 2017

iii
 Acknowledgement

I would like to express my sincerest appreciation to my respected supervisor, respected

Mrs. Babita Ahikari, (Lecturer, Central Campus of Technology) for her excellent
supervision, guidance, encouragement and suggestion throughout the course of my
dissertation work.

I also want to thank Prof. Dr. Dhan Bahadur Karki (Campus chief, Central Campus of
Technology) for providing necessary facilities during the work. I am grateful to Assoc.
Prof. Mr. Basanta Kumar Rai (Chairperson, Food Technology Instruction Committee) and
Mr. Devraj Acharya (Lecturer) for their kind support and valuable suggestions.

I would like to thanks to my respected senior, my friends for their valuable help in my
dissertation work. Many thanks and gratitude is expressed to the staffs in library and
Laboratory of Food Analysis and Quality Control, R and D lab, CCT for their co-
operation, support and friendships. I would like to spiritually acknowledge Central Campus
of Technology (Hattisar), the platform where I conducted my entire study in an
enthusiastic and passionate environment.

Finally, I would like to thanks to my family members for their constant support and
encouragement throughout the dissertation work.

Date of submission: August, 2017 Arjun K.C.

iv
 Abstract

The present research work is aimed to prepare fried taro (Colocasia esculenta) chips with
low oxalate content and evaluate physicochemical and sensory properties. Taro corms were
sliced to 1, 1.5 and 2 mm thickness and fried to constant moisture content at 1805C and
evaluated sensoricaly in terms of color, flavor, crispness and overall acceptability for
optimization of the slice thickness. The raw slices of optimized thickness were analyzed
for oxalate reduction after boiling in plain water, 1%, 3% and 5% salt solution and 0.6%,
0.9% and 1.2% citric acid solution. Similarly, three samples were prepared by frying the
taro slices of optimized thickness after the best pretreatment with maximum oxalate
reduction for 90 s, 120 s and 150 s. The best product obtained through sensory analysis
was analyzed for its proximate composition.

The oxalate content of the raw taro corms was found to be 251.464.68 mg/100 g. In
the case of pretreatment, the oxalate reduction of 1 mm slices was found to be
52.570.45% by plain water boiling, 57.220.225%, 65.880.322% and 72.390.683% by
1%, 3% and 5% salt solution boiling respectively. Similarly, 66.420.775%,
68.210.447% and 70.751.32% reduction of oxalate was obtained by 0.6%, 0.9% and
1.2% citric acid boiling treatment. Among the pretreatments, 5% salt solution boiling had
the highest reduction at 5 % level of significance. Taro chips prepared from 1 mm slice
thickness, pretreated with 5% boiling salt solution and fried for 120 s obtained the highest
mean sensory score in terms of color, crispness and overall acceptability than other chips
fried for 90 s and 150 s. Moisture content, carbohydrate, protein, fat, ash and crude fiber of
the best product was found to be 1.940.242%, 58.010.533%, 5.940.148%,
29.60.574%, 2.540.08% and 3.910.135% respectively on dry basis.

v
 Contents
Approval Letter .................................................................................................................. iii

Acknowledgement ............................................................................................................... iv

Abstract ................................................................................................................................ v

List of table ........................................................................................................................... x

List of Figures ..................................................................................................................... xi

List of abbreviations .......................................................................................................... xii

Introduction ...................................................................................................................... 1-4

1.1 General Introduction ................................................................................................ 1

1.2 Statement of the problem ......................................................................................... 2

1.3 Objectives of the study ............................................................................................ 3

1.3.1 General objective......................................................................................... 3

1.3.2 Specific objectives....................................................................................... 3

1.4 Significance of the work .......................................................................................... 4

1.5 Limitations of the work............................................................................................ 4

Literature review ............................................................................................................ 5-28

2.1 Taro ......................................................................................................................... 5

2.1.1 Taxonomic description ............................................................................... 5

2.1.2 General description .................................................................................... 7

2.1.3 Geographical distribution ........................................................................... 8

2.1.4 Ecology....................................................................................................... 9

2.1.5 Harvesting, production and preservation ................................................... 9

2.1.6 Uses .......................................................................................................... 10

2.2 World production trade .......................................................................................... 11

2.3 Proximate composition .......................................................................................... 12

2.4 Nutritional value and health benefits ...................................................................... 14

2.4.1 Nutritional value of taro ............................................................................ 14

vi
 2.4.2 Health benefits............................................................................................ 16

2.5. Oxalates ................................................................................................................ 17

2.6 Reduction of anti-nutrients in taro ......................................................................... 20

2.6.1 Boiling ...................................................................................................... 21

2.6.2 Salt treatment............................................................................................ 23

2.6.3 Citric acid treatment ................................................................................. 23

2.7 Process technology of taro chips ........................................................................... 23

2.7.1 Peeling ...................................................................................................... 24

2.7.2 Slicing....................................................................................................... 24

2.7.3 Washing.................................................................................................... 24

2.7.4 Sorting ...................................................................................................... 25

2.7.5 Drying....................................................................................................... 25

2.7.6 Deep fat frying ......................................................................................... 25

2.8 Quality attributes of fried chips ............................................................................ 26

2.8.1 Appearance/ Color.................................................................................... 26

2.8.2 Crispness (texture).................................................................................... 27

2.8.3 Flavor ....................................................................................................... 28

Materials and methods ................................................................................................. 29-36

3.1 Materials ................................................................................................................ 29

3.2 Methodology .......................................................................................................... 29

3.3 Analytical methods ................................................................................................ 34

3.3.1 Determination of moisture ....................................................................... 34

3.3.2 Crude protein content ............................................................................... 34

3.3.3 Crude fat ................................................................................................... 34

3.3.4 Ash ........................................................................................................... 34

3.3.5 Crude fiber................................................................................................ 34

3.3.6 Total carbohydrates .................................................................................. 35

vii
 3.3.7 Determination of oxalate content ............................................................. 35

3.4 Sensory evaluation ................................................................................................. 36

3.5 Statistical analysis .................................................................................................. 36

Results and discussion .................................................................................................. 37-47

4.1 Proximate composition of fresh taro ...................................................................... 37

4.2 Oxalate content in fresh sample of taro. ................................................................ 38

4.3 Optimization of slice thickness .............................................................................. 38

4.3.1 Color ......................................................................................................... 39

4.3.2 Flavor ....................................................................................................... 39

4.3.4 Crispness .................................................................................................. 40

4.3.1 Overall acceptability ................................................................................ 40

4.4 Selection of slice thickness .................................................................................... 40

4.5 Optimization of pretreatments of taro slices .......................................................... 40

4.5.1 Effect of boiling treatment on oxalate content of taro ............................. 40

4.5.2 Effect of salt treatment on oxalate content of taro ................................... 41

4.5.3 Effect of Citric acid treatment on oxalate content of taro ........................ 42

4.6 Selection of pretreatment ....................................................................................... 43

4.7 Optimization of frying time ................................................................................... 44

4.7.1 Color ......................................................................................................... 44

4.7.2 Flavor ....................................................................................................... 45

4.7.3 Crispness .................................................................................................. 45

4.7.4 Overall acceptability ................................................................................ 46

4.8 Proximate analysis of the product .......................................................................... 46

4.9 Cost evaluation ...................................................................................................... 47

Conclusions and recommendations.................................................................................. 48

5.1 Conclusions ............................................................................................................. 48

5.2 Recommendations .................................................................................................. 48

viii
Summary ....................................................................................................................... 49-50

References...................................................................................................................... 51-62

Appendices .................................................................................................................... 63-70

Appendix A ..................................................................................................................... 63

Appendix B ..................................................................................................................... 64

Appendix C ..................................................................................................................... 67

Appendix D ..................................................................................................................... 68

Appendix E ...................................................................................................................... 70

ix
 List of table

Table No. Title Page No.

2.1 Taxonomic classification of Taro. 7

2.2 Proximate composition of taro corm 14

2.3 Comparison between root and tuber and cereal 15

proximate composition

2.4 Percentage composition of Taro corm carbohydrates 16

4.1 Proximate composition of fresh taro corm 39

4.2 Proximate analysis of final product taro chips 49

x
 List of Figures

Fig No. Title Page No.

2.1 Line diagram of taro corm and plant 9

2.2 Structure of oxalic acid 19

2.3 Thin (a) and thick (b) calcium oxalate crystals 20

(raphides) isolated from taro

3.1 Flow sheet of taro chips preparation for slice thickness 32

selection

3.2 Flow sheet of taro chips preparation for optimization 35

of frying time

4.1 Effect of thickness on the sensory score of taro chips 41

4.2 Effect of salt treatment on oxalate content of taro 44

slices

4.3 Effect of citric acid treatment on oxalate content of 45

taro slices

4.4 Effect of frying time on the sensory property of 47

pretreated taro chips

xi
 List of abbreviations

Abbreviation Full Form

ANOVA Analysis of Variance

CCT Central Campus of Technology

CSA Central Stastical Authority

FAO Food and agricultural organization

FW Fresh weight

NRI National Resource Institute

RDA Recommended dietary allowance

UNIFEM The United Nations Development Fund for

Women

USDA United State Department for Agriculture

xii
 Part I

Introduction

1.1 General Introduction

Root and tuber crops are used as staple food in most countries. Many species and varieties
are consumed but three species (namely; taro (Clocasia esculenta), Irish potato and sweet
potato) provide 93% of the root and tuber (R&T) crops used for direct human consumption
in the world (FAO, 1990). Root crops are cheap, readily available and have more dietary
energy per hectare at a low level of husbandry thus considered advantageous than cereals.
Although they contain little protein, or fat some particularly sweet potato and yam, are
source of vital vitamins (A and C) (UNIFEM, 2002).

Colocasia esculenta, commonly known as taro (also called pindalu in Nepalese

society), is a staple vegetable crop that has been used as food for over 9,000 years, making
it one of the worlds oldest food crops. It can be found in Southeast Asia but now has
spread throughout the world, becoming a very important crop in Asia, Pacific, Africa, and
the Caribbean. As a crop, it remains mostly under the control of local communities, rarely
being traded on a global scale (McEwan, 2008). Taro has perhaps been prepared or
processed into more consumable forms than any other root crop. These include poi (fresh
or fermented paste, canned, and canned-acidified), flour, cereal base, beverage powders,
chips, sun-dried slices, grits, and drum-dried flakes (Moy and Nip, 1983).

Taro is the main staple food for the Pacific regions, where large servings (equivalent to
two large potatoes) are common for each adult meal. Many taro varieties are grown for
both corm and leaf usage (Martin and Ruberte, 1975). The taro crop is consumed in various
ways in different countries prepared in the same way as potato and sweet potato. Corms
may be roasted, boiled, baked, steamed, or fried. In the South Pacific, baked corms
constitute a major portion of the meal. In India, the corms are boiled with fish or
vegetables for curry. Pulverized cooked corms are mixed with corn meal to make bread in
Brazil. In the Philippines, the corms are boiled as vegetables or sliced thin and fried to
produce chips. Taro is popular in Hawaii as poi and as a dessert, kulolo. In Samoa, taro is
made into a sweet dessert (Knott and Deanon, 1967).
 Taro consumption has been affected by the presence of acridity factors, which cause
sharp irritation and burning sensation in the throat and mouth on ingestion. The acridity
factor can be reduced by peeling, grating, soaking and fermentation operations during
processing (Kaushal et al., 2015).

The world snack food market is currently expanding rapidly. A large part of this market
consists of chips or fried products using starch-based raw materials (roots, tubers, bananas
and plantains). With the rise of urban centers and growing urban populations demand for
ready-to-eat affordable food is increasing (John and Hathan, 2014). Taro can be and has
been marketed as chips prepared by deep-fat frying much like the popular potato chips. An
important criterion in making acceptable taro chips in this manner, however, is the choice
of a variety that will lose the acridity factor (not found in potato) during frying (Moy and
Nip, 1983).

Frying is one of the oldest and most popular cooking methods in existence. Frying
involves several chemical and physical changes including starch gelatinization, protein
denaturation, water vaporization, and crust formation as well as nutritional changes. Frying
of any product improves its taste making it juicy and crisp due to the light outer crust
formed during the frying process (Zhang et al., 2012).

1.2 Statement of the problem

Colocasia is one of the cash tuber crops of Nepalese farmers. It has great nutritional values.
The corms may be considered as a good source of carbohydrates and minerals and a
significant source of dietary protein in large servings, especially if taken more than once a
day. Colocasia contains greater amounts of vitamin B-complex than whole milk (Soudy et
al., 2010). Taro (Colocasia esculenta) represents an important source of calories in
developing regions of the world (4.24.4 kcal/g dry matter) and compares favorably with
other similar products such as taro (Clocasia esculenta) (1.31.5 kcal/g dry matter) or
sweet potato (3.9 kcal/g dry matter). In addition, taro corms are rich in starch (21.126.2%
wet basis) have reasonably high contents of potassium and magnesium (22514143
mg/100 g dry matter and 118219 mg/100 g dry matter respectively), and their essential
amino acid profile is very similar to the Food and Agriculture Organization reference
pattern, except for the sulfur containing amino acids tryptophan and histidine.

2
 Despite its nutritional relevance, taro has not received sufficient attention in the
literature to enhance its potential, allowing a widespread use. In Nepal, taro leaves are used
for preparation of processed vegetables like Gava, Tandre sukuti, Pate khasaura, Masaura.
In general, the underground part (corms and cormels) is used immediately after harvest as a
vegetable and is also stored for later consumption. Similarly, the aerial part (leaves,
petioles and inflorescence) is used as a fresh vegetable and also dried for off-season
vegetable (Pandey et al., 1998).

Acridity has been attributed to the presence of bundles (called raphides) of calcium
oxalate crystals in the taro tissues. Studies shows that eating a high-oxalate-containing food
may contributed to the formation of kidney stones (Savage and Dubois, 2006). Continuing
consumption of taro with a high oxalate salt can lead to gallstone deposition in the gall-
balder. Soluble oxalic acid can form complexes with calcium, magnesium, or potassium
and hence reduces mineral availability in the diet. It also been reported that insoluble
oxalate salts can cause skin irritation and pungent odor in unwashed taro corms (Jrarat et
al., 2006).

Processed, storable, forms of taro are not common in the Asia/Pacific region (FAO,
1999). Taro can be marketed as chips prepared by deep-fat frying much like the popular
potato chips (Moy and Nip, 1983). It can be utilized as deep fried product like chips with
proper processing to broaden its area of utilization as food. Research related to product
development and anti-nutritional factors are limited in our country. Also, development of
basic recipe of taro chips with reduction of oxalate content will help nation to industrialize
the lesser used taro.

1.3 Objectives of the study

1.3.1 General objective

The general objective of the study is to prepare chips with low oxalate content and
evaluation of quality and acceptability of fried chips by sensory analysis.

1.3.2 Specific objectives

The specific objectives of this study are as follows:

3
 To study the effect of slice thickness and frying time on the sensory property of taro
chips.

To study effect of pretreatment on the oxalate content of the taro.

To prepare taro chips and evaluate their sensory attributes.

1.4 Significance of the work

In the present world, interest has been increased in search of additional foods to meet the
demand of overly increased population (Siddhuraju et al., 2000). During scarce of staple
food many tribal collect roots and tubers to supplement their food available at home
(Vidyarthi, 1987). Taro, being one of the tuber crops is also taken as one of alternative
food source. Because of its high carbohydrate content, this tuber represents one of the main
sources of energy in many parts of tropics and sub-tropics providing about a third of the
food intake of more than 400 million people in these areas (Soudy et al., 2010).

In Nepal taro is only used for the preparation of boiled cooked product. This study
specifically helps in the establishment of deep fried product of taro with lower oxalate
content which has been the major limiting factor for the utilization of the taro. On the other
hand, Nepal is agriculture based country where around 70% citizen still relies on farming
as a major income source. This is beneficial as well as motivational for farmers to shift
towards taro farming. Taro production can increase economic status of farmer and
produced tuber is transformed into fried chips. This can help farmer to increase their
economic status and industrialization of new product into Nepali market with contributing
national food security.

1.5 Limitations of the work

Frying characteristic of taro chips at different temperature couldnt be studied due

to lack of temperature controlling measures.

Only the limited pretreatments were done.

Combined salt and acid boiling treatment could not be done.

Other anti-nutritional factors could not be studied.

4
 Part II

Literature review

2.1 Taro

The term taro is used to refer to Colocasia esculenta (L.) Schott. It should not be confused
with the related aroid Xanthosoma spp. which is called tannia. In many parts of the Asia
and Pacific region, the name for tannia is a modification or qualification of the name for
taro. In some of the world literature, taro and tannia are collectively called cocoyams. The
ensuing presentation here concerns itself with taro, Colocasia esculenta (FAO, 1999).

Taro (Colocasia esculenta) is a non-indigenous species widely grown in the subtropical

parts of South Africa as a subsistence crop. Locally developed cultivars are used as a
dietary source of starch. As a tuber crop, taro makes a significant contribution to the diet of
local people in Kwazulu-Natal, where it is easily available. Several authors have evaluated
the chemical composition of whole corms and cormels of taro, also known as cocoyam
Colocasia esculenta var. Schott of the tropics and subtropics in Africa (Sefa-Dedeh and
Agyir-Sackey, 2004); (Oscarsson and Savage, 2007) but there is little or no information
available on the nutritional quality of taro (Colocasia esculenta var Schott), the variety that
is traditionally used in Kwazulu-Natal, South Africa.

2.1.1 Taxonomic description

Taro belongs to the genus Colocasia, within the sub-family Colocasioideae of the
monocotyledonous family Araceae. Because of a long history of vegetative propagation,
there is considerable confusion in the taxonomy of the genus Colocasia. Cultivated taro is
classified as Colocasia esculenta, but the species is considered to be polymorphic. There
are at least two botanical varieties:

Colocasia esculenta (L.) Schott var. esculenta;

Colocasia esculenta (L.) Schott var. antiquorum (Schott), which is synonymous

with C.esculenta var. globulifera.
Table 2.1 Taxonomic classification of Taro

Kingdom : Plantae

Subkingdom : Viridaeplantae

Infrakingdom : Streptophyta

Division : Tracheophyta

Subdivision : Spermatophytina

Infradivision : Angiospermae

Class : Magnoliopsida

Superorder : Lilianae

Order : Alismatales

Family : Aracea

Genus : Colocasia

Species : Esculenta

(Anonymous, 2016)

There are about 1000 recognized cultivars which are grown throughout the world. These
are distinguished on the basis of corm, cormels, or shoot characteristics, or on the basis of
agronomic or culinary behavior (FAO, 1999), but these fall mainly into two groups: the
eddoe type of taro, which has a relatively small corm surrounded by large well developed
cormels (and 42 chromosomes), and the dasheen, which has a large central corm and
numerous but small cormels arising from its surface (and 28 chromosomes). The two types
of C. esculenta are frequently referred to as separate species in the literature, C.
antiquorum and C. esculenta, but it is more generally accepted that the taros are a
polymorphic species, C. esculenta, and under this classification the eddoe is C. esculenta
var. antiquorum (syn. C. esculenta var. globulifera) and the dasheen is C. esculenta var.
esculenta.

6
 The name cocoyam in West Africa is used to describe both Colocasia and Xanthosoma
although "old" cocoyam is sometimes used for the former and "new" cocoyam for the latter
(Pamela and Coursey, 1984).

2.1.2 General description

Taro (elephant ear or cocoyam), is an emergent, perennial, aquatic and semi-aquatic

herbaceous species of the Araceae family, native to Asia (between Myanmar and
Bangladesh) (Plucknett, 1976). It can also be grown annually. It is about 1.5 m (4 ft) tall,
with thick shoots from a large corm, slender stolons also often produced, along with
offshoot corms. Corm is massive of about 4 kg, cylindrical or spherical, up to 30 cm 15
cm, marked by a number of rings, usually brown, with lateral buds giving rise to cormels,
suckers or stolons. Root system is adventitious, fibrous and shallow (Safo Kantaka, 2004).
Leaf blades are 60 cm (24 in) long and 50 cm (20 in) wide, arrowhead shaped, with upper
surface dark green and velvety. Leaves are arranged spirally but in a rosette, simple,
peltate; petiole up to 1 m long, with distinct sheath; blade cordate, up to 85 cm 60 cm,
with rounded lobes at base, entire, thick, glabrous, with 3 main veins. Inflorescence a
spadix tipped by a sterile appendage, surrounded by a spathe and supported by a peduncle
much shorter than petiole. Flowers unisexual, small, without perianth; male flowers in
upper part of spadix, with stamens entirely fused; female flowers at base of spadix, with
superior, 1-celled ovary having an almost sessile stigma; male and female flowers
separated by a band of sterile flowers. Fruit a many-seeded berry, densely packed and
forming a fruiting head. Seeds ovoid to ellipsoid, less than 2 mm long, with copious
endosperm (Safo Kantaka, 2004). Fig. 2.1 shows the structure of taro come and the plant.

7
 Source: Safo Kantaka (2004)

Fig. 2.1 Line diagram of taro corm and plant

2.1.3 Geographical distribution

Taro occurs wild in tropical Asia extending as far east as New Guinea and possibly
northern Australia. A type with long stolons occurring throughout this region has been
postulated as the ancestor of cultivated taro on the basis of ribosome-DNA analysis. Taro is
believed to have been domesticated in northern India, but independent domestication in
New Guinea has also been suggested. Domestication is believed to have taken place at a
very early date, even before the domestication of rice. It was spread by human settlers
eastward to New Guinea and the Pacific over 2000 years ago, where it became one of the
most important food plants economically and culturally. Distribution to China and via
Arabia to Egypt and East Africa also occurred at least 2000 years ago. From there taro was
taken by Arab people to West Africa. It was introduced into Europe from Egypt. From
Spain it was taken to the New World and new introductions may have been made into
West Africa from tropical America. Eddoe types (having a central corm and many large
cormels) may have originated in China, from where they spread to the Caribbean region,
and from there to Africa. Presently taro is grown in many parts of the tropics and
subtropics, as a tuber crop and leafy vegetable. In Africa, the importance of taro as staple
food has been eroded by tannia (Xanthosoma sagittifolium (L.) Schott) as the latter makes a
better fufu. In Africa consumers consider taro as a staple crop of lower value than yam,
sweet potato or cassava. In many regions it is naturalized (Safo Kantaka, 2004).

8
2.1.4 Ecology

Taro does best in tropical lowland in areas where annual rainfall exceeds 2000 mm. It is
well adapted to high temperatures and relative humidity. Most types respond well to fairly
stable temperature regimes of 2127C. Taro is rather tolerant to shade and for that reason
suitable as intercrop under coconut, cocoa or coffee. Eddoe types are more resistant to
drought and low temperatures than dasheen types, and the former are grown successfully
as far north as Korea and Japan. Taro can withstand highly reduced soil conditions. It is
mainly found in marshy areas and on river banks in savanna areas. It can be grown under
dry land and flooded conditions, each requiring adapted cultivars. Cultivars adapted to wet
soil conditions withstand flooding without damage provided the water is not stagnant.
Flooded cultivation is more intensive and requires greater attention than dry land
cultivation. Under flooded conditions, the water level should not rise to a depth of more
than 58 cm; with this method it takes longer to mature in comparison to dry land taro, but
yields are higher. Eddoe types prefer well-drained loamy soils, and dasheen types grow
best where the soil is heavy and has high moisture-holding capacity. A pH of 5.56.5 is
optimal. Some cultivars tolerate high soil salinity (Safo Kantaka, 2004).

2.1.5 Harvesting, production and preservation

Taro grows easily without many fungicides or pesticides because it naturally contains
several natural phytochemicals to defend itself. These also act as defenses against grazing
animals by giving it an acrid taste when raw. It can also be grown in diverse environments.
It will grow either in water or on land. It is one of the first crops to grow on soil that has
been fallow for a long period of time. (Del Rosario and Palomar, 1997).

About 48 days after planting, there is a period of rapid growth for about 100 days, but
corm growth continues for even longer. If too much time passes after planting before
harvesting, the corms can start to rot and lose dry mass. Because there is so much
variability in taro, there is no real specification with respect to time about when to harvest
it. However, depending on the definition of crop maturity used, plants can be harvested
between 5 and 13 months after planting, and in certain parts of the world where taro is
grown regularly, it is harvested between 9 and 11 months after planting. Harvesting is
generally done by uprooting the plant to retrieve the important corms (Lu and Chan, 2001).

9
 Under farm conditions, taro productivity is low. Its productivity only ranges from 1.4-6
t/ha. However, at certain research stations, yields of 50-75 t/ha can be attained. Corm dry
matter yield has been shown to yield 6.5 t/ha. Postharvest storage rot of taro can cause
losses as high as 85% after only 2 weeks of storage. Corms can easily be infected, but
storing it in cool temperatures seems to help for a certain amount of time on pathogen
resistant varieties. After harvest, taro corms are cleaned by water and hand scrapers.
Drying the skin of the corms increases shelf- and storage-life (Fanzo and Padulosi).

2.1.6 Uses

The soft white-fleshed corms of taro are eaten boiled, fried or roasted as a side dish or are
used for making fufu. They are popular as they quickly satisfy hunger, even when only a
small amount is eaten. In cultivars with a single large main corm (dasheen type) the
product is comparatively mealy, whereas in eddoe types the cormels have a more firm
structure and taste somewhat nutty. The corm is also sliced and fried into taro chips and is
used in the preparation of soups, beverages and puddings. It is well tolerated in the diet of
allergic children and adults with gastro-intestinal disorders. It is said to reduce dental decay
in children. The starch is used in baby foods and as cereal substitute. In Hawaii the corms
are processed into flour, used for biscuits and bread; all over the Pacific Islands, they are
also boiled and made into a paste that is left to ferment to produce poi. The Chinese feed
peelings and leaves and corms from wild types and inferior cultivars to pigs.

Taro leaves and leaf stalks are used as a leafy vegetable and potherb for soups and
sauces, or as relish. They are especially popular in parts of West Africa, north-eastern India
and the Caribbean region. The leaves and leaf stalks contain an irritant substance, which
causes scratchiness in the mouth and throat, but cooking resolves this. Leaves and leaf
stalks of the dasheen type seem to be less acrid than those of the eddoe type. The stolons
that are formed in some types are eaten too. Medicinal uses of taro are few. In Gabon
rasping from the corm are applied as a poultice to maturate boils, and to treat snakebites
and rheumatism. In Mauritius boiled young leaves are eaten to treat arterial hypertension
and liver affections, whereas juice is applied externally to treat eczema. In Madagascar the
corms are used to treat boils and ulcers. In Gabon the leaves in combination with leaves of
Tephrosia sp. are reportedly used in fish poison. Fiber so obtained from the leaf stalk has
been used for plaiting (Safo Kantaka, 2004).

10
2.2 World production trade

Data on world production and trade of edible aroids is difficult to estimate because of their
very limited significance in terms of total production of root and tuber crops. Estimated
world production in 1988 was around 5.5 million Mt, and constituting about 3.3% of all
root crops. World Taro production in 1994 was 5.8 billion kg; China harvested 1.4 billion
kg, Hawaii 2.8 billion kg (Seaver, 2000). In 1998, about 6.6 million tones of taro/Tania
were produced in the world on an area of 1.07 million ha (the statistics combine taro and
Tania). The bulk of the production and area were in Africa, with Asia producing about half
as much as Africa, and Oceania about one tenth as much. The major producers in Asia
were China, Japan, Philippines and Thailand; while in Oceania, production was dominated
by Papua New Guinea, Samoa, Solomon Islands, Tonga and Fiji. This shows that world
production and consumption is increasing (FAO, 1999).

In Africa, Nigeria, Ivory coast, Ghana, Zaire (Congo) and Cameroon are the dominant
producers (FAO, 2008a). According to CSA (2011), in Ethiopia potato, sweet potato and
taro are currently planted on about 57514.01, 74065.43 and 37781.28 ha of land
contributing 12.71%, 16.36% and 8.38% to the total root crops covered area at country
level, respectively. From the total land area covered by each of the above mentioned crops,
about 4596.83, 7477.95 and 3318.03 tons, which accounted for about 19.30%, 31.40% and
13.93% of the total root crops were estimated produced, respectively.

Total world production area of taro alone was estimated to be about 9.93105 ha in
1983, with 80% in Africa. During this period, global production of taro was 5.607 million
Mt, with about 61.33% in Africa and 38.67% in Asia. Estimates made about a decade ago
indicated that total world production of the major edible aroids (taro and Tania) was about
5.23 million Mt in an area of 983 million ha, with average yield of 5314 kg/ha (FAO,
1999). Production declined by 5.3% from 5.64 million Mt in the 1979-81 periods to 5.34
Mt in 1989. In Eastern Africa, 407,437 Mt of taro from 73,454 ha with an average yield of
5.5 t/ha was obtained (FAO, 2004). In Ethiopia, root crops are grown widely in the south
region. Among these crops, taro is one of the important food source as well as income
source to the farmer. It has a great potential to supply high quality food and one of the
cheapest source of energy (Patrick et al., 1999).The total area of cultivation of taro in
Ethiopia is 26,506.36 ha out of which 20,100.48 ha cultivated in SNNPR 6,147.87 ha in

11
Oromia, 231.84 ha in Gambela and 9.36 ha in Benishangule Gumuz region. In Wolita
Zone, the total area under taro cultivation is 4,202.46 ha (CSA, 2004).

Current statistics indicates that taro production increased slowly during the past years
from 5.6 million to 8.8 million Mt. Although exports increased by over 23% in volume, the
value of exports remained fairly uniform over this period. Farmers and exporters interested
in future business must ascertain the factors contributing to this trend and the potential
impacts on business.

2.3 Proximate composition

It is often assumed that root and tuber crops have a poor nutritive value because the
comparison of their nutrient content to other crops is usually made on a fresh weight basis
as expressed in composition tables. In fact this way of comparison does not reflect the
reality. The comparison of the proximate composition of root and tubers and cereals is
shown in (Table 2.3). With regards to nutritional aspects, chemical composition of
different foods should be compared considering them either in the state they are eaten or on
a dry weight basis. In the everyday life, nobody eats dry uncooked rice or wheat grains.
The dry matter content of drained cooked rice (22%) or macaroni (23%) is lower than this
of most root and tuber usual consumption forms. Because of the diversity of consumption
forms and their high fluctuation in dry matter content, the easier way to evaluate and
compare nutrient content consists in considering it on a dry weight basis. On the other
hand, as nutrient content of root and tuber crops changes depending on the varieties within
each species and on cultivation practices (e.g., fertilizer, length of vegetative cycle),
climate, soil and location.

Several root and tuber crops have very low dry matter content (oca, ulluco) but, for
others, it goes beyond 30 g/l00 g FW (achira, arrowroot, cassava, cocoyam (taro), and
sweet potato). Except for certain sweet potato varieties, root and tuber crop fat content is
very low, it is mainly composed lipids of the cell membrane. The low fat and relatively
high fiber content of root and tuber crops explains that they have a slightly lower energy
content then cereal crops (Serge, 1996). The fresh weight composition of the taro corm is
shown in (Table 2.2). The fresh corm has about two-thirds water and 13-29%
carbohydrate. It is also a rich source of calcium, phosphorus, iron, Vitamin C, thiamine,
riboflavin and niacin, which are important constituents of human diet. The fresh taro

12
lamina has about 20% dry matter, while the fresh petiole has only about 6% dry matter.
Notwithstanding their high starch content, edible aroids have a higher content of protein
and amino acids than many other tropical root crops. Protein quality is essentially the same
for all aroids determined with lysine as first limiting amino acid (chemical score 57-70)
(Bradbury and Nixon, 1998). Compared to other tropical roots, taro corms are moderately
good sources of water-soluble vitamins, such as thiamin, riboflavin and ascorbic acid
(Huang et al., 2007).

Table 2.2 Proximate composition of taro corm on fresh weight basis

Component Content
Moisture (%) 63-85
Carbohydrate (mostly starch) (%) 13-29
Protein (%) 1.4-3.0
Fat (%) 0.16-0.36
Crude fiber (%) 0.60-1.18
Ash (%) 0.60-1.3
Vitamin C (mg/100 g) 7-9
Thiamine (mg/100 g) 0.18
Riboflavin (mg/100 g) 0.04
Niacin (mg/100 g) 0.9

Source: FAO (1999)

Table2.3 Comparison between root and tuber and cereal proximate composition

Food Dry matter Protein Fat Carbohydrates Fiber Energy

(g/100 g (g/100 g (g/100 (g/100 g DM) (g/100 (Kcal/100
FW*) DM**) g DM) g DM) g DM)
Roots and
Tubers
Cassava 32.3 2.76 0.62 86.9 7.9 364
Irish potato 22.2 9.2 0.5 66.7 9.3 316
Sweet potato 30.8 5.3 1.95 78.2 10.2 351

13
Yam 31.1 6.4 0.42 72.8 17.9 318
Taro 25.4 6.3 0.79 88.2 3.1 362
Cereal crops
Maize 87.5 9.8 4.34 73.9 10.5 374
Rice 86.9 8.3 2.53 85.2 2.6 397
Sorghum 88.6 11.6 3.61 78.6 4.2 393
Wheat 86.8 13.5 2.30 70.2 11.9 355

*FW = Fresh weight ; ** DM = Dry matter

Source: Serge (1996)

2.4 Nutritional value and health benefits

2.4.1 Nutritional value of taro

The nutritional value of taro root is similar to potatoes. Taro is rich source of carbohydrate
as other root and tuber crops available carbohydrate can ranges 33.3-77.8%, extractable
starch 46.9-73.2% (Mbofung, 2006). The composition of the carbohydrate fraction is
shown in (Table 2.4), indicating that the predominant carbohydrate is starch. The starch
itself is about four fifths amylopectin and one-fifth amylose. The amylopectin has 22
glucose units per molecule, while the amylose has 490 glucose units per molecule. The
starch grains are small and therefore easily digestible. This factor makes taro suitable as a
specialty food for allergic infants and persons with alimentary disorders. However, the
smallness of the starch grains makes taro less suitable as a source of industrial starch. The
starch in the corm is more concentrated at the corm base than at the corm apex (FAO,
1999).

Table 2.4 Percentage composition of taro corm carbohydrates

Carbohydrate Percentage (%)

Starch 77.9
Pentosans 2.6
Crude fiber 1.4
Dextrins 0.5
Reducing sugar 0.5

14
Sucrose 0.1
Pentosans 2.6

Source: FAO (1999)

Taro root has very little fat. Fat consists mainly of lipids of cell membrane and it is
varisable among the varisable cultivars. Generally the fat content of taro range from 0.3%-
0.6 % (Mbofung, 2006; Nip et al., 1989). One cup serving has 7 g of dietary fiber which is
about 27% of the daily recommended amount. In a research conducted on six cultivars of
taro in Cameroon and Chad it was found that the crude fiber content of taro ranges from
0.3-3.8% (Mbofung, 2006). In another study conducted in six cultivars of taro grown in
American Samoa the total soluble and insoluble fiber of taro even a larger range from 5.02-
9.01% (Nip et al., 1989).

Taro contains about 7% protein on a dry weight basis. This is more than yam, cassava or
sweet potato. The protein fraction is low in histidine, lysine, isoleucine, tryptophan, and
methionine, but otherwise rich in all the other essential amino acids. The taro leaf, like
higher plant leaves, is rich in protein. It contains about 23% protein on a dry weight basis
(FAO, 1999; Mbofung, 2006; Nip et al., 1989).

Large servings of taro corms can become a significant source of dietary protein,
especially if taken more than once a day. One cup serving has 11% of the vitamin C daily
value, 19% of vitamin E and 22% of vitamin B6 (all critically important for the immune
system. Taro is also a good source of thiamin, riboflavin, and a very good source of
vitamin B6, vitamin C, niacin. Taro also contains greater amounts of vitamin B-complex
than whole milk (Soudy et al., 2010).

Taro is a good source of minerals including iron (8.66-10.8 mg/100g), calcium (31- 132
mg/100g), sodium (82-1521.34 mg/100g), magnesium (118-415.07 mg/100g), phosphorus
(72.21- 340 mg/100g) and an excellent source of potassium (2271- 4276.06 mg/100g).
Taro is also a fair source of other essential minerals zinc (2.63 mg/100g), copper (1.04
mg/100g) all the amounts are on dry weight basis. One cup serving also has 10% of the
daily value of magnesium and phosphorus, 13% of copper, 18% of potassium and 30% of
manganese (Huang et al., 2007; Njoku and Ohia, 2007).

15
2.4.2 Health benefits

Taro is especially useful to persons allergic to cereals and can be consumed by children
who are sensitive to milk (Huang et al., 2007). Taro is also a tuber that is very rich in
carbohydrates, ranging between 73 to 80% which is mainly starch at 77.9% and 1.4%
crude fiber, Dry Matter (DM) basis. Because of its high carbohydrate content, this tuber
represents one of the main sources of energy in many parts of the tropics and sub-tropics
providing about a third of the food intake of more than 400 million people in these areas
(Soudy et al., 2010).

Some health benefits of taro (Rudrappa, 2009):

Taro or dasheen corms have more calories than potatoes. 100 g provides 112
calories. Their calorie mainly comes from complex carbohydrates known as
amylose and amylopectin. However, the roots are very low in fats and protein than
in cereals and pulses. Their protein levels can be comparable to that of other
tropical food sources like yam, cassava, potato, banana, etc.

The corms, however, are free from gluten. They feature high-quality phytonutrition
profile comprising of dietary fiber, and antioxidants in addition to moderate
proportions of minerals, and vitamins.

It is one of the finest source dietary fibers; 100 g flesh provides 4.1 g or 11% of
daily-requirement of dietary fiber. Together with slow digesting complex
carbohydrates, moderate amounts of fiber in the food help gradual rise in blood
sugar levels.

Taro leaves as well as yellow-fleshed roots have significant levels of phenolic

flavonoid pigment antioxidants such as -carotenes, and cryptoxanthin along with
vitamin A. 100 g fresh taro leaves provide 4825 IU or 161% of RDA of vitamin A.
Altogether; these compounds are required for maintaining healthy mucus
membranes, skin and vision. Consumption of natural foods rich in flavonoids helps
to protect from lung and oral cavity cancers.

It also contains good levels of some of the valuable B-complex group of vitamins
such as pyridoxine (vitamin B-6), folates, riboflavin, pantothenic acid, and thiamin.

16
 Further, the corms provide healthy amounts of some important minerals like zinc,
magnesium, copper, iron, and manganese. In addition, the root has very good
amounts of potassium. Potassium is an important component of cell and body fluids
that help regulate heart rate and blood pressure.

Nowadays, zinc deficiency is widespread and affects the health and well-being of
populations worldwide (Hambridge, 2000) and since taro is one of the few non
animal sources of zinc (SPC, 2006), its utilization should therefore be pursued to
help in the alleviation of zinc deficiency which is associated to stunting.

In general crude fiber has many desirable functional properties. These include
facilitating alimentary functions, helping in micro-component delivery and glucose
metabolism and also slowing down the process of re-absorption of undesirable
dietary components such as cholesterol (Sujak et al., 2005).

When a crop is being considered for food, nutritional value and consumer acceptance
must be taken into consideration. The nutritional value of a food depends upon its
nutritional contents and their digestibility and the presence or absence of anti-nutrients and
toxic factors. However, despite the wide application and great potential of taro as a chief
dietary source of carbohydrate and other essential nutrients, its usage is often limited by its
antinutrient contents which are either potentially toxic or may limit the bioavailability of
nutrients (Alcantara et al., 2013).

2.5. Oxalates

The plant oxalis, commonly known as wood sorrel, gave rise to oxalic acid (chemical
formula HOOC-COOH), a strong, organic acid which has been found to be widely
distributed in plants (Liebman, 2002). See Fig 2.3 for structure.

HO C
C OH

Fig. 2.2 Structure of oxalic acid

17
 One major limiting factor in the utilization of taro is the presence of oxalates which
impart acrid taste or cause irritation when foods prepared from them are eaten. Ingestion of
foods containing oxalates has also been reported to cause caustic effects, irritation to the
intestinal tract and absorptive poisoning. Oxalates are also known to interfere with the
bioavailability of calcium (Sefa-Dedeh and Agyir-Sackey, 2004). Most taro cultivars taste
acrid and can cause swelling of lips, mouth and throat if eaten raw (Bradbury and Nixon,
1998). This acridity is caused by needle-like calcium oxalate crystals Fig. 2.2 raphides
(raphides are structures formed as needle-shaped crystals of calcium oxalate in plant cell
vacuoles) that can penetrate soft skin. Thereafter an irritant present on the raphides,
probably a protease can cause discomfort in the tissue. Both the root and the leaves can
give this reaction, but this effect is reduced by cooking (Bradbury and Nixon, 1998). The
lethal dose of calcium oxalate to human is 2 g (Albihn and Savage, 2001). It could
therefore be recommended that the intake of calcium oxalate in one meal does not exceed
two-third of this lethal dose. However, the threshold level of calcium oxalate in food is 71
mg/100g (Sefa-Dedeh and Agyir-Sackey, 2004).

Oxalic acid is a common and wide spread constituent of plants, being found in almost
all plant families usually at low levels. It occurs as the free acid, as soluble salts of
potassium and sodium and as insoluble salts of calcium, magnesium and iron (Noonan and
Savage, 1999). High oxalate concentrations in the leaves and corms of plants consumed
daily are of concern because of the harmful health effects associated with the intake of high
amounts of oxalates (Savage and Catherwood, 2007).

Oxalic acid forms water soluble salts with Na, K+ and (NH4)2+ ions and it also binds
with Ca2+ , Fe2+ and Mg2+ and rendering these minerals unavailable to animals. However
Zn appears to be relatively unaffected (Noonan and Savage, 1999). Calcium oxalate
crystals occur in more than 215 higher plant families, as well as the algae, lichen and fungi,
in the form of whewellite (CaC2O4.H2O) or weddelite (CaC2O4.2H2O). They can form in
any organ or tissue within plants, including in stems, leaves, roots, tubers, and seeds, and
have a variety of functions including calcium storage, defense and providing structural
strength (Alison, 2005).

18
 (a) (b)

Fig. 2.3 Thin (a) and thick (b) calcium oxalate crystals (raphides) isolated from taro
(Bradbury and Nixon, 1998)

The highest levels of oxalates are found in the following families: amaranth family for
example Amaranthus (amaranth); aroid/arum family, for example Colocasia (Taro) and
Xanthosoma (caladium), goothfoot family, for example, Atriplex (orach), Beta ( beet,
beetroot) and Spinachia (Spinach); ice-plant family for example, Tetragonia (NZ spinach);
Wood sorrel family for example Oxalis (sorrel yam);buckwheat family, for example,
Rheum (rhubarb) and Rumex (sorrel); and the purslane family, for example portulaca
(purslane) (Noonan and Savage, 1999).

The oxalic acid content is variable within some species; some cultivars of spinach
contain 400- 600 mg/100 g, while others range from 700-900 mg/100 g. Oxalic acid
accumulates in plants especially during dry season. The distribution of oxalic acid within
plants is also uneven. In general, oxalic acid is highest in the leaves followed by seeds; it is
lowest in the stems. High oxalate levels in tropical plants are of concern. Taro (Colocasia
esculenta) and sweet potato (Ipomoea batatas) were reported to contain 278-574 mg/100 g
FW and 470 mg/100 g FW, respectively (Noonan and Savage, 1999). High oxalate foods
have been known to exert a negative effect on the absorption of calcium and iron. The
adverse effect of oxalate is greater if the oxalate: calcium ratio exceeds 9:4. The adverse
effect of oxalates must be considered in terms of oxalate: calcium ratio in the food. This
ratio varies widely and can be classified into three groups: (i) plants with oxalate to
calcium ratio of greater than 2, (ii) plants with ratio of approximately one and (iii) plants
with a ratio of less than one (Noonan and Savage, 1999).

19
 Foods that have a ratio greater than two and that contain no utilizable calcium have
exceeds oxalates which can bind calcium in other food eaten at the same time. Foodstuffs
having a ratio of approximately one do not encroach on the utilization of calcium provided
by other products and, therefore, do not exert any dematerializing effects. However these
foods are not good source of calcium. Foods with a ratio of one do not reduce the
availability of calcium as far as other calcium sources are concerned (Noonan and Savage,
1999).

Oxalates are poorly absorbed under non-fasting conditions. It has been demonstrated
that only 2- 12% of the oxalate is absorbed from foods but that once absorbed, free
oxalates binds to calcium form insoluble calcium oxalate. This may result in a functional
hypocalcaemia with tetany in acute cases. Free oxalate and calcium precipitate in the urine
and may form kidney stones. These stones are comprised mainly of calcium oxalate (80%),
which is relatively insoluble in urine, and calcium phosphate (5%). Oxalates crystallizes
with calcium in the renal vasculature and infiltrates vessel walls causing renal tubular
obstruction, vascular necrosis and hemorrhage, which leads to anuria, uraemia, electrolyte
disturbances or even rupture. Oxalic acid may cause greater decreases in mineral
availability if consumed with a high fiber diet, although the decrease may only be
temporary. Negative calcium, magnesium, zinc and copper balances were detected in males
consuming a diet containing fiber and oxalates (Noonan and Savage, 1999).

In order to counteract the deleterious health effects against consumption of high oxalate
rich foods, there must be an effective method to reduce the amount of oxalate in foods.

2.6 Reduction of anti-nutrients in taro

Several factors influence the nutritional and anti-nutritional content of food. These include
the genetic make-up of the plant, the soil in which it is grown, use of fertilizer, prevailing
weather, maturity at harvest, packaging, storage conditions and method utilized for
processing (Morris et al., 2004).

Processing method is one of the most common and widely used methods in the
reduction of anti-nutrients from foods. Foods processing is aimed at reducing the toxic
substances in food, increasing the palatability of foods, developing aroma, increasing the
shelf life of foods, and minimizing the post-harvest loses. There are different kinds of
processing method that are effective in reducing anti-nutritional factors in plant foods.
20
These may include extruder cooking, germination, roasting, soaking, boiling, fermentation,
radiation (Tilahun, 2009).

The term "food processing" covers an enormous field, from simple boiling to the use of
irradiation. The types of cooking methods differ in countries around the world and also
vary with the ethnic background of the family. Processing (cooking) can be both beneficial
and detrimental to nutrient composition of foods. It is known that processing techniques
may decrease the food value of some nutrients (Nestares et al., 1996): for example, there is
some inevitable leaching of nutrients into the cooking water during processing. The
cooking water may or may not be discarded, depending upon cultural and personal
preference. Washing and peeling result in the loss of many water-soluble vitamins, since
these are more concentrated in the peel and outer layers. With careful control of the
processes, nutrient losses can be minimized without affecting palatability.

On the other hand, processing may enhance the nutritional quality of food by reducing
or destroying the anti-nutrients present in it, as well as increasing the digestibility of
proteins and starches. Elimination or inactivation of anti-nutritional compounds is
absolutely necessary to improve the nutritional quality and effectively utilize human foods
to their full potential. Processing generally inactivates heat-sensitive factors such as
enzyme inhiblectins and volatile compounds such as HCN. A typical example is the
protein in legumes, which is made more digestible by heating because of the inactivation of
anti-nutrients such as trypsin inhibitors (Siddhuraju and Becker, 2001).

2.6.1 Boiling

Boiling is one of the effective methods in reducing water soluble anti-nutrients. For
example boiling of root crops such as taro and cassava will lead to the significant reduction
of oxalates and cyanide respectively. Boiling also found to decrease some amount of
soluble phytate. Boiling may cause considerable rupturing of plant cell due to high
temperatures and facilitate leakage of soluble anti-nutrients into cooking water (Albihn and
Savage, 2001; Inchuen et al., 2011) under the influence of concentration gradient
(Uzogara et al., 1990; Vijayakumari et al., 1997). Boiling also facilitates the formation of
water soluble complexes (Bakr and Gawish, 1991; Uzogara et al., 1990).

Boiling involves the role of both the time and temperature. At constant temperature,
greater will be the reduction of nutrients with the increase in the time (similar to the pattern
21
of destruction of microorganism with the increase in time, i.e., greater the D value greater
is the destruction of microorganism) (Toledo, 2007).

Oxalate

High temperature is known to cause the calcium oxalate-containing cells (raphides) to

collapse, leading to the breakdown of oxalate structure.

Thermal degradation

CaC2O4. nH2O (s) CaC2O4 (s) + nH2O (g)

CaC2O4(s) + heat CaCO3(s) + CO (g)

CaCO3 (s) CaO (s) + CO2 (g)

The presence of Na+ ions was found to increase the decomposition rate and reduce the
activation energy of the above reaction. The Na+ ions act as a catalyst for the
decomposition reaction (Schempf et al., 1965). Osisiogu et al. (1974) observed that boiling
of taros for 15 min brought about considerable reduction in the irritant effect.

Cooking can affect the soluble oxalate but not the insoluble oxalate content of the food.
Boiling can reduce the soluble oxalate content of a food if the cooking water is discarded,
while soaking, germination and fermentation will also reduce the content of soluble
oxalates (Noonan and Savage, 1999), the reduction might be due to leaching of part of
soluble oxalate in cooking solution (Osisiogu et al., 1974). In contrast, baking a food will
cause an effective concentration of oxalates in the food due to the loss of water from the
baked food (Noonan and Savage, 1999). According to Lewu et al. (2010) oxalate was
found to reduce by 52% in 20 min of cooking and 70% reduction was reported by Tilahun
(2009) for 45 min of cooking.

The peels of tubers contain more oxalate than the peeled tubers (Akpan and Umoh,
2004), therefore peeling should be the first step to do when removing calcium oxalate from
tubers (Sangketkit et al., 2001). Removal of the thick layer of skin and long period of
cooking is required to remove acridity (Crabtree and Baldry, 2007).

22
2.6.2 Salt treatment

Salt is known to have the osmotic effect. Jaiwunglok et al. (2010) reported that sodium
chloride affects the decomposition of HCN as it accelerates the osmosis reaction which
facilitated leaching of liberated cyanide from taro corm. And the same osmotic effect might
have influence maximum leaching of the anti-nutritional factors from the ruptured cells of
the taro corm resulting in the reduction of other anti-nutritional factors as well. Sharma
(2013) reported that boiling of taro corm for 20 min with 5% of NaCl reduced oxalate by
72%. Not only the HCN, osmotic effect influenced the leaching of all the anti-nutrients;
tannin, phenol and oxalates in the cooking medium.

2.6.3 Citric acid treatment

During cooking with the citric acid, there is the rapid increase in the gelatinization of the
starch, which further accelerates the decrease in hardness and the oxalate content than in
comparison to that of the cooking in plain water alone.(Aboubakara et al., 2009). Thus the
leaching of the anti-nutritional factor is being influenced at the greater rate. Furthermore,
cooking in the citric acid reduces the cooking time so that the desirable level of oxalate can
be removed within the less time. This illustrates the economic use of citric acid
(Wanjekeche et al., 2003). Cooking in lemon or tamarind solutions tends to completely
hydrolyze and dissolve the crystals oxalates, thus contributing to the elimination of
irritating sensation. Cooking in lemon or tamarind solutions completely eliminated the
itching sensation after 5 min while a 10 min was needed for steam and water cooking
conditions. (Crabtree and Baldry, 2007) observed that soaking of sliced taro corms in water
and in solutions of citric acid and EDTA reduced the oxalate levels ranging from 9 to 26%.

2.7 Process technology of taro chips

Deep-fat frying is a complex unit operation involving high temperatures, significant

microstructural changes both to the surface and the body of the chip and simultaneously
heat and mass transfer resulting in flows in opposite directions of water vapor and oil at the
surface of the piece (Bouchan et al., 2003). In fact, most of the desirable characteristics of
fried foods are derived from the formation of a composite structure: a dry, porous, crisp
and oily outer layer or crust, and a moist cooked interior or core. The crust is the result of
several alterations that mainly occur at the cellular and sub-cellular level, and are located
in the outermost layers of the products (Pedreschi, 2009). Deep-fat frying can be defined as
23
the process of drying and cooking through contact with hot oil. High heat transfer rates are
largely responsible for the development of the desired sensorial properties in fried products
(Sachin et al., 1999)

2.7.1 Peeling

Generally, this method of processing taro roots commence with peeling of the tuber. The
peels of tubers contain more oxalate than the peeled tubers (Akpan and Umoh, 2004),
therefore peeling should be the first step to do when removing calcium oxalate from tubers
(Sangketkit et al., 2001). Holland et al. (1991) reported that the taro corm contains about 5
g skins for 100 g corm. Therefore, removal of the skin from the corm will reduce 15% of
the total calcium oxalate content in the corm.

2.7.2 Slicing

The slicing step is known to impact upon chip appearance, color, texture, slice contour,
breakage, oil absorption, moisture content and frying time (Baumann and Escher, 1995;
Gamble and Rice, 1988; Miranda and Aguilera, 2006). According to Bennett (2001), slices
that are very thin have a negative impact on color and tend to be oil soaked and easily
broken, whereas, thick slices tend to have a high final moisture content and are less crispy.
Uniformity between slices is extremely important as it may create undesirable
characteristics of both thin and thick chips (Bennett, 2001) affecting the sensory quality.
Overused and blunt slicing blades are known to produce chips with rough or torn surfaces
leading to increased oil content (Bennet, 2001; Lisiska, 1989).

Without any doubt this is the most important operation in a chip plant. With efficient
slicing procedure clean slices without any feathered edges are prepared which adsorb less
oil.

2.7.3 Washing

There are two schools of thought in regards washing following slicing. Some say no
washing of the slices and others pay great attention to this operation. Washing of slices to
remove surface starch ensures that the slices do not adhere together during frying leading
to unfried sections within the chip (Bennett, 2001; Lisiska, 1989). Gould (1999) suggest
that the slices be free of loose starch before entering the fryer to prevent oil breakdown and
dark specks on the chips.
24
2.7.4 Sorting

After washing, slices were sorted out to overcome uniformity in chips and to improve the

frying process.

2.7.5 Drying

Drying or partial drying prior to frying is being used. The pre-drying before frying has the
following advantages: it is very easy to maintain uniform color of the product during and
after the frying, product stability is optimal, weak and soggy product is not obtained after
the frying process, the product stays crispy and the pre-dried product absorbs much less fat
during frying (Lisiska, 1989). Paz-Gamboa et al. (2015) showed drying of taro chips at
70C for 20 minutes after blanching treatment produced the final chips of lower oil content
as well as improved texture.

2.7.6 Deep fat frying

Deep-fat frying is a unit operation which is performed by immersing the food material in
hot (generally between 150 and 200 C) edible oil until it is cooked.(Farkas et al., 1996).
This process is one of the oldest and most common unit operations used in preparation of
food. Today, numerous processed foods are deep-fat fried because of the unique flavor-
texture combination imparted to the food (Varela, 1988).

During deep fat frying, heat and mass transfer takes place simultaneously; heat is
transferred from the oil to the food, water is evaporated from the food material and oil is
absorbed (Krokida et al., 2001; Sahin et al., 1999). At these high temperatures the food
material undergoes intense dehydration coupled with structural changes (i.e. formation of
pores and crust, curling, expansion or shrinkage), physicochemical transformations (color
and flavor formation) and microbiological inactivation (Farkas et al., 1996; Rimac-Brni
et al., 2004; Vitrac et al., 2000). During frying, heat transfer causes protein denaturation,
starch gelatinization, water evaporation, crust formation and color development. Mass
transfer is characterized by water and some soluble material escaping from the product
during the process, combined with oil penetrating the food (Mir-Bel et al., 2009).

25
2.7.6.1 Frying temperature and time

Frying time and temperature are processing variables that the manufacturer manipulates in
order to produce optimum quality chips and depends on the raw potato composition and
slice thickness (Gamble and Rice, 1988; Moreira et al., 1999). These frying variables
influence the texture (Miranda et al., 2005), final oil content (Baumann and Escher, 1995),
color and flavor (Pedreschi et al., 2005). It is reported that higher temperatures yield chips
with less oil than lower temperatures since hotter oil has a lower density and is not
adsorbed as easily whereas lower frying temperatures require longer frying times, allowing
the chip surface to adsorb more oil (Saguy et al., 1998).

The time of immersion in frying oil at fixed temperature, not only affects the degree of
browning and flavor development, but also influences the texture of both the outer crust
and the inner food body (Chen et al., 2001).

2.8 Quality attributes of fried chips

2.8.1 Appearance/ Color

Color is one of the most significant attributes in food products (Lisiska, 1989). In the
potato processing industry, probably the critical point of quality evaluation is the
maintenance of the satisfactory color of chips. Color of fried potatoes is usually defined in
the unit L*a*b* which is an international standard to measure color adopted by the
Commission International dEclairage (CIE) in 1976. L*, a* and b* define the luminance
or lightness (0 to 100), the degrees from green to red, and from blue to yellow (-120 to
120), respectively (Papadakis et al., 2000). Process variables, such as time, oil temperature,
oil type, and pre-treatments of the raw materials are expected to influence the color of the
fried products (Santis et al., 2007). The color of the chip is the consequence of the non
enzymatic browning associated with the Maillard reaction during frying (Santis et al.,
2007). Color of the food surface is the first quality parameter evaluated by consumers and
is critical in acceptance of the product, even before it enters the mouth (Santis et al., 2007).

Color is mainly affected by the fact that high frying temperature requires less frying
time with resulting dark chips. The frying temperature of 150C required less frying time
with resulting dark cassava cracker. On the other hand, frying temperature 130C required
maximum frying time with resulting light yellow color of crackers (Murtuza et al., 2016).

26
Lightness value decreased with the increase in the frying time. But redness values were
found to be increased significantly by increasing the frying time in pellet snacks
(Moghaddam et al., 2015). The salt concentration does not affect the browning process
during frying process of chips (Bungera et al., 1998). The boiling of chips prior to frying
has been reported to not only improve the color and texture of the final product, but also
reduce the oil uptake by causing gelatinization of the starch on the surface (Kim, 2010).
The boiling treatments can be highly efficient in reducing browning of the fried products
(such as for chips) by leaching out Maillard reactants that can play a significant role in
determining the color and acrylamide formation during frying (Pedreschi et al., 2004).

2.8.2 Crispness (texture)

Texture is an important quality of fried food products. It is defined as all the

mechanical, geometrical and surface attributes of a product perceptible by means of
mechanical, tactile, and, where appropriate, visual and auditory receptors (Rosenthal,
1999). Texture is a response to the structural change of products during thermal processing
and cooking (Alvarez et al., 2000). Bourne (1982) categorized the methods of measuring
the texture of a fried product, according to physical sensations or group of physical
characteristics: (1) to arising from the structural elements of the food; (2) sensing by
touching; (3) relating to the deformation, disintegration, and flow of food under force; and
(4) measuring objectively using functions of mass, time, and distance. Texture of a food
product can be evaluated by instrumental analysis and sensory evaluation. Texture
determination by instrumental examination is more accurate, simpler, and is less time
consuming (Kayacier and Singh, 2003). The Instron and the Texture Analyzer (Texture
Technologies Corp., New York) are usually used for force deformation studies (Kawas-
Escoto, 2000).

Crispness is perceived through a combination of tactile, kinesthetic, visual and auditory

sensations and represents the key texture attributes of dry snack products. Crispness is also
connected with rapid drop of force during mastication process that, in turn, is based on
fracture propagation in brittle materials. When force is applied to brittle snacks, rupture of
the cellular structure occurs and, in line with some deformation, generates a typical sound
contributing to crispness sensation. The crisp materials usually generate irregular force
deformation curve (Mazumder et al., 2007).

27
 Frying time and temperature are two major factors and also greatly influenced the
texture of fried cassava chips. During frying of lotus rhizome chips, initially softening of
the tissue was observed. This was an indication of cooking process, which was followed by
crispy, crust formation at high temperature. The relationship between temperature and
texture is dependent on drying or removal of moisture from the raw material (Yodkraisri
and Bhat, 2012). The heat treatment during boiling affects the typical potato cell by
altering the cytoplasmic membrane. Heat destroys the differential permeability of the
membrane letting water to enter the cells and intercellular spaces there by expelling gases
and other volatiles, causing also loss of water soluble nutrients (sugars, vitamins, and
minerals) to the blanch water. During pre-treatment, changes occur in the cell membranes,
which play a key role in the changes that occur within the tissue during further processing
(Elfbesh et al., 2011). Kim (2010) showed that the gelatinization of starch in potatoes
during frying primarily influences the texture of the potato chips. The changes at the
cellular and sub-cellular levels in the outermost layer of potato chips during frying result in
the crispy structure of the product. Boiling causes a permanent modification of the cellular
structure in the potato tissue.

2.8.3 Flavor

The flavor is one of the important quality factors of potato chips and is affected mainly by
the type of oil used to fry chips (Elfbesh et al., 2011). Almazan (1988) reported that taste
of chips improved with increasing salt concentration. Cooking oil used for frying plays a
significant role in imparting unique taste, aroma and flavor to the fried product. Plant based
vegetable oil is a good source of omega 6-(linoleic acid) and omega 3-(alpha linoleic acid)
fatty acids, along with the presence of essential macro- and micro-nutrients (Yodkraisri and
Bhat, 2012). Also, frying oil possessing bound linoleic acid tends to generate unique taste
and flavor in the product.

Boiling of chips before frying reported to destroy enzyme activity and leaches out,
reducing sugars and other chemical constituents that cause off flavor in chips (Kabira and
Berga, 2003)

28
 Part III

Materials and methods

All chemicals used were reagent grade unless specified otherwise and distilled water was
used throughout the work. All operations were performed at room temperature unless
otherwise stated.

3.1 Materials

3.1.1 Collection of raw material

6 kg of fresh taro corms required for the preparation of chips were collected from the local
market of Pokhara. Less acrid local variety known as khari pindalu was selected as raw
materials for the chips preparation. Corms were then cleaned and sorted to remove dust,
foreign matters and damaged parts. Taro corms of almost uniform size were selected for
further processing and stored at low temperature.

3.1.2 Chemicals and Equipment

All the apparatus and the chemicals required for the work were taken from the Central
Campus of Technology, Dharan.

3.2 Methodology

3.2.1 Optimization of slice thickness

Taro corms were cleaned and sorted to remove dust, foreign matters and damaged parts.
Taro corms of almost uniform size were selected. After sorting out the taro corms were
washed with tap water. Trimming and peeling of taro was done with the help of potato
peeler. The top and bottom end (about 1 inch) of the taro was neglected. Thus selected
middle section of the taro was used for slicing. With the proper blade adjustment of the
ham slicer, the corms were sliced into different thickness (1, 1.5 and 2 mm). The taro slices
were then washed with water to remove the residual starch.

The raw taro slices of different thickness were boiled in water at 100C for 7 min. The
time interval for boiling was obtained through trial. The texture of the raw slices was
damaged by boiling any longer than 7 min. The slices after boiling treatment were dried.
The slices were then deep fried in soybean oil at 1805C to constant moisture content.
The fried chips were cooled down to room temperature. Samples were packed in plastic
pouches for the sensory evaluation. Fig. 3.1 shows the preparation of taro chips for the
optimization of slice thickness.

Taro corms

Cleaning, sorting and peeling

Slicing of required thickness (1.0 mm, 1.5 mm and 2.0 mm)

Washing of taro slices

Boiling (at 100C for 7min.)

Drying (70C for 20 min)

Frying to const. moisture content (Temp.: 1805C)

Cool to room temperature

Packaging

Sensory analysis

Fig. 3.1 Flow sheet of taro chips preparation for optimization of slice thickness

3.2.2 Optimization of pretreatment

Pretreatment of the taro slices prior to frying was selected on the basis of the oxalate
content reduction. The pretreatment with maximum oxalate reduction was selected for the
chips preparation. For the optimization of the pretreatment, the raw slices of optimized
thickness through sensory evaluation were taken. The raw slices were then subjected to
different pretreatments. Oxalate determination of the treated slices was carried out after the
pretreatments.

30
3.2.2.1 Preparation of salt solution

Iodized salt i.e. Sodium chloride available in the local market of Dharan was used for the
preparation of salt solution. Various concentration of salt solution i.e. 1%, 3%, and 5%
were prepared in 500 ml of tap water of central campus of technology. Then these
solutions were used for the boiling treatment of the taro samples.

3.2.2.2 Preparation of citric acid solution

Powdered citric acid was obtained from the laboratory of Central Campus of technology
and solutions were prepared. Different concentration of citric acid i.e. 0.6%, 0.9%, and
1.2% were prepared in 500 ml of tap water. Then these solutions were used for the boiling
treatment of the taro samples.

3.2.2.3 Boiling treatment

Slices of taro were kept in boiling water at 100C in 1:10 ratio. Then the water along with
taro was allowed to boil for 7 min.

3.2.2.4 Salt treatment

For the salt treatment taro slices were allowed to boil in salt solution of different
concentrations (1%, 3% and 5%) in 1:10 ratio. Then the treated taro slices were drawn out
after 7 min. In this way, three different samples were prepared.

3.2.2.5 Citric acid treatment

For the citric acid treatment taro slices were allowed to boil in citric acid solution of
different concentrations (0.6%, 0.9% and 1.2%) in 1:10 ratio. Then the treated taro slices
were drawn out after 7 min. In this way, three different samples were prepared.

3.2.2.6 Drying and milling

Finally, 7 numbers of samples were prepared. All these samples were allowed to dry in
cabinet at 60C for about 48 hours. Then each dried taro samples were then milled
separately in okhli to reduce to powder form. The powdered samples were then stored in
the plastic pouch for further analysis of oxalate content (McEwan, 2008).

31
3.2.3 Optimization of frying time

Preliminary operations were done in similar manner as per the preparation of chips for the
optimization of slice thickness. The cleaned taro corms were then sliced into the selected
thickness with the help of ham slicer. The taro slices were then washed with water to
remove the residual starch and subjected to the pretreatment with maximum oxalate
reduction. Pretreated slices were spread over the trays and dried at 70C for 20 min. After
drying, the slices were then deep fried in soybean oil at 1805C to a varying time, i.e., 90
s, 120 s and 150 s. The fried chips were cooled down to RT and were packed in plastic
pouches for the sensory evaluation. Fig. 3.2 shows the preparation of taro chips for the
optimization of frying time.

32
 Taro corms

Cleaning, sorting and Peeling

Slicing

Pretreatment

Boiling in plain water Boiling in salt solution Boiling in citric acid

at 100C for 7 min. (1%, 3% & 5%) at solution (0.6%, 0.9% &
100C for 7 min. 1.2%) at 100C for 7
min.

Washing of slices

Determination of oxalate content &

selection of pretreatment

Drying (at 70C for 20 min)

Frying (frying time: 90 s, 120 s and 150 s; temp1805C)

Cooling to room temperature

Packaging

Sensory Analysis

Fig. 3.2 Flow sheet of taro chips preparation for optimization of frying time

33
3.3 Analytical methods

3.3.1 Determination of moisture

Moisture content (mc) was determined by drying in electric hot air oven as described in
(Ranganna, 2010).

3.3.2 Crude protein content

For crude protein estimation nitrogen content in a sample was determined by micro
Kjeldahl method following Ranganna (2007) and the protein was calculated by multiplying
the percentage of nitrogen by a factor i.e. 6.25, (AOAC, 2005).

3.3.3 Crude fat

Crude fat was determined by Soxhlet extraction method using petroleum ether (boiling
point, 40 60 C) as in AOAC (2005) and Ranganna (2007).

3.3.4 Ash

Ash is the residue remaining after food stuff is ignited until it is carbon free, usually at a
temperature not exceeding red heat (Jaccobs, 1958). Ash content was determined by ashing
in muffle furnace at 525C as described in Ranganna (2007).

3.3.5 Crude fiber

Crude fiber was determined as per Ranganna (2007). The grounded defatted sample was
boiled in 0.25% H2SO4 for 30 min with subsequent filtration and the residue was washed-
off with water making it acid-free. The residue was boiled in 0.25% NaOH for 30 min
followed by washing of residue with water to make it alkali-free. Similarly it was washed
with ethanol to remove any ethanol soluble materials. Finally the residue was dried,
weighed and ashing was performed.

The crude fiber was calculated by using following formula:

(Residue Ash)g (100 %Fat %Moisture)

% Crude fiber
Weight of sample (g)

34
3.3.6 Total carbohydrates

Total carbohydrates was determined by difference method (Ranganna, 2007). First of all,
moisture, crude protein, crude fat, total ash and crude fiber were calculated and then their
sum was deducted from 100 as given formula follows:

Total carbohydrates 100 (Moisture Crude protein Crude fat Total ash Crude fiber)%

3.3.7 Determination of oxalate content

The method described by Onwuka (2005) was followed. The procedure involves three
steps: digestion, oxalate precipitation and permanganate titration.

a) Digestion: 2 g of taro flour was weighed out and dissolved in 190 ml of distilled
water in a 250 ml volumetric flask. 10 ml of 6N HCl was added to digest the
mixture, which was maintained at 100C for 1 h. This was allowed to cool and
thereafter made up to 250 ml with distilled water and filtered.

b) Oxalate precipitation: Triplicate portions of 125 ml aliquot of the filtrate were

measured into beaker and four drops of methyl red indicator added, followed by the
addition of conc. NH4OH solution drop wise until the solution changed from its
salmon pink color to a faint yellow color (pH 4 - 4.5). Each mixture was then
heated up to 90C, cooled and filtered to remove precipitate containing Fe++. Each
was again heated to 90C and 10 ml of 5% CaCl2 solution added with constant
stirring, and left over-night in the chiller at a temperature of 5C.

c) Permanganate titration: After being allowed to stand for 12 h, the solution was then
centrifuged at 2,500 rpm for 5 min. The supernatant was decanted again and the
precipitate completely dissolved in 10 ml of 20% (v/v) H2SO4. The solution was
heated until it almost attained boiling, and then titrated against 0.05N standardized
KMnO4 solution to a faint pink color that persists for 30 s.

35
Calculation:

The Calcium oxalate content was calculated based on equivalent amount of KMnO4
solution used for the titration, where: 1ml of 0.05N KMnO4 solution is equivalent to
0.00225 g anhydrous oxalic acid, and using the expression:

T Vme Df 105
oxalate content mg/100g
ME Mf

Where: T is the titre of KMnO4 (ml); Vme is the volume-mass equivalent (i.e. 1 ml of 0.05N
KMnO4 solution is equivalent to 0.00225 g anhydrous oxalic acid); Df is the dilution factor
VT/A (2.4 where VT is the total volume of titrate (300 ml) and A is the aliquot used (125
ml); ME is the molar equivalent of KMnO4 to oxalate (KMnO4 redox reaction) and; Mf is
the mass of flour used.

3.4 Sensory evaluation

The chips were analyzed for sensory quality. The purpose of evaluation was to compare the
sample with respect to appearance/color, flavor (taste, aroma), crispiness (texture) and
overall acceptability. Therefore, composite scoring test as suggested by (Ranganna, 2010)
was adopted as a method of evaluation.

A sensory panel constituting of teachers, staff and fellow students of the institute were
invited. All together ten panelists were called for the sensory evaluation. Each panelist was
provided with coded sample and a sheet of sensory evaluation card. The panelists were
asked to score for the quality attributes of appearance/color, flavor (taste, aroma),
crispiness (texture) and overall acceptability in order of their individual preference. The
specimen of score card is given in Appendix A.

3.5 Statistical analysis

The analyses were carried out in triplicate. Statistical calculations were performed in
Microsoft office Excel 2010. The analyses were carried out in triplicate. Data were
statistically processed by Analysis of Variance (ANOVA) using Genstat programming
(Genstat Release 12.1, 2009). Means of the data were compared using Fishers protected
LSD (Least Significant Difference) at 5% level of significance.

36
 Part IV

Results and discussion

Taro chips from slice thickness of 1, 1.5 and 2 mm were prepared by frying to constant
moisture content and through sensory evaluation slice thickness of chips were optimized.
The raw slices of optimized slice thickness were subjected to boiling in plain water, salt
solution and citric acid solution for selection of best treatment for maximum oxalate
reduction. Boiling in 5% salt solution was found to reduce the maximum oxalate. Finally,
taro chips from optimized thickness after the pretreatment with maximum oxalate
reduction were fried to 90s, 120s and 150s for optimization of frying time through sensory
evaluation. The best obtained product through sensory analysis was analyzed for proximate
composition.

4.1 Proximate composition of fresh taro

The proximate composition of fresh taro was found as shown in the Table 4.1

Table 4.1 Proximate composition of fresh taro corm

Parameters Value
Moisture Content (% wb) 69.2 0.21
Crude Fat (% db) 0.87 0.02
Crude Protein (% db) 5.88 0.144
Total Ash content (% db) 4.07 0.23
Crude fibre (% db) 3.22 0.05
Carbohydrate (% db) 85.96 0.533

The table shows the mean value of triplicate determination standard deviation.

The moisture content of the taro was found to be 69.2% which was found to be in the range
of moisture content of taro given by Onwueme (1994). Silmilarly, the crude fat content,
crude protein content, Ash content, crude fiber content were found to be 0.87%, 5.88%,
4.07% and 3.22% respectively. The crude fiber content of the analyzed fresh sample of taro
was found to be in the range given by Mbofung (2006) in taro found in Cameroon and
Chad. The protein content of the taro was found to be lower than the value obtained by
Serge (1996). Large servings of taro corms can become a significant source of dietary
protein, especially if taken more than once a day. The result showed that the taro is the
good source of the carbohydrate. The carbohydrate content of the taro was found to be
84.96% which is in accordance with Serge (1996).

4.2 Oxalate content in fresh sample of taro.

Total oxalate content of fresh sample of Colocasia esculenta was determined. The mean
value of total oxalate was 251.254.68 mg/100 g. Larger variations were found in the
different studies in regards to the oxalate content of taro. Noonan and Savage (1999)
reported to contain 278-574 mg/100 g of oxalate in taro corm. The result obtained in our
study is lower than the oxalate content reported by Noonan and Savage (1999). As per
Iwuoha and Kalu (1995), calcium oxalate content in the taro corm is about 590 mg/100 g
corm whereas Holloway et al. (1989) reported that the oxalate content of the tubers of four
different cultivars of taro, the total oxalates ranged from 65 mg/100 g fresh weight (FW)
for taro (Colocasia esculenta) to 319 mg/100 g FW for giant swamp taro (Cyrtosperma
merkussii).

4.3 Optimization of slice thickness

For the optimization of slice thickness, slices of 1, 1.5 and 2 mm were cut from peeled and
washed taro corms. After the boiling treatment, slices of each thickness were fried at
1805C to constant moisture content. Total 3 samples of fried chips were prepared. The
fried chips of three different slice thicknesses (1, 1.5 and 2 mm) were coded as A, B and C
respectively. Sensory evaluation of the prepared samples was carried out.

The statistical analysis showed that the sample A, B and C were significantly different
at 5 % level of significance from each other in terms of color. The golden color of the chips
is mostly liked by the consumers. The slice thickness of the chips had the significant effect
on the color of the final chips prepared. The redness parameter increased with the increase
in the slice thickness. Thin slices may have had very little amount of precursors combined
with short frying time led to reduced redness and darkening of chips. The effect thickness
on the sensory parameters of taro chips is shown in the form of graph in Fig. 4.2.

38
 A B C
9 c b b
8 b a a a b ab
Sensory score 7 a a a
6
5
4
3
2
1
0
Color Flavor Crispness Overall
acceptability
Sensory parameters

Fig. 4.1 Effect of thickness on the sensory score of taro chips

4.3.1 Color

The mean sensory score for color of sample A, B and C were found to be 7.2, 6.4 and 5.4
respectively. The statistical analysis showed that the sample A, B and C were significantly
different (p<0.05). The result of the sensory score showed the chips of thinner slice i.e. 1
mm was liked by the sensory panelists, smaller the slice thickness higher the scores.

Abong et al. (2011) reported the significant increase in the redness parameter with the
increase in the slice thickness while lightness and yellow parameters significantly
decreased with the increase in the slice thickness in potato crisps. Thin slices may have had
very little amount of precursors combined with short frying time that led to reduced
redness and darkening of chips.

4.3.2 Flavor

The mean sensory score of sample A, B and C for flavor were found to be 6.4, 6.5 and 6.4
respectively. The statistical analysis showed that the sample A, B and C were not
significantly different (p>0.05) with each other. The result obtained is similar to the result
obtained by Abong et al. (2011) in potato chips. The slice thickness had no effect on the
flavor development. Rather than the slice thickness the type of oil used to fry chips and
inherent flavor compounds of the raw materials affects the flavor of the chips (Elfbesh et

39
al., 2011). Cooking oil used for frying plays a significant role in imparting unique taste,
aroma and flavor to the fried product (Yodkraisri and Bhat, 2012).

4.3.4 Crispness

The mean sensory score for crispness of sample A, B and C were found to be 6.4, 5.9 and
5.6 respectively. The statistical analysis showed that sample A and B with each other and
sample B and C with each other were not found to be significantly different (p>0.05)
whereas sample A and C were found to be significantly different (p<0.05) with each other.
The crispness of the chips prepared from the raw slice thickness of 1 mm was liked by the
panelist. The result showed the acceptance of the chips in terms of crispness increased with
the decrease in the slice thickness of the chips.

4.3.1 Overall acceptability

The mean sensory score for overall acceptability of samples A, B and C were found to be
6.85, 6.45 and 5.7 respectively. The statistical analysis showed that the sample A and B
were found significantly (p<0.05) different from sample C. Sample A and B were found to
be not significantly different (p>0.05) with each other. The result showed that overall
acceptability of the chips was not affected by the slice thickness. However the chips of
slice thickness of 1 and 1.5 mm were liked by the panelists.

4.4 Selection of slice thickness

For the selection of the slice thickness of raw taro, the sensory scores were considered for
three different samples. Sample A, B and C were not found to be significantly different
with each other in terms of overall acceptability. But they were significantly different in
terms of color. Color of the food surface is the first quality parameter evaluated by
consumers and is critical in acceptance of the product even before it enters the mouth
(Santis et al., 2007). Since sample A had the highest mean sensor score of 7.2 for color of
the chips 1 mm slice thickness was selected for the preparation of chips.

4.5 Optimization of pretreatments of taro slices

4.5.1 Effect of boiling treatment on oxalate content of taro

For the boiling treatment the maximum time period till the cracking of slices occurred was
selected by trial. Slices of taro were dipped in the boiling water and the time was noted.

40
The slices started cracking after 7 min of boiling. Further boiling of 1mm thick slice
resulted in the deformation of texture. After treatment, samples were analyzed to observe
the reduction of oxalate content.

The mean oxalate content of the taro slices after the boiling treatment was found to be
119.171.1324 mg/100g. The result showed 52.5% reduction of oxalate content, which
was similar to the result obtained by Lewu et al. (2010) i.e. 52% for 20 min. Sharma
(2013) also reported 56% of oxalate reduction for 20 min of boiling. Similar reduction
percentage was obtained in less time which may be due to the smaller slice thickness as
described by Owuamanam et al. (2013). The reduction in oxalates during boiling may be
due to the solubility of the raphides crystals (Aboubakara et al., 2009).

4.5.2 Effect of salt treatment on oxalate content of taro

For the salt treatment, different concentration of salt have been used i.e., 1%, 3%, and 5%.
Then each of the solutions was allowed to boil at 100C and taro slices were allowed to
boil in the boiling salt solution for 7 min. After treatment, samples were analyzed to study
the reduction pattern of oxalate.

From the analysis, it has been observed that there is the significant reduction (p<0.05) in
the total oxalate content in comparison to that of plain water boiling treatment alone. The
oxalate content has been reduced by 57.22%, 65.88% and 72.38% in 1%, 3% and 5% salt
solution respectively. The reduction percentage obtained for boiling in 5% salt solution is
similar to the result obtained by Sharma (2013) for boiling 20 min in 5 % salt solution.
However the result was obtained in short time period because of the smaller slice thickness
used in the treatment.

The reduction may be due to the synergistic effect of temperature and salt concentration.
Salt is known to have the osmotic effect. Jaiwunglok et al. (2010) reported that sodium
chloride affects the decomposition of HCN as it accelerates the osmosis reaction which
facilitated leaching of liberated cyanide from bamboo shoot. And the same osmotic effect
might have influence maximum leaching of the oxalate from the ruptured cells of the taro
corm resulting in the subsequent reduction of oxalate content. The effect is shown in the
form of graph in Fig. 4.2. The mean value of oxalate content for the salt treatment effect is
shown in the Appendix table.

41
 140
f

Oxalate content (mg/100g)

120 e
100 d
80 a
60
40
20
0
plain water 1% salt 3% salt 5% salt
solution solution solution

Fig. 4.2 Effect of salt treatment on oxalate content of taro slices

4.5.3 Effect of Citric acid treatment on oxalate content of taro

For the citric acid treatment, different concentration of citric acid solutions have been used
i.e., 0.6% 0.9% and 1.2%. Then each of the solutions was allowed to boil and taro samples
were added in the boiling citric acid solution for 7 min. From the analysis, it has been
observed that there is the significant reduction in the total oxalate content in comparison to
that of plain water boiling treatment alone. The reduction may be due to the synergistic
effect of the temperature and the citric acid concentration.

During cooking with the citric acid, there is the rapid increase in the gelatinization of
the starch, which further accelerates the decrease in hardness than in comparison to that of
the cooking in plain water alone (Aboubakara et al., 2009). Thus the leaching of the
oxalate from the taro slices is being influenced at the greater rate. Furthermore, cooking in
the citric acid reduces the cooking time so that the desirable level of anti-nutrient can be
removed within the less time. This illustrates the economic use of citric acid (Wanjekeche
et al., 2003).

The effect of citric acid treatment is shown in the Fig. 4.3. The mean value of oxalate
content for the citric acid treatment is shown in the Appendix table.

42
 140
f
Oxalate content (mg/100g)
120

100
d c
80 b

60

40

20

0
plain water 0.6% citric 0.9% citric 1.2% citric
acid solution acid solution acid solution

Fig. 4.3 Effect of citric acid treatment on oxalate content of taro slices

4.6 Selection of pretreatment

All the pretreatments were significantly different from each other in terms of oxalate
reduction. However the reduction of oxalate content by boiling in 3% salt solution was not
significantly different to boiling in 0.6% citric acid solution. In the plain water boiling
treatment, there is considerable reduction in the oxalate content. The amount oxalate
removed was 52.5%. The percentage reduced was not to the safe level and also it demands
longer time for effective removal of oxalate. The longer time of boiling the chip slices
affect the texture of slices which may result in the deformation of shape. This may have the
negative impact on the appearance of the final product.

In case of salt treatment higher percentage of oxalate has been reduced i.e. 57.2%,
65.8% and 72.3% for 1%, 3% and 5% salt concentration respectively. All the reduced
levels are not below the threshold level of oxalate in food except for the 5% salt treatment.
The residual oxalate content after the 5% treatment was found to be 69.38 mg/100g which
is below the threshold level i.e. 71mg/100g (Sefa-Dedeh and Agyir-Sackey, 2004)

Lastly, also in case of citric acid treatment percentage of oxalate that has been reduced
are 66.4%, 68.2% and 70.7% respectively for 0.6%, 0.9% and 1.2%. Though the residual
oxalate content after 1.2% citric acid treatment was near to the threshold level, all other
reduced level were above it.

43
 From the above reduced percentage of oxalate, 5% salt treatment can be regarded as the
best one for the removal of oxalate and hence selected for the preparation of fried taro
chips.

4.7 Optimization of frying time

For the optimization of frying time, peeled and washed taro corms were sliced to thickness
of 1 mm. After washing and surface drying the slices were subjected to 5% salt treatment
then fried for varying time, i.e., (90 s, 120 s and 150 s) at 1805C.

Three samples prepared by frying for 90 s, 120 s and 150 s and coded as D, E and F
respectively. Sensory evaluation of the prepared samples were carried out. The statistical
analysis showed that the sample D, E and F were significantly different at 5 % level of
significance from each other in terms of color, flavor, crispness and overall acceptability.
The effect of frying time on the sensory property of pretreated taro chips is shown in the
Fig. 4.4.

D E F
9
b c c c
8 ab b
a b b
7 a a
a
Sensory score

6
5
4
3
2
1
0
Color Flavor Crispness Overall
acceptability
Sensory parameters
Fig. 4.4 Effect of frying time on the sensory property of pretreated taro chips

4.7.1 Color

The mean sensory score for flavor of sample D, E and F were found to be 5.8, 6.2 and 7
respectively. The statistical analysis showed that the sample D and F and sample E and F
were found to be not significantly different (p>0.05). Sample D and E were found to be
significantly different (p<0.05) with each other.

44
 The color of the chip is the consequence of the non-enzymatic browning associated with
the Maillard reaction during frying (Santis et al., 2007). The chips fried after the boiling
treatment produced the light colored chips. The boiling treatments can be highly efficient
in reducing browning of the fried products (such as for chips) by leaching out Maillard
reactants that can play a significant role in determining the color formation during frying
(Pedreschi et al., 2004). However frying time had the significant effect on the color of the
fried taro chips. This may be attributed to the non-enzymatic browning of fried chips
caused by the residual Maillard reactants after boiling treatment. In other words, the color
development is dependent on the extent of Maillard reaction which increases with the
frying time.

4.7.2 Flavor

The mean sensory score of sample D, E and F for flavor were found to be 5.3, 7.1 and 6.2
respectively. The statistical analysis showed that the sample D, E and F were found to be
significantly different with each other.

In fried products, flavor compounds are not only inherent but also from the frying oil,
Maillard reaction products and from the interaction of Maillard reaction products with lipid
oxidation products (Stier, 2000; Maga, 1994; Whitfield, 1992)

Browning becomes very rapid at temperatures higher than 150C and volatile flavor
compounds are produced as secondary products (Miranda and Aguilera, 2006). Lisiska
(1989) reported that the desirable flavor of potato chips is limited by the high dry matter
content as well as the low sugar concentration. The flavor and odour of light colored chips
are less intense than those of dark colored chips (Lisiska, 1989)..

4.7.3 Crispness

The mean sensory score for flavor of sample D, E and F were found to be 5.7, 6.5 and 7.4
respectively. The statistical analysis showed that sample D, E and F were found to be
significantly different (p<0.05) with each other.

According to Segnini et al. (1999) frying time significantly affected crispness of potato
chips which is parallel to results of fried taro chips. Similar result was obtained in fried
artichoke slices by Baltacolu and Esin (2012). The moisture content of the chips
decreases with length of frying and the chips become crunchier (Kawas and Moreira,
45
2001). Frying time is an important factor in processing fried product. With the increase in
the frying time the crust thickness increases and the product becomes more crispier
(Moreira, 2001).

4.7.4 Overall acceptability

The mean sensory score for overall acceptability of samples D, E and F were found to be
5.5, 6.85 and 6.2 respectively. The mean sensory score for overall acceptability for sample
E was found to be highest. The statistical analysis showed that the sample D, E and F were
significantly (p<0.05) different with each other. Since the frying time had the significant
effect on the color, flavor and the crispness of the chips, the overall acceptability of the
chips was affected. The color and the flavor of the sample E was liked mostly by the
sensory panelists.

4.8 Proximate analysis of the product

The proximate analysis of the best obtained from sensory analysis i.e. sample E is
presented in Table 4.5.

Table 4.5 Proximate analysis of final product taro chips.

Parameters Value
Moisture Content (% wb) 1.94 0.242
Crude Fat (% db) 29.6 0.574
Crude Protein (% db) 5.94 0.148
Total Ash content (% db) 2.54 0.08
Crude fibre (% db) 3.91 0.135
Carbohydrate (% db) 58.01 0.533
Energy (Kcal/100g) 522.2

The table shows the mean value of triplicate determination standard deviation.

Proximate analysis of final product with best sensorial score was done. From the analysis
the moisture, carbohydrate, fat, protein, ash content and crude fiber was found to be 1.94%,
58.01%, 29.6%, 5.94%, 2.54% and 3.91% respectively.

The moisture content obtained result is within the range of 1 to 2% as described by

(Miranda and Aguilera, 2006; Gamble and Rice, 1987) in potato chips. There was large
46
reduction in the moisture content. During deep fat frying, heat and mass transfer takes
place simultaneously; heat is transferred from the oil to the food, water is evaporated from
the food material and oil is absorbed. Crude fat content of the product was found to be
29.6% which is in the range of the fat content described by Hollyer et al. (2000) in the taro
chips. The lower oil content in the product may be attributed to the drying after boiling of
the taro slices. The reduction of initial moisture content significantly decreases the oil
uptake (Paz-Gamboa et al., 2015).

The protein content of the chips was found to be comparable to that of the raw taro.
However the slight increase in the protein content may be due to the formation of new
product similar to protein during frying process and could have influenced the
determination of protein content using kjeldahl process. The ash content measures the
amount of the nutritionally important minerals present in a food material (Lewu et al.,
2009). The reduction of the total ash content in the final product can be attributed to the
loss of minerals during boiling treatment. The total carbohydrate of the final product was
found to contain 58.01% which was largely reduced to the initial content of the fresh
corms. The reductions of the carbohydrate content may be attributed to both boiling and
frying process. During wet heat treatment, as in blanching and boiling of vegetables and
fruits, there is a considerable loss of low molecular weight carbohydrates (i.e. mono- and
disaccharides) as well as micronutrients, into the processing water (FAO, 1997). Similar
reductions have been explained to result from reaction of reducing sugars that are part of
carbohydrates with amino acids during non-enzymatic browning (Abong et al., 2009).

4.9 Cost evaluation

The cost of 1 kg taro chips was calculated as NRs. 386, considering 25% overhead
expenses. Cost can be reduced by mass production. The budget chart is shown in Appendix
E.

47
 Part V

Conclusions and recommendations

5.1 Conclusions

On the basis of the research work conducted, the following conclusions are drawn:

1. The oxalate content of the raw taro corm was found to be 251.25 mg/100 g on dry
basis.

2. Among different boiling treatments, boiling at 100C for 7 min with 5% salt
solution had the maximum reduction of the oxalate content which has been the
major limiting factor for the utilization of taro by 72.38% in raw taro slices of 1
mm thickness. The treatment had the significantly higher reduction of oxalate
content than other boiling treatments.

3. Taro chips prepared with the raw slice thickness of 1 mm fried for 120 s after the
boiling treatment at 100C with 5% salt was found to be statistically superior in the
sensory evaluation.

5.2 Recommendations

Based on the present study the following recommendations could be made for the further
study:

1. For the preparation of taro chips with low oxalate content and acceptable quality,
taro slices of 1 mm thickness can be fried for 120 s at 1805C after boiling in 5%
salt solution for 7 min and drying for 20 min at 60C.

2. The shelf life of the product can be studied.

3. Combinations of the treatments (boiling, salt and citric acid) can be carried out for
further reduction of the oxalate content.

4. Effect of different pretreatment on the sensory property of the chips could be

carriedout.
 Part VI

Summary

Taro (Colocasia esculenta) is one of the most widely cultivated edible roots in the tropical
and subtropical countries. Taro corms are high in carbohydrate in the form of starch and
low in fat and protein. Taro is also a good source of crude fiber, vitamins and minerals.
Despite its nutritional relevance, taro has not received sufcient attention in the literature
to enhance its potential, allowing a widespread use. One major limiting factor in the
utilization of taro is the presence of oxalates which impart acrid taste or cause irritation
when foods prepared from them are eaten.

For the preparation of the taro chips, less acrid variety of colocasia esculenta local
name khari pindalu was bought from the local market of Pokhara. Corms were then
cleaned and sorted to remove dust, foreign matters and damaged parts. The corms were
peeled, washed and sliced to different thickness i.e. 1, 1.5 and 2 mm. The slices were then
boiled at 100C and dried at 70C for 20 min. These slices were then fried to constant
moisture content at 180 5C in a frying pan without pretreatment for the selection of slice
thickness. The sensory analysis of three different samples namely A, B and C was carried
out. Sample A was found to be statistically superior than other samples in terms of sensory
evaluation. Sample B and C were found significantly different than sample C and sample
A and B were not significantly different with each other in terms of overall acceptability.
Since sample A had the highest mean sensory score of overall acceptability the thickness
of 1 mm slice was selected.

Oxalate reduction of the fried taro chips was done through the pretreatments of raw taro
slices. Boiling in plain water, boiling in 1%, 3% and 5% salt solution and boiling in 0.6%,
0.9% and 1.2% citric acid solution were carried out as pretreatment. Hence the
pretreatment with the maximum oxalate reduction was selected. Among the different
pretreatments, boiling with 5% salt solution had the significantly (p<0.05) highest
reduction of oxalate content of raw taro slices. The treatment reduced the oxalate content
to 69.37 mg/100 g dry weight.

Finally, taro corms were washed, cleaned and peeled. Then slices of 1 mm thickness
were sliced. The raw slices were washed and subjected to salt treatment. The salt treated
slices were fried to varying time i.e. 90 s, 120 s and 150 s at 1805C in a frying pan. In
this way three samples coded as D, E and F were prepared. Thus prepared samples D, E
and F were subjected to sensory analysis. From the sensory analysis, sample E was found
to be statistically superior than other samples in terms of overall acceptability.

50
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 Appendices

Appendix A

Sensory evaluation of Taro Chips

Hedonic rating test

Product: Taro Chips Name:

Attributes Sample

A B C

Color

Flavor(taste/aroma)

Crispness(texture)

overall
acceptability

Scoring scale:
Attributes Score Attributes Score

Like Extremely 9 Dislike slightly 4

Like very much 8 Dislike moderately 3
Like moderately 7 Dislike very much 2
Like slightly 6 Dislike extremely 1
Neither like nor dislike 5

Comments
...

Signature: ..
 Appendix B

Table B.1 ANOVA table for sensory evaluation of sample A, B, and C

Sample Slice thickness Color Flavor Crispiness Overall

acceptability

A 1 mm 7.20.788 6.40.5164 6.40.5163 6.850.8181

B 1.5 mm 6.40.516 6.50.5270 5.90.7378 6.750.4249

C 2 mm 5.40.516 6.40.5164 5.60.5163 5.70.4830

Table B.2 Two way ANOVA for color of taro chips

Source of variation d.f. s.s. m.s. v.r. F pr.

Sample 2 16.2667 8.1333 28.89 <.001

Panelist 9 5.3333 0.5926 2.11 0.086

Residual 18 5.0667 0.2815

Total 29 26.6667

Since, F.pr <0.05, there is significant difference between the samples. So, LSD testing is
necessary.

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Table B.3 LSD table for color of taro chip

Sample Mean score LSD at 0.05

A 7.2c 0.4985

B 6.4b

C 5.4a

Table B.4 Two way ANOVA for flavor of taro chips

Source of variation d.f. s.s. m.s. v.r. F pr.

Sample 2 0.0667 0.0333 0.10 0.904

Panelist 9 1.3667 0.1519 0.46 0.882

Residual 18 5.9333 0.3296

Total 29 7.3667

Table B.5 Two way ANOVA for crispiness of taro chips

Source of variation d.f. s.s. m.s. v.r. F pr.

Sample 2 3.2667 1.6333 4.85 0.021

Panelist 9 3.6333 0.4037 1.20 0.354

Residual 18 6.0667 0.3370

Total 29 12.9667

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Since, F.pr <0.05, there is significant difference between the samples. So, LSD testing is
necessary.

Table B.6 LSD table for crispiness of taro chip

Sample Mean score LSD at 0.05

A 6.4b 0.545

B 5.9ab

C 5.6a

Table B.7 Two way ANOVA for overall acceptability of taro chips

Source of variation d.f. s.s. m.s. v.r. F pr.

Sample 2 8.1167 4.0583 12.42 <.001

Panelist 9 3.8667 0.4296 1.31 0.296

Residual 18 5.8833 0.3269

Total 29 17.8667

Since, F.pr <0.05, there is significant difference between the samples. So, LSD testing is
necessary.

Table B.8 LSD table for overall acceptability of taro chips

Sample Mean score LSD at 0.05

A 6.85b 0.537

B 6.75b

C 5.7a

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 Appendix C

Table C.1 One way ANOVA table for oxalate reduction by different boiling pretreatment

Source of variation d.f. s.s. m.s. v.r. F pr.

Sample 6 5972.636 995.439 327.46 <.001

Residual 14 42.559 3.040

Total 20 6015.195

Table C.2 Mean value of residual oxalate content for different pretreatments.

Pretreatment Oxalate content % reduction

Boiling 119.1751.132f 52.570.45

1% salt solution 107.4750.566e 57.220.225

3% salt solution 85.7250.811d 65.880.322

5% salt solution 69.3751.718a 72.390.683

0.6% citric acid solution 84.3751.948d 66.420.775

0.9% citric acid solution 79.8751.125c 68.210.447

1.2% citric acid solution 73.53.317b 70.751.32

*The table shows the mean values of triplicate determination standard deviation. Mean
values with different superscripts are significantly different at p< 0.05. LSD between
samples = 3.053

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 Appendix D

Table D.1 ANOVA table for sensory analysis of sample D, E and F.

Overall
Sample Color Flavor Crispiness
acceptability

D 5.8a 5.3a 5.7a 5.5a

E 7b 7.1c 6.5b 6.85c

F 6.2ab 6.2b 7.4c 6.2b

Mean values within a column with different superscripts are significantly different at p<
0.05. LSD between samples = 0.545

Table D.2 Two way ANOVA for color of taro chips

Source of variation d.f. s.s. m.s. v.r. F pr.

Sample 2 7.4667 3.7333 4.85 0.021

Panelist 9 9.3333 1.0370 1.35 0.282

Residual 18 13.8667 0.7704

Total 29 30.6667

Table D.3 Two way ANOVA for crispness of taro chips

Source of variation d.f. s.s. m.s. v.r. F pr.

Sample 2 14.4667 7.2333 21.00 <.001

Panelist 9 2.8000 0.3111 0.90 0.543

Residual 18 6.2000 0.3444

Total 29 23.4667

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Table D.4 Two way ANOVA for flavor of taro chips

Source of variation d.f. s.s. m.s. v.r. F pr.

Sample 2 16.2000 8.1000 14.88 <.001

Panelist 9 4.8000 0.5333 0.98 0.488

Residual 18 9.8000 0.5444

Total 29 30.8000

Table D.5 Two way ANOVA for overall acceptability of taro chips

Source of variation d.f. s.s. m.s. v.r. F pr.

Sample 2 9.1167 4.5583 13.56 <.001

Panelist 9 8.0750 0.8972 2.67 0.036

Residual 18 6.0500 0.3361

Total 29 23.2417

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 Appendix E

Table E.1 Cost evaluation

Parameters Quantity Rate Amount (NRs.)

Taro corms 1.75 kg NRs. 40/kg 70

Oil 1.5 l NRs. 150/l 225

Salt 0.63 kg NRs. 22/kg 14

Total cost of raw materials: NRs. 309

Overhead cost (25%): NRs. 77

Total cost: NRs. 386

Price of 1 kg of deep fried taro chips is NRs. 386.

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