PREPARATION AND QUALITY EVALUATION OF

COMPOSITE BREAD FROM WHEAT FLOUR AND

FINGER MILLET (Elusine coracana L.) FLOUR (MALTED
AND UNMALTED)

by
Ghulam Sarwar

Food Technology Instruction Committee

Institute of Science and Technology
Tribhuvan University, Nepal
2010
Preparation and Quality Evaluation of Composite Bread from Wheat
Flour and Finger Millet (Elusine coracana L.) Flour (Malted and
Unmalted)

A dissertation submitted to the Food Technology Instruction Committee

in Tribhuvan University in partial fulfillment of the requirements
for the degree of B.Tech. in Food Technology

by
Ghulam Sarwar

Food Technology Instruction Committee

Institute of Science and Technology
Tribhuvan University
Dharan, Hattisar, Nepal
February, 2010

ii
 Tribhuvan University
Institute of Science and Technology
Food Technology Instruction Committee
Central Campus of Technology, Dharan

Approval Letter

This dissertation entitled Preparation and Quality Evaluation of Composite Bread from
Wheat Flour and Finger Millet (Elusine coracana L.) Flour (Malted and Unmalted)
presented by Ghulam Sarwar has been accepted as the partial fulfillment of the
requirements for the degree of B.Tech. in Food Technology.

Dissertation Committee

1. Chairperson
(Assoc. Prof. Mrs Geeta Bhattarai)

2. External Examiner
(Mr. Nawa Raj Dahal)

3. Supervisor
(Assoc. Prof. Basanta Kumar Rai)

Date: 14th Feb, 2010

iii
 Acknowledgements
I would like to express my profound sense of gratitude to my respected guide Mr. Basanta
Kumar Rai, Asssociate Professor, Central Campus of Technology, for his constant
guidance, supervision, frequent inspiration and invaluable suggestions throughout my
dissertation period.

I am also grateful to Assoc. Prof. Pashupati Mishra Assistant Dean and Campus Chief,
Central Campus of Technology, Prof. Dr. Ganga Prasad Kharel, Former Assistant Dean
and Campus Chief, Central Campus of Technology and Assoc. Prof. Geeta Bhattarai,
Chairperson, Food Technology Instruction Committee for providing me this opportunity to
perform my work and providing laboratory facilities.

I am indeed grateful to Mr. Ganesh Dawadi, Senior Food Research Officer, DFTQC,
Babarmahal for his invaluable support.

I also express my thanks to all the staffs of Laxmi Bakery Udyog, Pvt. Ltd.
Chatachowk, Dharan for their kind support and co-operation during my dissertation work.
Special thanks go to all the staffs of Central Campus of Technology and my colleagues,
especially Santosh Devkota and panelists for their effective help and co-operation during
this dissertation work.

Finally, I want to thank my beloved parents for their love and support and also my
brother and colleague, Ghulam Ali.

Tribhuvan University Ghulam Sarwar

Institute of Science and Technology
Central Campus of Technology
Hattisar, Dharan
February, 2010

iv
 Contents

Approval letter ............................................................................................................ iii

Acknowledgements ..................................................................................................... iv
Contents ........................................................................................................................ v
List of tables and figures ............................................................................................. x
Abstract ...................................................................................................................... xii
1. Introduction................................................................................................................1-3
1.1 General introduction ................................................................................................ 1
1.2 Statement of problem .............................................................................................. 2
1.3 Objectives ................................................................................................................ 3
1.3.1 General objective ........................................................................................... 3
1.3.2 Specific objective ........................................................................................... 3
1.4 Limitation of study .................................................................................................. 3
1.5 Significance of the study ......................................................................................... 3
2. Literature review......................................................................................................4-38
2.1 Finger millet ............................................................................................................ 4
2.1.1 Scientific classification of finger millet ......................................................... 5
2.1.2 Grain morphology and physical characteristics ............................................. 6
2.1.3 Chemical characteristics ................................................................................ 8
2.1.4 Nutritional attributes ...................................................................................... 9
2.1.5 Antinutrients in ragi ..................................................................................... 10
2.1.5.1 Goitrogens ........................................................................................ 10
2.1.5.2 Phytate .............................................................................................. 10
2.1.5.3 Health benefits of phytate ................................................................ 11
2.2 Uses of finger millet in Nepal ............................................................................... 12
2.2.1 Fermented food ............................................................................................ 12
2.2.1.1 Method of preparation of jand ......................................................... 12
2.2.2 Non fermented food ..................................................................................... 13
2.2.2.1 Dhiro ................................................................................................ 13
2.2.2.2 Roti ................................................................................................... 13
2.2.2.3 Dalla................................................................................................. 14
2.3 Traditional foods from ragi in different parts of the world ................................... 14

v
2.4 Traditional method of milling of ragi in Nepal ..................................................... 14
2.4.1 Janto ............................................................................................................. 14
2.4.2 Panighatta (water mill) ................................................................................ 15
2.5 Development of technology for the processing of ragi ......................................... 16
2.5.1 Pre-processing .............................................................................................. 16
2.5.1.1 Destoning ......................................................................................... 16
2.5.1.2 Degluming of ragi ............................................................................ 16
2.5.2 Processing (milling) of ragi ......................................................................... 17
2.5.2.1 Plate mill .......................................................................................... 17
2.5.2.2 Hammer mill .................................................................................... 17
2.5.2.3 Roller flour mill ............................................................................... 18
2.6 The development of refined flour technology of ragi ........................................... 18
2.7 Malting of ragi ...................................................................................................... 19
2.8 Composite bread .................................................................................................... 20
2.8.1 Developments in Composite Flour Program ................................................ 20
2.8.2 Composite flour program in Nepal .............................................................. 21
2.9 Development of bread making process ................................................................. 22
2.10 History of bread making in Nepal ....................................................................... 24
2.11 Raw materials for bread making.......................................................................... 24
2.11.1 Wheat flour ................................................................................................ 25
2.11.2 Yeast........................................................................................................... 26
2.11.3 Salt ............................................................................................................. 26
2.11.4 Water .......................................................................................................... 27
2.11.5 Sugar .......................................................................................................... 28
2.11.6 Fats ............................................................................................................. 29
2.11.7 Milk and milk products .............................................................................. 29
2.11.8 Malt products ............................................................................................. 30
2.11.9 Malt extract ................................................................................................ 30
2.11.10 Other improvers ....................................................................................... 31
2.12 Bread making process ......................................................................................... 31
2.12.1 Dough mixing ............................................................................................ 32
2.12.2 Dough fermentation ................................................................................... 33
2.12.3 Straight dough process ............................................................................... 34

vi
 2.12.4 Sponge process ........................................................................................... 34
2.12.5 Knock back ................................................................................................ 34
2.12.6 Dividing ..................................................................................................... 34
2.12.7 Proofing ...................................................................................................... 35
2.12.8 Baking of dough ......................................................................................... 35
2.12.9 Bread cooling ............................................................................................. 36
2.13 The technology involved in dough formation ..................................................... 36
2.14 Nutritional value of bread .................................................................................... 37
2.15 Wheat flour and bread standards in Nepal .......................................................... 38
3. Materials and methods..........................................................................................39-48
3.1 Materials ................................................................................................................ 39
3.1.1 Materials used for malting of millet ............................................................. 39
3.1.2 Raw material collection ............................................................................... 39
3.2.3 Equipment and instruments .......................................................................... 39
3.2 Methods ................................................................................................................. 40
3.2.1 Process of malting ........................................................................................ 40
3.2.1.1 Cleaning ........................................................................................... 40
3.2.1.2 Steeping ............................................................................................ 40
3.2.1.3 Spreading ......................................................................................... 41
3.2.1.4 Moistening ....................................................................................... 41
3.2.1.5 Germination ..................................................................................... 41
3.2.1.6 Drying .............................................................................................. 41
3.3 Preparation of composite bread ............................................................................. 42
3.4 Method for preparation of composite bread .......................................................... 43
3.5 Baking oven profile ............................................................................................... 44
3.6 Analytical methods ................................................................................................ 45
3.6.1 Determination of protein .............................................................................. 45
3.6.2 Determination of fat ..................................................................................... 45
3.6.3 Determination of moisture content .............................................................. 45
3.6.4 Determination of crude fiber ........................................................................ 45
3.6.5 Determination of total ash ............................................................................ 46
3.6.6 Determination of carbohydrate .................................................................... 46
3.6.7 Determination of amylase activity ............................................................... 46

vii
 3.6.8 Determination of reducing sugar.................................................................. 46
3.6.9 Determination of total sugar ........................................................................ 46
3.6.10 Determination of phytic acid...................................................................... 46
3.6.11 Determination of calcium........................................................................... 47
3.6.12 Determination of iron ................................................................................. 47
3.7 Sensory evaluation ................................................................................................ 47
3.8 Statistical analysis ................................................................................................. 48
4. Results and discussion...........................................................................................49-59
4.1 Proximate composition .......................................................................................... 49
4.1.1 Moisture content .......................................................................................... 49
4.1.2 Crude protein................................................................................................ 49
4.1.3 Crude fat ....................................................................................................... 50
4.1.4 Crude fiber ................................................................................................... 50
4.1.5 Crude ash...................................................................................................... 50
4.1.6 Carbohydrate ................................................................................................ 51
4.1.7 Energy .......................................................................................................... 52
4.2 Sensory properties ................................................................................................. 52
4.2.1 Taste ............................................................................................................. 53
4.2.2 Flavor ........................................................................................................... 53
4.2.3 Texture ......................................................................................................... 53
4.2.4 Crumb........................................................................................................... 54
4.2.5 Color............................................................................................................. 54
4.2.6 Overall acceptability .................................................................................... 54
4.3 Proximate composition of final product ................................................................ 56
4.4 Effect of malting on finger millet .......................................................................... 56
4.3.1 Amylase activity .......................................................................................... 56
4.3.2 Phytic acid .................................................................................................... 57
4.5 Effect of finger millet flour on mineral content of composite bread ..................... 57
4.5.1 Calcium content ........................................................................................... 58
4.5.2 Iron content .................................................................................................. 58
4.6 Sugar content of flour samples .............................................................................. 59
4.6.1 Reducing sugar ............................................................................................. 59
4.6.2 Total sugar.................................................................................................... 59

viii
5. Conclusions and recommendations.......................................................................... 61
5.1 Conclusions ........................................................................................................... 61
5.2 Recommendations ................................................................................................. 61
6. Summary .................................................................................................................... 62
References................................................................................................................... 64
Appendix A................................................................................................................. 70
Appendix B ................................................................................................................. 71
Appendix C................................................................................................................. 74
Appendix D................................................................................................................. 76
Appendix E ................................................................................................................. 78
Appendix F ................................................................................................................. 79
Appendix G ................................................................................................................ 80
Appendix H ................................................................................................................ 81

ix
 List of tables and figures

Tables
Table 2.1 Geographical features of Nepal ........................................................................... 7
Table 2.2 Agricultural production of Nepal ......................................................................... 8
Table 2.3 Chemical composition of major cereal grains (per 100 g edible portion) ........... 9
Table 2.4 Effect of malting on phytic acid content of finger millet grain ......................... 19
Table 2.5 Sugar content of flours with different extraction rates ...................................... 25
Table 2.6 Classification of flour on the basis of extraction rates....................................... 25
Table 2.7 Quantities of malt products with respect to type of malt ................................... 30
Table 2.8 Typical composition of bread ............................................................................ 37
Table 2.9 Wheat flour and bread standards in Nepal ......................................................... 38
Table 3.1 Preparation of blends of finger millet flour and wheat flour ............................. 42
Table 3.2 Composite bread formulations ........................................................................... 43
Table 3.3 Temperature profile of the baking oven ............................................................ 44
Table 4.1 Proximate composition of wheat flour finger millet flour ................................. 51
Table 4.2 Mean score given to different sensory attributes of composite breads .............. 54
Table 4.3 Proximate composition of the final product ...................................................... 56
Table 4.4 Changes in amylase activity and phytic acid content during malting ............... 57
Table 4.5 Mineral content of flour and composite bread ................................................... 58
Table 4.6 Sugar content of flour samples .......................................................................... 60
Figures
Fig. 2.1 Finger millet (Elusine coracana) ............................................................................ 5
Fig. 2.2 Grain morphology of ragi (Elusine coracana) ....................................................... 6
Fig. 2.3 Scanning electron microscopy (SEM) of testa area of finger millet kernels .......... 7
Fig. 2.4 Flow chart of bread making process ..................................................................... 32
Fig. 2.5 Linear glutenin molecules giving elasticity to gluten and flour dough ................ 37
Fig. 3.1 Digital moisture meter (Wile-55 Moisture meter), Finland .................................. 40
Fig. 3.2 Drying of finger millet in cabinet dryer ................................................................ 41
Fig. 3.3 Flow sheet for malting process ............................................................................. 42
Fig. 3.4 Flow sheet of bread making process ..................................................................... 44
Fig. 3.5 Baking oven (“Bhatti”), Laxmi Bakery, Dharan ................................................... 45
Fig. 4.1 Cross sections of different bread formulations ..................................................... 54
 Abstract
A study was conducted to know the effect of incorporation of finger millet flour on bread
quality. Both malted and unmalted finger millet flours were incorporated into wheat flour
at 15 and 20% levels. Flours were analyzed for their moisture, crude protein, crude fat, ash,
crude fiber, calcium and iron contents separately. Malted and unmalted finger millet flours
were also analyzed for phytic acid, amylase and sugar content. Four different bread
formulations, namely A, B, C and D were prepared, by straight dough process with
incorporation of yeast 2%, salt 1%, sugar 10%, fat 2%, milk powder 2%, and custard
powder 2% per 100 parts of flour mixture. Taste, flavor, texture, crumb, color and overall
acceptance as their sensory qualities of all the experimental bread were evaluated on a 9-
point hedonic rating (1=dislike extremely, 9=like extremely) by ten semi-trained panelist.
Since, there was no composite bread available in the market, no control was used in the
study. The obtained data was analyzed statistically by Genstat Discovery Edition 3 (DE3),
for Analysis of Variance (ANOVA) at 5% level of significance. Statistical analysis showed
that 20% malted bread was significantly superior to all bread formulations, except 15%
unmalted bread with respect to flavor. There was no significant difference in the overall
acceptance of bread. Statistical analysis for the proximate composition of flour samples
showed that malting and substitution significantly improved all the nutritional attributes,
except carbohydrate and fat. Malting significantly increased the amylase and sugar content
whereas significantly decreased the phytic acid content of the flour samples. The effect of
incorporation of finger millet flour to the wheat flour resulted in the significant rise of
calcium and iron content of the bread. The results of the present work indicate that the
composite bread made from incorporation up to 20% malted millet flour can be
commercialized.
 Part I
Introduction

1.1 General introduction

In parts of East and Central Africa (not to mention India), millions of people have lived off
finger millet (Elusine coracana L.) for centuries. One of the most nutritious of the major
cereals, it is rich in methionine, an amino acid critically lacking in the diets of hundreds of
millions of the world’s poor. The plant yields satisfactorily on marginal lands, and its tasty
grain is remarkable for its long storage life. The fact that certain Africans thrive on just one
meal a day is attributed to the nutritive value and “filling” nature of this grain (BOSTID,
1996).

Composite bread is a baked product, the primary ingredients of which are composite
flour, yeast, salt and water. Technically, composite bread may be different from the whole
wheat flour bread in having composite flour, instead of wheat flour alone and other
ingredients remaining same. Composite flour is the mixture of flours from tubers rich in
starch (e.g. cassava, yam, sweet potato) and/or protein-rich flours (e.g. soy, peanut) and/or
cereals (e.g. maize, rice, millet, buckwheat), with or without wheat flour (Seibel, 2006). In
other words, flour prepared by replacing wheat flour partly or completely with the flour of
other cereals or starchy substances is known as composite flour. The main objective of the
composite flour is to make the wheat flour more nutritious enriching its deficient
components (e.g. essential amino acids like lysine, methionine and minerals) by adding the
flour of other cereals, oilseeds, legumes, etc.

Malting is the controlled germination followed by controlled drying of seeds. The goal
is to produce high enzyme activity and a characteristic flavor (Hoseney, 1989). It also
improves the digestibility of the cereal and increase the content of vitamins in the prepared
food (FAO, 1989).

The Composite Flour Program was established by the Food and Agriculture
Organization in 1964 to find new ways of using flours other than wheat, particularly
maize, millet and sorghum, in bakery and pasta products, with the objective of
stimulating local agricultural production, and saving foreign exchange, in those countries
heavily dependent on wheat imports (Kent and Evers, 2004). Local initiatives for
Biodiversity, Research and Development (LI-BIRD) in collaboration with Nepal
Agriculture Research Council (NARC) carried out research and development work for 3
years (2002-2004) in finger millet with similar objectives in Kaski and Nuwakot districts
of Nepal and had success to some extent. Several other similar works have been done at
Central Campus of Technology, Dharan in this field, but the incorporation of finger millet
in bread has not yet been done. The popularity of bread is increasing these days in our
country and such attempt with bread will produce a newer and nutritious product and
provide a choice for bread lovers.

1.2 Statement of problem

Nepal is an agricultural country as more than eighty percent of its population is involved
in agriculture (Wikipedia, 2009a). Finger millet (Elusine coracana), locally called Kodo,
is the fourth largest agricultural produce of Nepal after rice, maize and wheat. The annual
production of finger millet alone is 200 thousand metric ton excluding other varieties of
millet, 20 thousand metric ton. About half of the total quantity of finger millet grown in
Nepal is used to derive fermented product, jand (Dawadi, 1999) and the rest is wasted as
feed and in non-food use. Finger millet is a highly nutritious cereal and known mainly for
its excellent calcium content and other essential amino acids mainly methionine, which is
deficient in most cereals including wheat and legume protein. Although finger millet
contains less total protein (7.3%) than sorghum or wheat (11-12%), the biological value
of the protein is high. On several protein quality scores, finger millet ranked first and
pearl millet second; both ranked considerably higher than sorghum or maize. The Kikuyu
of Kenya regard finger millet as the most appropriate cereal for lactating women (FAO,
1989).

Utilizing this lesser utilized cereal, finger millet, in the breadmaking or similar
product, will not only improve the nutrient content of bread but will also promote the
local agricultural product, encouraging the domestic farmers growing finger millet.
Substituting the wheat flour partly with finger millet flour, will also help the country to
save the foreign exchange to some extent as Nepal is highly dependent on wheat imports.
This value addition of the cereal will also ensure food security amongst the poor.

2
1.3 Objectives

1.3.1 General objective

Incorporation of lesser utilized cereal, finger millet (Elusine coracana L.) in bread and
making it more nutritious and acceptable.

1.3.2 Specific objective

1. To prepare finger millet malt.
2. To prepare composite bread using malted and unmalted finger millet.
3. To reduce the phytic acid content of finger millet.
4. To analyze sensory-, physicochemical-, and acceptability of composite bread.

1.4 Limitation of study

1. Only one type of finger millet was used for the present study due to time constraints.
2. Malting was carried out under standard condition.
3. It was difficult to carry out sensory and chemical analyses without a control because
such composite breads are not commercially available.
4. The trial was carried out on a small scale and so the results may need to be taken with
some reservations.

1.5 Significance of the study

The study will have both academic and practical implications. The protocols developed in
this study can be used as a guideline in studying similar under-utilized cereals, naked
barley for instance. The study will also provide impetus on study of functional constituents
(nutraceutical) of finger millet, which is largely incomplete.

As for the practical implications, the study has direct relevance to ensuring food
security. Utilizing the local agricultural produce will solve the problems like increasing
cost of wheat, malnutrition and during famine, saving foreign exchange against wheat
imports, encouraging the domestic farmers growing local agricultural produce, etc., and
such products can also be targeted to specific people like diabetic patients, health
conscious people, intellectuals, etc.

3
 Part II
Literature review

2.1 Finger millet

Finger millet (Elusine coracana L.) is a smaller grain of round shape belonging to the
group of small millets. It is cultivated mainly in the land of inferior soil condition where
other super cereals like wheat appear unsuitable to be grown. The topography and soil
make-up at various locations of Nepal has been suitable to cultivate finger millet
(Appendix H and I) and the crop has occupied second position in the hills, next to maize. It
is equally grown in inner Terai region of Nepal, especially in unirrigated land. Drought
resistant capacity of finger millet is significantly more than that of other cereals so that its
cultivation is increasing in the recent years in Nepal, where the occurrence of monsoon has
been unpredictably irregular. The crop of finger millet is cultivated mainly during July-
August in Nepal, during or slightly earlier of the harvesting of maize. In most of the areas,
inner cropping pattern is followed and cultivated in the maize field, while the crop of
maize is still standing, awaiting harvest. Mainly the mode of cultivation is transplantation
rather than broadcasting. The peak harvesting time of finger millet is December-January.
However few earlier varieties (cultivars) are emerging which are planted normally during
June and harvested at September. The plant of finger millet, left after harvest, is dried and
stored in a piled-up fashion which is utilized as fodder for the cattle. Similarly, spikes after
the separation of grain on threshing and the glumes separated during threshing, is utilized
as fodder. Thus no part of the crop is spared as useless (Dawadi, 1999).

The terminal spikes look like fingers (Fig. 2.1) and hence the name finger millet. It is
botanically known as Elusine coracana L. Finger millet is locally known by the name of
‘Kodo’ in the hilly regions of Nepal and by the name of ‘Maduwa’ in the southern belt of
Terai. In northern part of India also, it is called ‘Maduwa’ and in the southern part of India
it is known by the name of ‘Ragi’. However, finger millet has different local names in
different parts of the world, the term ‘Ragi’ being more widely used (Dawadi, 1999).

It is generally believed that, the millet first originated in Africa and later it was brought
to the Indian sub-continent. Now finger millet is mainly grown in Uganda, Zambia, Kenya,
Zaire, Malawi, Tanzania, India, Nepal, Sri-Lanka, and to some extent in China. Suitability,
to grow in wider range of soil make up, topographical condition, long keeping time of
grain, and ease of cultivation might be the selective attributes of finger millet by which the
grain has been widely adopted in different parts of the world. World production of finger
millet is about 5 million metric tons and 50% of which is grown in India alone (Malleshi,
1998). Nepal produces
roduces about 282,852 metric tons of finger millet
let per year (Table 2.2).
2.2

Fig. 2.1 Finger millet (Elusine coracana)

Source: BOSTID (1996)

2.1.1 Scientific classification of finger millet

Kingdom Plantae
Subkingdom Tracheobionta
Superdivision Spermatophyta
Division Magnoliophyta
Class
ass Liliopsida
Subclass Commlinidae
Order Cyperales
Family Poaceae
Genus Eleusine Gaertn.
Species Eleusine coracana (L.) Gaertn.
Source: Anon (2009)

5
2.1.2 Grain morphology and physical characteristics
The grain of ragi as shown in Fig. 2.2 is round shaped having the diameter 1.2-1.8 mm.
The color of grain ranges from black, brown, reddish, orange, red, purple to white.
However the brown colored ragi is mostly grown everywhere. One thousand seeds weigh
about 2.6 gm or in other words, 1 gm of ragi contains 300-350 numbers of seeds. The outer
husk, pericarp, is the loosely held papery layer, most of it is removed during threshing
(Dawadi, 1999).

The seed coat of ragi is mainly composed of fiber. The brown colored seed coat is
mainly due to the presence of color pigment tannins and polyphenols. The layer next to
seed coat is known as aleurone layer which consists mainly protein and fat. The endosperm
of the grain, surrounded by aleurone layer and outer seed coat, is mainly carbohydrate with
small amount of protein (Dawadi, 1999). The electron microscopic view of the three layers
namely aleurone layer, endosperm and testa is shown in the Fig. 2.3.

Fig. 2.2 Grain morphology of ragi (Elusine coracana)

Source: Dawadi (1999)

6
Fig. 2.3 Scanning electron microscopy (SEM) of testa area of finger millet kernels
AL= aleurone layer; E= endosperm; T= testa
Source: Siwela et al. (2007)

Table 2.1 Geographical features of Nepal

Parameters Information
Total area 1,47,181 sq. km

Mountainous area 51817 sq. km

Hill area 61345 sq. km
Terai (plain) 34019 sq. km

Cultivable area 26533 sq. km

Forest area 55334 sq. km
Situated at 26º22' to 30º27' North hemisphere
80º04' to 88º12' East longitude
Population 29,331,000* (2009 estimate)

Population density 199.3* persons per sq. km

Population growth rate 2.1%
Literacy 40%
Source: Dawadi (1999); *Wikipedia (2009b)

7
Table 2.2 Agricultural production of Nepal
Crops Area, ha Production, ton Productivity, ton/ha
Rice 15,600,44 4,216,465 2.70
Maize 824,525 1,484,112 1.80
Wheat 641,030 1,157,865 1.81
Finger millet 259,888 282,852 1.09
Barley 28,194 30,488 1.08
Total 3,313,681 7,171,782
Source: Anon (2003)

2.1.3 Chemical characteristics

On an average the grain of finger millet contains 6.0% protein, 1.5% fat, 3.0% crude fiber,
2.7% mineral matters and 75% carbohydrate (Table 2.3). The protein content of finger
millet grain was also reported to vary from 4.9 to 11.3% (McDonough et al., 2000). The fat
content (free lipids) of finger millet grain is relatively lower than of sorghum and other
millets and similar to that of wheat (Siwela, 2009). Finger millet grain has low fat (1.5%,
Table 2.3) content probably because it has a relatively smaller germ (Sarna-Saldivar and
Rooney, 1995). As in other cereal grains, the fiber components of finger millet grain are
located in the cell walls (mainly in the cell walls of the pericarp and endosperm). The
pericarp, aleurone layer and germ are rich sources of minerals (Sarna-Saldivar and Rooney,
1995). The presence of color pigment, in the form of tannins and polyphenols, in the seed
coat of ragi has been attributed for preventing the grain itself from the attacks of birds and
insects. This has been an effective factor to keep the grain uninfested for a considerably
long period of time than other cereal grains. On the contrary, the food prepared out of ragi
flour turns darker in color because of the presence of color pigments in the flour (Dawadi,
1999).

8
Table 2.3 Chemical composition of major cereal grains (per 100 g edible portion)
Parameters Wheat Maize Sorghum Millet Millet Rice
(wholemeal) (96% (whole) (finger) ( bulrush) (polished)
extraction)
Moisture (ml) 13 12 12 12 12 12
Calories (Kcal) 334 363 335 336 363 352
Carbohydrate (g) 69 71 71 75 69 80
Protein (g) 12.2 10.0 10.4 6.0 11.0 7.0
Fat (g) 2.3 4.5 3.4 1.5 5.0 0.5
Fiber (g) 2.0 2.0 2.0 3.0 2.0 0.2
Calcium (mg) 30 12 32 350 25 5
Iron (mg) 3.5 2.5 4.5 5.0 3.0 1.0
Riboflavin (mg) 0.17 0.13 0.12 0.1 0.3 0.03
Thiamine (mg) 0.40 0.35 0.50 0.3 0.15 0.06
Niacin (mg) 5.0 2.0 3.5 1.4 2.0 1.0
Source: Latham (1965). Human nutrition in tropical Africa. FAO Food and Nutrition
Series No. 11

2.1.4 Nutritional attributes

The protein content of finger millet is ranged from 6-8% on dry basis. As in other cereal
protein, ragi protein is also deficit in lysine. However ragi protein contains significantly
high amount of methionine which is deficit in legume protein. Ragi diet combined with
legume gives good result. The fat content of ragi is hardly 1.5%. The energy or calorie
content of 100 g is about 350 kcal. Ragi contains about 56-65% of starch of which 17-29%
is amylose. The special feature of finger millet carbohydrate is the high proportion of non-
starchy polysaccharides (NSP). These NSP serve as dietary fiber, that helps in prevent of
constipation, lowering cholesterol and releasing the glucose, after each meals, so that the
blood glucose level does not increase rapidly similar to rice diet. Because of this reason,
ragi diet is recommended to diabetics. Finger millet contains fairly high levels of vitamins
also. Thiamine, riboflavin, choline are important vitamins of finger millet. Finger millet is
the excellent source of calcium (340 mg per 100 g millet) and it also contains good amount
of phosphorus (Dawadi, 1999).

9
2.1.5 Antinutrients in ragi
Finger millet contains some of the antinutrients (the chemical constituents of seeds which
effect the utilization of nutrients) such as polyhpenols, phytates and some of the enzyme
inhibitors to some extent. However, when the millet is milled and the outer bran is
separated, the concentration of polyphenols and phytates is reduced and when the material
is heat treated to prepare food, the enzyme inhibitors are destroyed. So in general, the
antinutritional facors are not a major problem at all, in case of finger millet (Dawadi,
1999).

2.1.5.1 Goitrogens
Millet diets rich in C-glycosylflavones (C-GF) are goitrogenic, and its three most abundant
C-GF inhibit in vitro thyroid peroxidase, suggesting that these compounds are the
goitrogens in millet. However, proof of a cause and effect relationship between C-GF and
goitrogenesis requires a demonstration of in vivo antithyroid activity by the purified
isolated compounds. Vitexin, one of the three major C-GF in millet, was used to test this
hypothesis. The test was carried out on 24 female rats. The results provided direct evidence
in vivo of C-GF antithyroid activity, strongly supporting the concept that C-GF are the
goitrogens in millet (Gaitan et al., 1995).

2.1.5.2 Phytate
Phytate (myo-inositol (1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6) hexakisphosphate), a naturally occuring compound
formed during maturation of plant seeds and grains is a common constituent of plant-
derived foods. The major concern about the presence of phytate in the diet is its negative
2+ 2+/3+
effect on mineral uptake. Minerals of concern in this regard would include Zn , Fe ,
2+ 2+ 2+ 2+
Ca , Mg , Mn , and Cu . Especially zinc and iron deficiencies were reported as a
consequence of high phytate intakes. The formation of insoluble metal cation-phytate
complexes at physiological pH-values is regarded as the major reason for a poor mineral
availability, because these complexes are essentially non-absorbable from the
gastrointestinal tract. (Greiner et al., 2006).

Despite of ragi being an excellent source of calcium, not all its calcium are available to
us because of phytate, which binds to it. (Greiner et al., 2006).

10
2.1.5.3 Health benefits of phytate
Dietary phytate was reported to prevent kidney stone formation (Grases et al., 2000),
protect against diabetes mellitus (Thompson, 1993), caries (Kaufman and Kleinberg,
1971), atherosclerosis and coronary heart disease (Jariwalla et al., 1990) as well as against
a variety of cancers (Vucenik and Shamsuddin, 2003). The reduction in phytate intake in
developed compared to developing countries might be one factor responsible for the
increase in diseases typical for Western societies such as diabetes mellitus, renal lithiasis,
cancer, atherosclerosis and coronary heart diseases. It was suggested that phytate exerts the
beneficial effects in the gastrointestinal tract and other target tissues through its chelating
ability (Greiner et al., 2006).

Foods that result in low blood glucose response have been shown to have great
nutritional significance in the prevention and management of diabetes mellitus. In this
regard phytate-rich foods are of interest, since a negative relationship between phytate
intake and blood glucose response was reported (Yoon, 1983; Thompson, 1993). For
example, phytate enriched unleavened bread based on white flour reduced the in vitro
starch digestibility besides flattening the glycemic response in five healthy volunteers in
comparison with bread without phytate addition (Yoon, 1983). The in vitro reduction of
starch digestion was positively correlated with the myo-inositol phosphate concentration
and negatively with the number of phosphate groups on the myo-inositol ring (Greiner et
al., 2006).

Animal studies have demonstrated that dietary phytate supplementation resulted in

significantly lowered serum cholesterol and triglyceride levels (Jariwalla et al., 1990). This
effect was accompanied by decrease in serum zinc level and in zinc-copper ratio. Thus, the
hypothesis was put forward that coronary heart disease is predominantly a disease of
imbalance in regard to zinc and copper metabolism (Klevay, 1975). The hypothesis is also
based on the production of hypercholesterolemia, which is a major factor in the aetiology
of coronary heart disease, in rats fed a diet with a high ratio of zinc and copper (Klevay,
1973). It was thought that excess zinc in the diets resulted in decreased copper uptake from
the small intestine, since both minerals compete for common mucosal carrier systems. As
phytate preferentially binds zinc rather than copper (Persson et al., 1998), it was presumed
that phytate exerts its effect probably by decreasing zinc without affecting copper
absorption. It should be pointed out that the support for the preventive role of phytate in

11
heart disease is based only on a few animal and in vitro studies. Results from human
studies are still lacking (Greiner et al., 2006).

In vitro and in vivo experiments as well as clinical studies clearly demonstrate that
phytate plays an important role in preventing the formation of calcium oxalate and calcium
phosphate crystals, which function as nuclei for kidney stone development (Greiner et al.,
2006).

Phytate lowers the solubility of calcium, fluoride and phosphate, the major components
of enamel (Kaufman and Kleinberg, 1971). Thus, teeth are more protected against the
leading cause of caries, the attack of acids and bacteria (Greiner et al., 2006).

In vivo and in vitro experiments have shown striking anticancer effects of phytate. It
was demonstrated that phytate is a broad-spectrum antineoplastic agent, affecting different
cells and tissue systems. Phytate inhibited the growth of human cell lines such as
leukaemic haematopoietic K-562 cell line, colon cancer HT-29 cell line, breast cancer cell
lines, cervical cancer cell lines, prostate cancer cell lines, HepG2 haepatoma cell line,
mesenchymal tumour cells, murine fibrosarcoma tumour cells, and rhabdomyosarcoma
cells in a dose- and time-dependent manner (Greiner et al., 2006).

2.2 Uses of finger millet in Nepal

The utilization of finger millet as food in Nepal can be categorized mainly in two different
categories:
1. Fermented food
2. Non-fermented food

2.2.1 Fermented food

About half of the total quantity of ragi grown in Nepal is used to derive fermented product.
The fermented product is locally known by the name of ‘jand’.

2.2.1.1 Method of preparation of jand

Whole grain of finger millet is cooked properly. The cooked quantity of grain is spread on
a flat-mat made up of bamboo. Then locally prepared and preserved culture of yeast, which
is locally called ‘murcha’, is added and mixed evenly by hands. Then the inoculated mash
is filled compactly into an earthen vessel and kept aside, covering the mouth tightly. After
a week, the process of fermentation will be completed. While serving, the fermented mash

12
is mixed with plenty of water and strained through a strainer, made up of bamboo. The
water turns white which is taken as alcoholic drink.

In some of the location, flour of ragi is used for fermentation instead of whole grain
without filtration. Sometimes, the fermented product is distilled in a traditional way, the
product with high percentage of alcohol is produced, called ‘rakshi’. Both, the distilled and
undistilled, product are consumed locally. These are the products which are sold in some of
the location in rural markets (Dawadi, 1999).

2.2.2 Non fermented food

All of the non-fermented foods so far consumed in Nepal, are traditional ones, prepared
and consumed in house hold level. All these food preparations are prepared from the flour
of ragi, milled in traditional stone grinder. At few of the locations, are utilized for the
grinding of ragi also. The foods prepared from ragi flour in Nepal are.
1. Dhiro
2. Roti
3. Dalla

2.2.2.1 Dhiro
It is one of the widely consumed type of food preparations from ragi flour. It is prepared
by cooking the flour of ragi in plenty of water with vigorous turning with the wooden
ladle. The mash finally turns to a well gelatinized paste of ragi flour, quite darker in color.
It is eaten with, one or combination of, the accompaniments like vegetable, curry, cooked
dal, curd or milk. Dhiro is consumed as a staple, wherever it is grown as one of the major
crops (Dawadi, 1999).

2.2.2.2 Roti
Ragi flour prepared in the form of dough is flattened by hand, maintaining a thickness of
about 5-7 mm. The flattened dough normally wrapped by banana leaf and cooked on a hot
iron pan, intermittently turning at both sides. Roti is normally taken as breakfast item and
as a takeaway food (Dawadi, 1999).

13
2.2.2.3 Dalla
Small pieces of dough of ragi flour is boiled in plenty of water with rice and legumes. Salt
is added as desired. The food finally turns to a thick gruel, having a combined taste of
cooked rice, ragi and beans.

All of the foods, especially non-fermented, are prepared from whole ragi flour.
Preparation and consumption of ragi foods in Nepal is confined in house hold level
especially, within the location where ragi is grown, as a major agricultural crop (Dawadi,
1999).

2.3 Traditional foods from ragi in different parts of the world

There are different traditional foods, prepared from ragi, which are still popular and
consumed locally at different localities, in different countries of the world. Some of the
examples are Mudde, Ambali, Roti or flat bread, Sour porridge or bushera, Idli and dosa,
popped ragi in India, Iuwa, Aceda, Bogobe, Jwanting in Africa. The traditional food
products prepared from finger millet at different parts of the world include both fermented
and non-fermented. For example, Injera is a semi-fermented food popular in Ethiopia and
Kisra is similar product popular in Sudan (Dawadi, 1999).

2.4 Traditional method of milling of ragi in Nepal

As stated earlier, milling (pulverization) of ragi, as well as the consumption of flour, is
confined mainly in house hold level of ruler condition of Nepal. Mainly the devices used
for the pulverization of ragi, as well as other cereal grains like maize, wheat and other
millets, especially in the rural condition of Hills and inner Terai of Nepal, are stone
grinders with two different mode of operations.
1. Janto (Hand operated stone grinders)
2. Panighatta (operated by the jet of water)

2.4.1 Janto
It is a pair of circular stone of heavy weight, in that the lower one is made stationary
having a fixed axis of iron at its center. The upper stone with the hole in its center is kept
over the lower stone, inserting the iron axis on the hole, through which the material to be
ground is fed. A wooden handle fixed at the side of the upper stone is mean to rotate.

This type of ‘Janto’ is acquired by almost all of the house hold in rural condition of
Nepal. It has been the principal job of housewife, every time she to operate janto and

14
prepare meal for the family. Normally she finds night time convenient to do her job, after
getting rid of homely chores, and feeding her child (Dawadi, 1999).

2.4.2 Panighatta (water mill)

It is a pair of circular stones installed at the side of flowing stream. A continuous current of
water originated from the stream from a height is channelized to hit the baffle at the lower
end of the axis originated from one of the stones that gives continuous motion to the baffle
which make the stone rotating. This type of ghatta is used for custom milling of cereal
grains including ragi, in various locations, in the rural area of Nepal (Dawadi, 1999).

The prevailing mode of cereal grinders, which is used to pulverize ragi in Nepal,
produces whole ragi flour in that no provision is existing to remove part of the bran from
the grains. The traditional grinding method is more labor intensive. The household stone
grinder ‘janto’, which is mainly operated by housewives, has been a trouble some item for
women which takes crucial time to take rest, otherwise, the time she could give for her
baby.

Panighatta is slightly improved mode of grinding over ‘janto’, which requires less
human labor making use of stream water which can be utilized further for different
purposes like irrigation water, or drinking water. Panighatta is a pontential device of grain
milling could be improved its efficiency with some modification. It is an environmentally
friendly device having a low energy cost (Dawadi, 1999).

But both the above mentioned grinder yield coarser product. So far concerning the
milling of ragi practiced in Nepal, it is limited only in the traditional method of stone
grinding of both types, water driven and hand driven. At a very smaller extent, specially
the towns and district head quarters of the inner Terai region of Nepal, the motor driven
chakkies are sometimes utilized in custom milling of ragi. The flour of ragi obtained by
grinding the whole grain is courser in texture and darker in color so that the product
derived from it would be obviously darker. Because of this darker color, products prepared
from ragi are not so popular among the urban and elite groups of population in Nepal. On
the contrary, the increasing demand of food by the growing population of country is hardly
met by wheat and rice only. Then effort to increase the share of ragi, including other
coarse grains to meet the demand of food, has been very important in the prevailing
agroeconomic context of Nepal (Dawadi, 1999).

15
2.5 Development of technology for the processing of ragi
Real processing of agricultural crop including ragi begins at the time of harvest, because
the quality of final products developed will have its bearing to the way it was handled
before. Normally the entire chain of grain handling which begins from harvest and
terminates at consumption can be dealt in two parts as pre-processing and processing
(Dawadi, 1999).

2.5.1 Pre-processing
It is the need of time that, if there is mobilization of commodity from the production sector
to the consumption sector, through the channel of trade, the concern of quality of grains
comes into existence. The chances of occurrence of some unwanted filth, dust, stones and
metal pieces are quite high in the grains. So before starting the real processing and milling
operation, the removal of the unwanted foreign material has been an inevitable
prerequisite. In this light a brief description of precleaning steps are mentioned here.
1. Destoning
2. Degluming

2.5.1.1 Destoning
It is an important step of precleaning of ragi. It seems more relevant in the condition of
Nepal, because the crop of ragi is mainly cultivated in the land of inferior soil condition in
which stones of different size range, from tiny granules to pebbles, are consisting
abundantly.

Destoning definitely contribute to the quality of marketed grain by protecting the

subsequent processing equipment from wear and tear and simultaneously enhancing the
quality of final products. Traditionally it is done by the gravity separation method using
locally available bamboo basket, called ‘Nanglo’. Once a destoner is established in a
suitable location, it can be utilized for the entire range of grains including oilseeds
(Dawadi, 1999).

2.5.1.2 Degluming of ragi

Normally the outer husk of ragi which is called glume is not removed completely while
threshing. It is essential to remove the outer husk of ragi prior to milling otherwise it
affects the quality of flour. in the household level the operation of degluming is generally
accomplished. But the household pattern which done for a tiny quantity of grain is not

16
suitable for bulk size. It reflects the need of mechanical operation for degluming of bulk
quantity of ragi. In this connection, some work had been done in CFTRI and it is suggested
that with suitable adjustment rice huller can be used for degluming (Malleshi, 1984). Use
of rice huller for dehusking of ragi in Nepal can be an important in this field (Dawadi,
1999).

2.5.2 Processing (milling) of ragi

There are three different types of grain milling units having wide range of milling
capabilities and sophistications. These are:
1. Plate mill
2. Hammer mill
3. Roller flour mill

2.5.2.1 Plate mill

It consists of stationary serrated wheel shaped bare plate with horizontal iron axis and with
it another grinder wheel of equal diameter having arrangement of varying clearance that
rotates. The material rotates from the feed hopper enters in between the grinder. The wheel
gate towards the feed gate rotates and the material in between is powdered and comes out
from the side opening. It has grinding capacity of 60 to 120 kg grain per hour.

The disintegration of particles in a plate mill is mainly because of the force of shearing
which arises because of the differential of speed in between two plates intensify the action
of shear on the particles. The clearance between the plates can be varied to some extent so
that stress on the particles can be intensified to affect the grinding (Dawadi, 1999).

2.5.2.2 Hammer mill

It consists of movable blunt blades rotating rapidly in an enclosed cylinder with an outlet
which is covered by screen. The mesh size of the screen determines the particle size of the
flour.

The main mode of force responsible for the size reduction is of impact type. It is a
comminuting mill. The direct hammering of the blades on particles causes the particles to
be fractured into pieces. The action of hammering is subjected repeatedly to the particles
unless the size reduces to the extent of suitable to pass through the screen. The milling unit
has the provision of changing the desired size of sieves on the out let gate so that the
particles of required firmness could be achieved (Dawadi, 1999).

17
2.5.2.3 Roller flour mill
Roller flour mill is the advanced milling mechanism of modern age which is widely used
to produce refined flour of wheat having definite particle size and specifications. Studies
conducted by different workers in various institutions showed that roller flour mill can be
used for the milling of ragi to produce refined flour from it (Dawadi, 1999).

Conditioning of grain with the addition of moisture toughens the outer most coat of the
kernel. Then the grain while passing through the first pair of grooved rollers is scratched
releasing its endosperm. The stream of material is then subjected for shifting. Again the top
material is further subjected to second pair of roller for further break and then again to the
shifter. Thus the grain is passed through the series of rollers where most of floury
endosperm is removed from the kernel of the grain. The particles of endosperm which are
still larger in size to pass through the sieve are further subjected through pair of reduction
rolls. Each step of grinding is followed by shifting and coarser outer husk is separated from
the flour and collected separately. Thus in roller flour milling operation, instead of
vigorously grinding whole kernel of grain at once, the operation is completed through a
number of shearing causing fragile endosperm to split into smaller size while turning the
toughened bran into flattened specks of larger size to be separable on shifting (Dawadi,
1999).

2.6 The development of refined flour technology of ragi

So far concerning the use of modern roller flour mills for the milling of ragi, the operation
is yet to come up to the day to day commercial practice. However, there has been various
trials and experiment to produce refined ragi flour of improved whiteness. Kurein and
Desikachar, (1962) tried to mill ragi after adding 5 percent extra water followed by
steaming. The total yield, after passing three times repeatedly the once sieved residue, was
found to be 70%. Reprocessing of residue further, increased the yield by 12%. Kurein and
Desikachar, (1966) tried to mill ragi grain by adding different amount of water for
conditioning, in some of the trials followed by steaming also, and found that the addition
of 5% water and 30 min time for equilibration gave maximum yield of flour with suitable
color. Shankara et al., (1984) modified the convention plate mill by accompanying the
same with sieving unit and aspirator. They tried milling trial for different grains including
ragi. In a single phase trial ragi showed the yield of 62.0% flour, 28.5% fine semolina and

18
the percentage of bran separated was 9.5%. In the untreated counterpart, in the same
experiment the separation of bran was only 7% (Dawadi, 1999).

Malleshi et al., (1980) studied the suitability of roller flour mill, hammer mill and plate
grinder for obtaining refined flour from resulted ragi. The total yield of flour in roller flour
mill, hammer mill and plate grinder was 57%, 63.9% and 66.4% respectively, having the
corresponding reflectance reading of 67, 62 and 60. Whereas the reflectance reading for
untreated were 53. Thus this trial should that plate mill and hammer with some
modification can be used to produce refined flour of ragi. Crabtree, (1979) tried co-milling
of different millets including ragi with wheat and evaluated the baking quality and
reported that the possibility of using comilling to produce composite flour in one unit
operation is considered desirable (Dawadi, 1999).

2.7 Malting of ragi

The ragi grain showed wide range of enzymatic activity and revealed its suitability for
malting. The flour produced from the malted ragi is of increased whiteness (Malleshi,
1986). Use of malted ragi as a major ingredient in weaning food significantly reduced the
viscosity of gruel there by increasing the nutrient density of the feed (Malleshi et al., 1986;
Malleshi et al., 1989; Prajwala et al., 1993; Malleshi and Klopfantein, 1999). Malting also
reduces the phytic acid content of finger millet by 23.9% and 45.3% after 72 hours and 96
hours respectively which is clear from the Table 2.4 (Makokha, et al., 2002). Malting
decreases the fat and carbohydrates but significantly improves (p< 0.05) the proteins, crude
fiber and ash contents of millet flour (Akubor and Obiegbuna, 1999).

Table 2.4 Effect of malting on phytic acid content of finger millet grain
Variety Phytic acid content Phytic acid hydrolyzed Phytic acid hydrolyzed
mg/100 g dry matter after 72 hours (%) after 96 hours (%)
U15 1135.6a * 40.0ab 60.0
EKR228 1277.5ab 16.7a 20.0
EKR227 1419.4b 15.0a 56.0
Mean 1277.5±115.86 23.9±11.41 45.3±18.00
*Values in the same column followed by the same letter are not significantly different
(P<0.05) from each other. They differ significantly (< 0.05) with values that do not share a
similar letter.
Source: Makokha et al. (2002)

19
Malting also increases the amylase content, which to some extent hydrolyses the finger
millet starch and makes it easily digestible to us (Nirmala and Muralikrishna, 2002).

2.8 Composite bread

Composite bread is a baked product, the primary ingredients of which are composite flour,
yeast, salt and water. As discussed earlier, technically composite bread may be different
from the whole wheat flour bread in having composite flour, instead of wheat flour alone
and other ingredients remaining same. Composite flours are the mixture of flours from
tubers rich in starch (e.g., cassava, yam, sweet potato) and/or protein-rich flours (e.g. soy,
peanut) and/or cereals (e.g., maize, rice, millet, buckwheat), with or without wheat flour
(Seibel, 2006). The use of composite flours with or without wheat gives rise to technical
problems in the production of baked goods, particularly composite bread. From the baker’s
point of view the most important component of wheat flour is the protein of the gluten that
plays a decisive role in dough formation, gas retention and the structure of the crumb. So,
in order to produce bread with its characteristic structure and firmness, wheat containing
gluten cannot be completely eliminated from bread. According to Kent and Evers, (2004),
wheat flour can be substituted up to 30% with non-gluten millet flour in preparation of
bread. The percentage of non-gluten millet flour that can substitute wheat flour also
depends upon the strength of the wheat flour. The substitution can be increased further in
case of other baked but unleavened goods like biscuits, cookies, pastry, pasta, etc.

Bread has been man’s food for at least 6000 years. The purpose of bread making is to
present the cereal flours to the consumer in an attractive, palatable and digestive form
(Herringshaw, 1969; Chamberlain, 1975). It was probably the first processed food ever
produced and remains the most widely acceptable. Bread is one of the few universal
staples which is complete in itself and requires no additional preparation. Though it is not
perfect nutritional source of protein, it is however, a principal source of both calories and
protein for a lot of people because of unique structural properties of hydrated wheat protein
(Jacob, 1954; Johnson, 1974).

2.8.1 Developments in Composite Flour Program

The Composite Flour Program was established by the Food and Agriculture Organization
in 1964 to find new ways of using flours other than wheat, particularly maize, millet and
sorghum, in bakery and pasta products, with the objective of stimulating local agricultural
production, and saving foreign exchange, in those countries heavily dependent on wheat
20
imports (Kent and Evers, 2004). Since, then several research works and trails have already
proven the success of composite baked products.

The ingredients used in composite flours must take account of the raw materials
available in the country concerned. The objective is to save as much expensive imported
wheat as possible when making bakery products.

In the late 1960s, tests were carried out in Brazil in which 75% wheat flour was mixed
with the relevant amounts of potato, maize or cassava flour. The baking tests were
conducted on the basis of the Chorleywood bread process. The same flours were used as
raw materials for biscuits, but the proportion of wheat flour was reduced to 50%. Most of
the trails with composite flours have been carried out in Africa because of its continually
growing population. Reports are available from Senegal, Niger and Sudan (Berghofer,
2000). In the bread sector the task here was to produce typical French bread with
composite flour. The proportion of wheat flour in the different mixtures varied greatly, the
maximum being 70%. Europe and North America produce sufficient quantities of bread
cereals, so theoretically they have no need to market and use composite flours at all. But
constantly widening ranges of bread and small baked goods and the emergence of certain
types of bread as “functional food” have led to an interest in mixtures of wheat flour with
other agricultural raw materials. Composite flours are an ideal partner in programs to
combat celiac disease (Kim and de Ruiter, 1969; Kader, 2000). In Asia, traditionally, rice
and tapioca have been cultivated as carbohydrate sources. Flour from tapioca (tapioca
starch) is used to replace wheat flour in some applications, mainly in pastry (Seibel, 2006).

2.8.2 Composite flour program in Nepal

Local initiatives for Biodiversity, Research and Development (LI-BIRD) in collaboration
with Nepal Agriculture Research Council (NARC) carried out research and development
work for 3 years (2002-2004) in finger millet with similar objectives in Kaski and
Nuwakot districts of Nepal. The various public awareness activities conducted by the
project on nutritional importance of finger millet through FM radio, print materials, food
fairs and festivals, workshops, school programs raised awareness among consumers and
producers. This resulted increase demand in millet products by conscious groups
(intellectuals, diabetics, young generation and foreigners) in Pokhara. According to
entrepreneurs, departmental stores and many shops requested for supplying millet bread,
cookies and namkin to sale in Pokhara (LI-BIRD, 2007).

21
 Several research works related to composite flour have been carried out at Central
Campus of Technology, Dharan. Composite breads and biscuits incorporated with soya
flour, millet, buckwheat, cassava, rapeseed, etc., have already been tested and several other
similar works are in progress.

2.9 Development of bread making process

The men learnt to grind the grains into crude form of flour that could be blended with
water and baked to improve its character. The Swiss lake dwellers mixed the ground
grains, wheat, barley and millet with water, rolled the ground mass into sheets and baked
these on hot stones. These early bread were unleavened. The fore runners of modern
baking may be the practices started in Egypt about 3500 years ago. The Egyptians
observed that if the bread dough was allowed to cure for several hours, it would expand
and they baked it, they obtained a spongy light loaf of bread, probably this was the first
leavened bread with natural microflora (Pedderson, 1971).

For hundreds of years, bread was leavened by the addition of sour dough and in the
oldest book of the bread making, written in 240 BC it is mentioned that old dough was
made up into yeast cakes and ferment new dough, up to years 1859 it thought that dough
fermentation was just something that happened, but then the great French Scientist, Louis
Pasteur showed that it was the result of microorganisms that convert sugar to carbon
dioxide which is the gas that aerates the dough (Fance, 1972).

The earliest bread making by bulk dough fermentation process includes mixing basic
ingredients and fermenting at 80ºF for 3 hours. It was slightly changed by sponge dough
process in USA. It included kneading 3/4 of total flour, 2/3 of water and all the yeast and
allowing fermenting for 4-5 hours. The flour was mixed with sponge (Bennion, 1967;
Chamberlain, 1975).

In 1960s “Green dough process” of Holland reduced the fermentation time. In this
process dough is given an extended mixing and dividing and then molded into balls
immediately. Here bulk dough fermentation disappeared but used extended fermentation of
discrete lumps of dough.

Revolution of bread making process had done by the American workers in 1962 AD.
They developed the mechanical modification of dough whereby it could be fermented after
pan fermentation. Intense mechanical mixing of dough by a machine modified the structure

22
of dough in such a way that bulk fermentation could be omitted without loss of bread
quality (Chamberlain, 1975).

In 1952, Dr. Baker went one step further than simple mechanical by combining it with
continuous mixing in a two stage process. The first step is to preferment a sugar solution
with yeast for a period of 2-4 hours. This brew also contains a number of other ingredients
including these days large proportion of the total flour in the recipe. The brew is combined
with the flour and melted fat in a continuous mixer to form the dough. This process was
called Do-maker process (Chamberlain, 1975).

CBP (Chorleywood Bread Process) first developed in 1958 by British baking industries
at Chorleywood. Further discoveries with this process were published by baking industry
in 1961 AD. Characteristic feature of CBP are:

1. Use of high power batch or continuous dough mixer.

2. Use of 75 ppm ascorbic acid (on the basis of flour weight).
3. Use of 0.7% fat (on the basis of flour weight).
4. Absence of any brew or preferment.
5. Addition of extra water.
6. Raising the yeast level.

Advantages of CBP over tradition British 3-hour bulk fermentation process are:

1. Saving of about 60% of time in the conversion of raw materials into bread.
2. Saving of about 75% of space in the dough room previously occupied by
fermenting dough.
3. Reduction of 75% of the quantity of dough in the course of processing at time and
hence reduced risk of loss in case of plant stoppage
4. Increase yield of about 4% of bread due to retention of flour solids, extra water and
yeast.
5. A lower rate of staling in bread.

About the same time (1960) of the development of CBP, another alteration of bulk
fermentation as a means of developing dough was developed in USA. It named as
Activated dough development process (ADD) by Chorleywood workers. They used 40
ppm potassium bromate and 50 ppm of Ascorbic acid. Advantages of ADD process over

23
CBP were in terms of time, space and yield though long mixing times (Chamberlain,
1975).

2.10 History of bread making in Nepal

Before 2007 BS (1950 AD), production of bread loafs started by Rana’s family. For
several years, bread for public was produced in small bakeries. The dough was made by
hand and baked in small wood charcoal heated bhatties. Bread is made in this manner still
in parts of Nepal. Upgrading this traditional method of bread making means using dough
mixer and several accessory machineries added in the unit. The ovens in many places are
fired by wood. In Kathmandu and some other big towns, several big scale bakeries with
electrical ovens and big scale machinery have come into operation. The quality of breads
produced by these bakeries is very standard and can be compared with developed
countries. Most of the big hotels in Kathmandu and Pokhara are having their own bakeries
and showrooms (Khanal, 1997).

The first professional bread industry in Nepal was Krishna Pauroti Bhandar, located in
Kathmandu is professionally still famous in Kathmandu valley. Many professional bakers
are not intended to improve the quality of bread. The concerned department should give
simple, hygienic and economic technology to the bakers so that bakery industry can
flourish. Bread produced by such technology will be of better quality and cheap to
consumer (Khanal, 1997).

2.11 Raw materials for bread making

Four basic ingredients are required for the manufacture of bread, namely, wheat flour,
yeast, salt and water. If anyone of these four is omitted, bread as we know it cannot be
made. Two other ingredients are often added, fat to improve softness and keeping quality
and sugar in many areas to increase sweetness. Nowadays, whole range of additives is
employed for various reasons, for example to improve fermentation, keeping properties,
moisture retention, volume, crumb structure and to prevent mould growth (Flynn and
James, 1980).

Eggs, milk and milk products are also used in bread according to their varieties. Eggs
are excellent improver and they improve the handing properties by stabilizing the dough,
so that the result of increased volume and boldness are obtained (Bennion, 1967).

24
2.11.1 Wheat flour
For normal bread making, flour from grist containing a large proportion of strong wheat is
required. Good bread making flour is characterized by having protein which is in quantity
and of satisfactory quality in respect of elasticity, strength and stability, satisfactory
gassing properties and amylase activity, satisfactory moisture content not higher than about
14% to permit safe storage and satisfactory color. Starch is a major component of wheat
flour (69%) which is composed of amylase and amylopectin. It is the main factor imparting
softness in crumb. Some of the starch granules in flour become damaged during the milling
process. It is believed that flour amylases are able to attack only the damaged or available
starch to supply sugar during fermentation. Excessive starch damage however, has an
adverse effect on the quality of bread, loaf volume is decreased and the bread is less
attractive in appearance (Bennion, 1967; Kent, 1983).

Flour contains small but important amounts of various sugars such as sucrose, maltose
and dextrose without which in the presence of yeast there could be no fermentation. Sugar
content in flour increases as the extraction rate is increased, which is clear from Table 2.5.

Table 2.5 Sugar content of flours with different extraction rates

Extraction rate % Sugar %
72 1.5-2.0
80 2.0-2.5
100 2.0-3.0
Source: Kent (1983)

Flour can be classified on the basis of extraction rate, which is given in the Table 2.6.

Table 2.6 Classification of flour on the basis of extraction rates

Extraction rate% Name (class) of flour Ash content%
100 whole meal 1.2-1.8
90-95 wheat meal 0.5-0.65
70-72 straight run around 0.45
20-40 patents 0.3-0.4
Source: Kent (1983).

The bread making quality of freshly milled flour tends to improve during storage for a
period of 1-2 months (Kent, 1983).
25
2.11.2 Yeast
Yeast or Saccharoromyces cerevisiae is group of minute fungi capable of fermenting a
sugar solution producing carbon dioxide and alcohol. Baker’s yeast is a different strain and
it must be fresh and active. The quantity used is related inversely to the time of
fermentation and to the temperature of the dough (Bennion, 1967; Kent, 1983).

Yeast action in fermentation has three main functions according to Bennion, (1967).

1. To produce carbon dioxide, in sufficient quantities and at the right time to inflate
the dough and produce a light spongy texture which will result in palatable bread
when correctly baked.
2. To produce a complex mixture of chemical compounds of many types, which
contribute to the flavor of the bread.
3. To help bring about the essential changes in the gluten structure known ripening or
maturing of the dough.

The activity of yeast depends upon its enzymes, coenzymes and activator contents.
There is little or no growth during the first 2 hours after the yeast is added to the dough, but
some growth in 2 to 4 hours, if that time is allowed before baking and then a decline in
growth in 4 to 6 hours. Fermentation by the yeast begins as soon as the dough is mixed and
continues until the temperature of the oven inactivates the yeast enzymes (Frazier and
Westhoff, 2005).

Yeast available in the market is in two forms, one is the compressed yeast, sold in wax
wrapped blocks containing about 70% moisture. Compressed yeast loses about 6.5% of its
activity during two weeks storage time at 40ºF and another is the active dry yeast
containing about double amount of active ingredients when compared to compressed yeast.
Although compressed yeast is suitable for any yeast leavened product, active dry yeast has
certain advantages like stability at room temperature, ease of measuring and better
dispersibilty and is therefore preferred and used by most of the bakery plants. It can
tolerate drying, high sugar concentration and some inhibitors better than can compressed
yeast strains. It is essential that the dry yeast be rehydrated with water between 105 and
110ºF before use (Arora, 1980).

2.11.3 Salt
Functions of salt in bread making are (Bennion, 1967):

26
 1. Primarily to flavor to the bread.
2. To confer bloom or wholesome appearance on the finished loaf.
3. To tighten up and give stability to the gluten of the flour and enable a bold loaf to
be produced with firm cutting crumb.
4. To prevent yeast working too fast in process dough and to control the action of acid
producing bacteria in dough.
5. To help to keep the loaf moist after with drawl from the oven.

Salt is largely responsible for crust color in bread made from normal flour because of its
controlling influence on fermentation. If the speed of fermentation is retarded by the use of
increased amount of salt there will be less sugar used by the yeast to produce gas. In
consequence, there will be more sugar caramelized on the crust producing a high crust
color. If there is too little salt used, the opposite happens and there is little crust color
(Fance, 1972).

2.11.4 Water
Water is an essential part of bread formulation and helps in the following manner.
1. The most important function of water is the formation of bread gluten from flour
which makes the dough flexible.
2. Helps in controlling the viscosity or toughness of dough.
3. Helps in making the starch digestible.
4. Helps in controlling the temperature of dough and also contributes towards proper
mixing of minor ingredients in flour.
5. Helps in the fermentation process.

The water to be used in for bread formulation should be fresh, clean, soft water and free
from any microorganism and limited mineral content. Dissolved mineral and organic
matter present in the water can affect the flavor, color and physical attributes of the
finished baked goods (Arora, 1980).

Dough should have a pH value of 5-6, that is acidic. If sufficient alkaline water were
mixed in dough so as to give an alkaline condition, the activities of the yeast, diastase and
lactic acid bacteria would be restrained so that the production of gas and acidity would be
slow and the time necessary for ripening the dough greatly increased.

27
 When flour is mixed with water at dough making both the gluten and starch absorb
water within the range of dough temperature which may be stated as 70-90ºF. There is no
doubt that proteins of the flour take up the water much more readily then the starch.
Determination of the moisture percentage in a piece of wet gluten washed out at 70ºF from
an average flour show that the dry gluten holds nearly twice its own weight of water,
whereas somewhat similar experiments with starch would indicate that at the same
temperature the dry starch does not hold more than 40% of its own weight of water
(Bennion, 1967).

The flour from strong wheat (with higher protein content) and flour from hard wheat
(with a higher damaged starch grain) require more water than is needed by flour from weak
(lower protein) or soft (less damaged starch) wheat to make a dough of standard
consistency (Kent, 1983).

2.11.5 Sugar
Although sugar is not an essential ingredient of the bread formulation, yet it is added to
improve the texture, taste and flavor of the bread. In very small and cottage scale unit it is
added as crystallized sugar while mechanized units incorporate it as corn syrups, sucrose or
invert syrup (Arora, 1980).

Ordinary cane sugar is used not so much to increase gas production as to improve the
color and bloom of the loaf, for there is naturally present in a normal flour sufficient sugar
for gas production. Cane sugar can be used at the rate 1 lb per sac to supplement any
deficiency in the natural product as in those flours obtained from some of the white wheat.
With dough lying for a long period especially in overnight doughs added sugar may prove
a danger, for it is readily broken down by lactic acid bacteria, thus increasing the acidity.
Too much sucrose however will slow down fermentation. If very sweet dough is prepared
adding 10% or more of sucrose at once, the growth of the yeast and the formation of
carbon dioxide may be slow (Bennion, 1967; Meyer, 1987).

Glucose can also be used. This will be fermented by the yeast directly; it can used in
quantities up to 1½ lb per sac to improve the bloom and color of the bread.

Invert sugar at the rate of 3 lb per sac is a very effective bread improver, bringing about
the physical modification of the gluten so that well-conditioned dough is produced and
bread with a more mature moist crumb and good crust color results (Bennion, 1967).

28
2.11.6 Fats
Shortenings are used in bread for increased calorific value longer preservation period,
better finish and taste and to improve its gas retaining characteristics. Generally,
hydrogenated oils are used. Research over many years has shown that fats are better
improvers than vegetable oils. Fats have power of preventing the toughness of gluten,
according to the methods and amount used. All fats are therefore shortening agents. Fats
confer flavor according to the type used (Bennion, 1967; Fance, 1972; Arora, 1980).

2.11.7 Milk and milk products

The advantages derived from the use of milk products are as follows.
1. They confer a delicate flavor on the crumb of the loaf.
2. They improve the bloom and color of the bread.
3. They assist in the production of a thin, biscuit like crust.
4. They improve the texture and sheen of the crumb.
5. Skimmed milk powder enables the flour to take up slightly more water and the
softer dough obtained can be worked more easily.
6. They increase the mineral content of the loaf and hence its value as a food
especially for children.

When any type milk product is used other than fresh whole milk, it should always be
used in conjunction with fat generally in the proportion half the weight. Skim milk powder
(SMP) alone will always tend to produce drier eating bread due to influence of the casein.
The milk sugar is not fermentable by yeast so that milk is essentially an enriching agent
and improver.

When higher proportion of milk are used, attention must be paid to baking temperature
because of the amount of sugar in dough which readily caramelizes and can cause
excessive crust color (Bennion, 1967).

The addition of milk to the dough raises the pH because of the presence of butter salts
in the milk. Milk consequently retards amylase activity. However, in presence of acid salts
such as calcium hydrogen phosphate or the acetic acid of vinegar this retardation may be
eliminated and gas formation may even be increased by the milk through the improved
nutrition of yeast.

29
 Raw or pasteurized milk decreases the baking qualities of flour unless the milk is first
heated. It is believed that milk contains some substance which increase the activity of
proteolytic enzyme and consequently during fermentation period faster the formation of
gluten which is too sticky (Meyer, 1987).

2.11.8 Malt products

Malt products are available to the baker in three forms malt flour, malt extract (which is
thick, viscous and amber colored syrup) and dehydrated malt extracts which in the dry
crystal form (Fance, 1972).

Some patents flours are low in amylase activity and this is rectified by the addition of
malted wheat flour or malted barley flour with the diastatic value of the malt extract and
malt extract greater proportion than the dried product (Fance, 1972; Meyer, 1987).

The Table 2.7 shows the normal quantities of malt products which may be used but
these can be varied as required.

Table 2.7 Quantities of malt products with respect to type of malt (Bennion, 1967)
Type of malt Quantity to use
Flour 1 lb per sac for white bread
Extract 12-16 oz per sac for white bread
Dried extract 6-12 oz per sac for white bread

Malt flour is manufactured by passing the malted grain through fluted rollers, similar to
the break rollers used in the milling of wheat. It is then sieved to remove the coarse
particles. Malt being very dry and brittle the outer coating breaks up into fine particles so
that the resultant flour is reddish brown in color (Fance, 1967).

2.11.9 Malt extract

The malt is disintegrated and mixed with an equal volume of water and macerated for 6
hours. Four times the amount of water is then added and the mixture is digested for 1 hour
at a room temperature not exceeding 54.44ºC so that the maximum conversion of starch to
sugar is obtained. The sweet liquors are separated and transferred to vacuum pans where
concentration is carried out at such a temperature that the diastase is not destroyed when
the correct consistency is obtained the syrup is transferred to drum.

30
 Ordinary malt extract may be converted into a dry crystalline powder by removing the
remaining water in travelling band vacuum oven (Bennion, 1967).

2.11.10 Other improvers

Soya flour, lecithin, eggs, gelatinized starch or scalded flour are generally used as
improvers (Bennion, 1967).

A rapid acting reducing agent, L-cysteine and a slow acting oxidizing agent potassium
bromate or a mixture of potassium bromate and ascorbic acid are added at the dough
mixing stage using convectional slow speed mixing equipment. The reducing agent
accelerates the uncoiling and reorientation of the protein molecules and the oxidizing agent
follows up by stimulating the formation of cross links stabilize the desired elastic three
dimensional gluten network (Kent, 1983).

Rao and Rao, (1993) studied on the effect of potassium bromate or ascorbic acid on
rheological characteristics and bread making quality of commercial wheat flours. Ascorbic
acid brought about greater changes in the baking qualities as compared to the potassium
bromate. Soft wheat flour responded more than medium or hard wheat flours to improvers.
The effect of potassium bromate on rheological characteristics was more pronounced,
when the pH of the dough was lowered to less than 5.0, potassium bromate and ascorbic
acid brought about greater improvement in the milk bread as compared to other varieties
such as plain sugar and fruit bread (Khanal, 1997).

2.12 Bread making process

There are three stages in the manufacture of bread, mixing and development of the dough,
aeration of the dough and oven baking of the dough (Kent, 1983). The flow sheet of bread
making process is shown in Fig. 2.4.

31
 Raw materials reception

Storage of raw materials

Weighing of ingredients

Transfer to dough mixer (slow speed)

Addition of water and dough mixing

Containers to fermentation area

Fermentation

Dividing into desired sizes (and weighing if done by hand)

Shaping into desired shapes

Immediate proofing

Final shaping and transfer to tins or trays

Final proofing

Transfer to oven

Baking in oven

Unloading onto trolleys and transfer to cooling area

Cooling period

Bread slicing Dispatch by van Bread storage

Sale

Fig. 2.4 Flow chart of bread making process (Flynn and James, 1980)

2.12.1 Dough mixing

Main ingredients of bread are wheat flour, water, yeast and salt. Other ingredients may be
malt flour, soya flour, yeast food, milk and milk products, fats, fruits and gluten. When
these ingredients are mixed in correct proportions, the following phenomena take place:

32
 1. The proteins in the flour begins to hydrate i.e., to combine with some of the water
to form a cohesive material called gluten which has peculiar extensible properties,
it can be stretched like elastic and posses a certain degree of recoil or spring. The
elastic properties which are developed during mixing appear to involve sulfhydril
groups possibly their oxidation to disulphide bonds, possibly the formation of new
bonds.
2. Evolution of the carbon dioxide gas by action of the enzymes produced by the yeast
upon the sugars.

These are mixed using water at temperature that will bring the mixture to about 27ºC
(80ºF). The yeast is dispersed in some of the water and the salt dissolved in another
portion, yeast suspension, the salt solution and the rest of the water are then blended with
the flour. Thorough mixing and correct dough development demand correct absorption of
water to produce ideal clear dough. Such dough will produce a loaf with qualities superior
to any loaf made from dough which is badly mixed. Dough processed correctly gives even
texture and uniform, soft and moist crumb (Bennion, 1969; Kent, 1983).

2.12.2 Dough fermentation

Enzymes for panary fermentation are diastase (α and β amylase) in flour, maltase, invertase
and the zymase complex in the yeast. Starch in the flour is broken down into maltose by
amylase enzymes. Maltose is splitted to glucose by maltase. Cane sugar added is splitted to
glucose and fructose by invertase enzyme and these products are converted into carbon
dioxide and alcohol by zymase complex. Most of alcohol thus produced is driven off
during the baking process. Secondary product e.g., acids, carbonyls and esters may affect
the gluten or import flavor to the bread (Kent, 1983).

During the fermentation, conditioning of the dough takes place when the flour proteins
(gluten) mature i.e., become elastic and springy and therefore capable of retaining a
maximum amount of carbon dioxide gas produced by the yeasts. The conditioning results
from action on the gluten by (1) proteolytic enzymes from the yeast, from the malt or
added otherwise and (2) the reduction in pH by acids added and formed (Frazier and
Westhoff, 2005).

Adequate gas should be produced during fermentation process, otherwise the loaf will
not be inflated sufficiently. Gas production depends upon quantity of soluble sugar present
in flour, its diastatic power and granulation (Kent, 1983).
33
2.12.3 Straight dough process
In this process, dough is made in one stage. Fermentation of may vary (2-12 hours) and
many variable factors come into operations which may affect the development of dough
over such a range of time. To make good quality bread, it requires a fermentation time
range of 2.5-5 hours and flour containing about 11% of good quality gluten forming
protein. The gluten formed should be of better stability and moderate elasticity (Bennion,
1967).

2.12.4 Sponge process

In sponge system, only a part of flour is mixed at first with all the yeast and sufficient
water to make dough which is allowed to ferment for some hours. This first dough made is
called sponge is then broken down and the remainder of flour, water and salt added to
make a dough of required consistency which is given for short fermentation time only
before proofing and baking (Kent, 1983).

As a result of enzymatic changes which take place in the gluten of the sponge, the
dough ripens very much quicker and the bread produced has softness of crumb which is
unique. Such bread breaks down very readily in mouth dissolves without effort. This
process is the longer process and requires less yeast than is used for straight dough process
(Bennion, 1967; Kent, 1983).

2.12.5 Knock back

As the fermentation is going on, volume of fermenting dough increases continuously. As
the dough rises, the interior contains intimate cell like structure in the form of very
network. Each cell is filled with carbon dioxide, knocking the dough removes carbon
dioxide and develops gluten, rendering it more elastic and capable of producing a better
and more even textured loaf, knock back should be carried out at the early stages of
fermentation, otherwise, it has little effect on the desired texture of finished product
(Bennion, 1967).

2.12.6 Dividing
The next step in bread making is the division of the dough into the sizes required for the
finished bread, either by hand or machine. Hand division is coupled with weighing of each
piece. Machine division is by volume and results in greater accuracy and hence uniformity
in size of product. The pieces of divided by unshaped dough are next rolled into a ball.

34
This has two fold objectives. Firstly, it expels the spent gas which has accumulated during
the fermentation stage and secondly it allows a regular shaped piece of dough to be
presented to the final shaper or molding machine (Flynn and James, 1980).

2.12.7 Proofing
The ball of dough is given an intermediate proofing, a resting period of about ten minutes
before final shaping to allow it to recover its extensibility and elasticity. The ball of dough
is then shaped as required. After shaping, there is final proofing period which is again a
continuation of fermentation, allowing the shaped dough piece to double its size prior to
baking. This period lasts from 45 min to 60 min (Flynn and James, 1980).

2.12.8 Baking of dough

When the dough is in fully expanded state (called “full proof”) baking is started. Once the
loaf is in oven, physical, chemical and biological changes become rapid (Fance, 1972).

As the temperature of loaf rises in oven, baking the yeast works faster and produces
large quantities of gases. This condition in oven is termed as oven spring. After attaining of
temperature 42.22ºC, the yeast cells are inactivated and they are killed when loaf centre
reaches 54.44ºC. Gelatinization of starch and its degradation takes place as temperature
rises gradually to 76.67ºC. Diastase enzyme becomes inactivated after the temperature
170ºF has reached. At a temperature of 50ºC the process of denaturation and coagulation of
protein starts and proceed rapidly up to 80ºC. Steam and alcohol escapes from the centre of
the loaf, while its surface loses a large proportion of its moisture and the crust begins to
form. As baking proceeds, evaporation of water takes place and at 110-120ºC, yellow
dextrins are produced and these change into brown dextrins and caramel to form the red
brown color at 160ºF. The dark brown color is produced at temperature beyond 200ºC. It is
also interesting to note that yeast activity ceases after 20 min and diastatic activity after 26-
30 min according to temperature of the oven (Bennion, 1967).

Humidity of the oven is also of importance for the expansion of loaf to good shape. If
the humidity is too great, the bread has tough leathery crust and an excessive shine which
is unattractive. Insufficient humidity in oven causes rapid evaporation of moisture from
skin of the loaf.

35
2.12.9 Bread cooling
After taking out bread loaves from oven it should be cooled rapidly so that it can be packed
for distribution. During cooling moisture moves from interior outward towards the crust
and to atmosphere, if the moisture content of the crust rises considerably during cooling,
the texture of the crust becomes leathery and tough and attractive crispness of freshly
baked bread is lost. Excessive drying during cooling results in weight loss and poor crumb
characteristics. The aim of cooling is to lower the temperature without much loss of
moisture. Bread loaf can be cooled by counter flow of air at 21.11ºC and 80% relative
humidity within 2-3 hours. If bread is packed before cooling, steam coming from loaf
condensates on the crust surface called sweating (Fance, 1972; Kent, 1983).

2.13 The technology involved in dough formation

Wheat gluten consists mainly of the storage protein of wheat endosperm, i.e., gliadin and
glutenin. Upon hydration and during processing, gliadin and glutenin interact to a unique
viscoelastic glutein network, envisaged as being necessary for holding the gases and for
producing light porous crumb textured bread. Recent work has confirmed that the elastic
properties of gluten are due to the glutenin fraction, whilst the viscous properties come
from the gliadin fraction. An appropriate balance in the amount of these two major protein
components of wheat gluten is required for achieving the desired bread quality (Khatkar
and Schofield, 1997).

In the Fig. 2.5, the glutenin polypeptides are joined head-to-tail via S-S (disulphide)
bonds in a linear chain. The glutenin polymerise into a linear chain by intermolecular S-S
bonds between the cysteine residues located in the α-helical regions near N- and C-
terminal ends of high molecular glutenin subunits. The central domain is thought to be rich
in repetitive β-turns which form stable β-spiral structure. Under stress conditions, the β-
spiral structures undergo deformation and on release of stress, the β-spirals resume the
energetically more favorable original conformation. The presence of cysteine residues at
either end of glutenin molecules allows deformation/reformation to occur in the central
spiral region (Schofield, 1983; Shewry et al., 1992).

36
 S S
S Deformation S

Relaxation
S
S S
S
α-helix β-turn
region region

Fig. 2.5 Linear glutenin molecules giving elasticity to gluten and flour dough
Source: Schofield and Booth (1983); Shewry et al. (1992)

2.14 Nutritional value of bread

Bread is one of the complete foods available for human consumption. Most lacking factor
in bread is fat which is generally compensated by the addition of butter, margarine. Typical
composition of bread is shown in the Table 2.8.

Table 2.8 Typical composition of bread given by Bennion (1967)

Constituents White bread (%) Whole bread (%)
Water 40 45
Protein 6.5 6.3
Fat 1.0 1.2
Starch, sugar, etc 51.2 44.8
Cellulose 0.3 1.5
Mineral matters 1.0 1.2

Normal bread contains all the amino acids but lysine is deficient in it. Enriched bread
e.g., composite bread, egg bread, milk bread, etc., supplement the deficiency (Fance,
1972).

The most important vitamins in bread are those of vitamin B1 and B2. Vitamin C is
absent in bread. Vitamin D exists in two major forms D2 and D3. Three main minerals in
flour are calcium, phosphorus and iron and in bread sodium is added in the form of sodium
chloride. Calcium content of whole meal bread is greater than white bread but is
unavailable to the body. All cereals are poor source of calcium so that chalk is added to all

37
white flour by statute (14 oz per sac), whole meal also has more iron content than wheat
flour. Again less of it is absorbed in the body so that iron is added in white flour by statuate
(1.65 mg/100 gm flour). Whole meal bread contains 287 mg of phosphorus per 100 gm of
meal as compared with mg/100 gm of white flour. Phosphorus in cereals antagonizes the
absorption of calcium from other sources e.g., cheese, milk and fish. Phosphorus in one
pound of whole meal bread would blanket the calcium in 9/10 pint of milk so that whole
meal bread is eaten, milk consumption must also be raised. In higher extraction flours,
some of the phosphorus is contained in phytic acid which combines with calcium and
produces phytates which are not utilized by digestive system. Bread provides about 26% of
our total calcium and 30% of total intake of iron. Phytic acid is hydrolyzed to phosphoric
acid and inositol by the enzyme phytase, optimum activity occurring at 55ºC. Probably
60% of the phytic acid in flour is hydrolyzed during bread making (Bennion, 1967; Fance,
1972; Kent, 1983).

2.15 Wheat flour and bread standards in Nepal

According to Nepal Rajpatra Standards (2057 B.S.), wheat flour and white bread should
possess the following criteria:

Table 2.9 Wheat flour and bread standards in Nepal

Parameters Wheat flour Bread
Moisture ≤ 14% (130-133ºC/2 hours) _
Total ash ≤ 0.70% (dry wt. basis) _
a
Acid insoluble ash (in HCl) ≤ 0.1% (dry wt. basis) ≤ 0.1% , ≤ 0.2% b
Alcoholic acidity c (as ≤ 0.12% (dry wt. basis) ≤ eq. of 7.5 ml N NaOH/
H2SO4) 100 g of dried substance
Gluten ≥ 8.0% (dry wt. basis) _
Guar gum _ ≤ 0.5%
Total soluble solids _ ≥ 60%
Improvers (e.g., CaPO4) _ ≤ 0.25%
Anti-mold agent _ ≤ 0.5%
(e.g., Ca-propionate)
a= simple bread, b= spice/fruit bread and c= 90% alcohol
Source: Nepal Rajpatra Standards (2057 B.S.)

38
 Part III
Materials and methods

3.1 Materials

3.1.1 Materials used for malting of millet

1) Finger millet (Cultivar-Nagre)
2) Aluminum trays
3) Plastic containers
4) Polyethylene sheets
5) Muslin cloths
6) Cabinet dryer

3.1.2 Raw material collection

Eight kilograms of sound mature finger millet of Nagre variety was collected from the
local market of Dharan. It was divided into two lots of four kilograms each, packed in jute
bags and stored at room temperature (30±2ºC). One lot of millet was used for the
preparation of malted flour and the other lot for unmalted flour. The other ingredients used
in the bread like wheat flour, sugar, table salt, yeast, etc were used of the local bakery from
Dharan.

3.2.3 Equipment and instruments

1. Kjeldhal distillation and digestion set
2. Weighing machine
3. Digital moisture meter (Wile-55 Moisture meter) (Fig. 3.1)
4. Hot air oven
5. Muffle furnace
6. Drier, grinder and other equipments used in routine laboratory work
 Fig. 3.1 Digital moisture meter (Wile-55 Moisture meter), Finland

3.2 Methods

3.2.1 Process of malting

Malting was done in Central Campus of Technology, Dharan at room temperature
(30±2ºC), as described by Shrestha (2006). The malting process involved steps which are
briefly described in the following sections. The flow sheet of malting process is given in
Fig. 3.1.

3.2.1.1 Cleaning
Millet grains (8 kg) were first winnowed with woven bamboo trays (nanglo). In this step,
husk, immature grains and light particles were winnowed away and heavier particles such
as specks and stones were separated by gravity during winnowing. It was now moistened
and dehulled by pounding in local mortar and pestle (okhali). The cleaned grain was
conditioned with the addition of moisture (water: millet:: 1:3). Conditioning is done to
toughen the outer most coat of the kernel.

3.2.1.2 Steeping
One part of the cleaned millet (4 kg) was stored in the jute bag at the laboratory ambient
condition (30±2ºC) for unmalted flour and the other (4 kg) was soaked with millet: water
ratio of 1:3 for 24 hours in four separate plastic containers for malted flour. Light material
present in the sample was skimmed off. Agitation was done to clean the seeds again. The
temperature of steep was about 28±2ºC.

40
3.2.1.3 Spreading
Straining the water, the steeped millet was spread over plastic sheets with the thickness of
the soaked millet around 0.5-1.0 cm.

3.2.1.4 Moistening
The dry out of the grain was prevented by moistening the muslin cloth by spreading water
at the interval of every 6 hours. The grain was turned and mixed from time to time to
equalize the temperature and moisture during the germination.

3.2.1.5 Germination
The millet grains with moisture content of 37% were spread on polyethylene sheets kept
over the aluminum trays, covered with muslin cloth, moistened with water by spraying at
intervals of 6 hours and kept in well ventilated room at 32±2ºC and around 85-95% relative
humidity to germinate. During that period, mixing was done to equalize moisture and
temperature. The rootlets were seen after 18 hours of germination process. The
germination was terminated after 43 hours, when the acrospire (rootlet) was of same length
of the grain.

3.2.1.6 Drying
The further germination of grain was halted by drying in a cabinet dryer (Fig. 3.2) at
60±2ºC, continuously until the moisture level of grain reached down to 8% and was milled
in the local mill to prepare malt flour. Germination of seeds was not allowed for more than
43 hours, as it would only result in dry matter loss without further improvement in
nutritional quality (Karna, 2001). The overall malting process is shown in the Fig. 3.3.

Fig. 3.2 Drying of finger millet in cabinet dryer

41
 Raw materials

Cleaning and washing

Soaking in water for 24 hours (Steeping)

Spreading on plastic sheets covering with wet muslin cloth

Moistening (spraying with water)

Germination of seeds

Drying in the cabinet dryer

Removal of clumps

Milling

Malt flour

Fig. 3.3 Flow sheet for malting process

3.3 Preparation of composite bread

The specific proportion of wheat flour and finger millet flour were taken and coded the
name A, B, C and D with respect to increasing finger millet flour and decreasing wheat
flour (as given in Table below 3.1).

Different blends of wheat flour and finger millet flour were made as in Table 3.1.
Composite breads were prepared using the straight dough development method as in Fig.
3.2 in Laxmi Bakery Udyog, Pvt. Ltd. Chatachowk, Dharan.

Table 3.1 Preparation of blends of finger millet flour and wheat flour
Code Wheat flour (%) Finger millet flour (%)
A 85 15*
B 80 20*
C 85 15
D 80 20
*= malted finger millet flour

42
Table 3.2 Composite bread formulations
Ingredients Quantity
15% formulation 20% formulation
Finger millet flour (g) 176.47 250.00
Wheat flour (g) 1000.00 1000.00
Sugar (g) 117.64 125
Salt (g) 11.76 12.50
Yeast (g) 23.53 25
Milk powder (g) 23.53 25
Custard powder (g) 23.53 25
Vegetable ghee (g) 23.53 25
Water (ml) 705.6 750

3.4 Method for preparation of composite bread

Bread was prepared according to straight dough development method as followed in Laxmi
Bakery.
1. First of all, wheat flour, millet flour, milk powder and custard powder were
weighed in right amount and mixed.
2. To this mixture, right amount of sugar, salt and water were added making a pool.
3. Yeast was weighed and activated with little water and flour aside and then adding it
to the rest of mixture, dough was mixed well with hand.
4. The dough was left for a fermentation period of about 40 min and then divided by
weighing into small pieces of 250 gm each.
5. Molding was done with the hand and then put into the molder and covered it with
the lid.
6. Now, the dough was left for proofing for about 30 min in the molder and baked at
220ºC for 30 min by placing it in the baking oven.
7. Finally, the bread was deplaned, cooled to the room temperature, sliced, packed and
dispatched.

43
 Wheat flour + millet flour + milk powder + custard powder

Mix well

Add sugar + salt + water

Activate yeast
with little water
and flour
Dough mixing

Dough fermentation (40 min)

Scaling or dividing by weighing (250 g)

Molding or handing up

Panning

Proofing (30 min)

Baking (220ºC, 30 min)

Depanning

Cooling (room temperature)

Slicing and packing

Fig. 3.4 Flow sheet of bread making process

3.5 Baking oven profile

The baking was done in a simple baking oven, locally called “bhatti” (Fig. 3.5) hence there
were no separate zones for the baking of bread. The baking oven was made up of mud and
bricks. The source of energy for it was wood and coal, which was burnt to produce heat. It
had a platform made up of bricks, on which the molder containing dough was placed with
a long iron spatula. The size of the baking oven was around (3×2×2 m) and the capacity
was around 100 to 150 breads per hour. Heating was not even in the oven, as heat was
applied only from the bottom. The temperature profile of the baking oven is shown in the
Table 3.3. The baking oven was manually operated.

Table 3.3 Temperature profile of the baking oven (Pokhrel, 2007)

Top heat 200ºC
Bottom heat 250ºC

44
 Fig. 3.5 Baking oven (“Bhatti”), Laxmi Bakery, Dharan

3.6 Analytical methods

All chemical analyses were done in wet basis and results were also presented in wet basis.
To minimize system errors all samples were analyzed simultaneously for each parameter.
Analyses which depend on particle size were also thoroughly considered.

3.6.1 Determination of protein

The protein (N= 6.25 for millet and N= 5.7 for wheat) content was determined as in
Ranganna (2007); Kirk and Sawyer (1999). The calculated data were presented per 100
gram.

3.6.2 Determination of fat

The fat was determined as described in Ranganna (2007). The calculated data were
presented as gram per 100 grams in wet basis.

3.6.3 Determination of moisture content

The moisture content of the flour samples was determined by hot-air oven method as
described in Ranganna (2007) and that of the millet grain samples during drying by digital
(Wile-55) moisture meter. The result was expressed in terms of percentage moisture.

3.6.4 Determination of crude fiber

The crude fiber content of the flour samples were determined as described in Ranganna
(2007).

45
3.6.5 Determination of total ash
Ashing of the flour samples were done in muffle furnace at temperature, not exceeding
525ºC for 4-6 hours, as described in Ranganna (2007).

3.6.6 Determination of carbohydrate

Total carbohydrate content was determined by difference method.
Carbohydrate (%) = 100 - (sum of % moisture, protein, total ash, fiber and fat).

3.6.7 Determination of amylase activity

Amylase activity of the malted and unmalted millet flour samples were also determined by
modification of the method described by Sadasivam and Manikam (1991). The
modification was carried out for the sugar determination step. In place of the
dinitrosalicylic acid (DNS) method, Lane and Eynon’s (Ranganna, 2007) method was
used. The enzyme activity was terminated by brief boiling of the reaction mixture. The
findings were presented in mg per 100 gram (wet basis). Amylase activity was expressed
as mg maltose formed by 1 g of millet sample from starch solution.

3.6.8 Determination of reducing sugar

The reducing sugar was determined by Lane and Enon’s method as described in Ranganna
(2007).

3.6.9 Determination of total sugar

The total sugar was determined by Lane and Enon’s method as described in Ranganna
(2007).

3.6.10 Determination of phytic acid

The phytic acid content of flour samples were determined by ferric precipitation method as
described by Garikipati (2004). 1.0 g each of the flour samples were placed in 30 ml
centrifuge tubes. 20 ml of extraction reagent (0.4 M HCl : 10% H2SO4 = 1:1) was added to
it and stirred using magnetic stirrer for 4 hrs. Then, centrifuged at 10,000× for 15 min at
4ºC (Research centrifuge, Remi Instruments-India). Supernatant was filtered through
Whatman #1 filter paper and 10 ml of filtrate was transferred to a 30 ml corex tube. Now,
10 ml distilled water and 5 ml ferric chloride solution (0.2 M HCl: 5% Na2SO4: 15 mM
FeCl3 = 1:1:3). Tubes were incubated in boiling water bath for 30 min, during which
phytate precipitated as ferric salt and then cooled by placing in ice-bath. Cooled tubes were

46
centrifuged at 8000× for 10 min and the supernatant discarded and pellet containing ferric-
phytate resuspended in 10 ml of 0.2 M HCl. Centrifuging and washing steps were repeated.
Now, the tubes were inverted to remove the supernatant. Thereafter 2 ml of conc. H2SO4
was added and allowed to stand overnight in hood. Next day, 0.5 ml 30% H2O2 was added
and heated and then allowed to cool for 15 min. This step was repeated until the sample in
tubes became clear. Finally, distilled water was added to bring sample volume to 12.5 ml.
100 µL of dilute sample was taken and 3.9 ml of distilled water added to make 4 ml (total).
Now, 4 ml of Chen’s reagent (1 vol. of 6 N H2SO4+1 vol. of 2.5% ammonium molybdate +
1 vol. of 10% ascorbic acid + 2 vol. of distilled water) was added to make 8 ml. Samples
were allowed to stand for 2 hrs at room temperature. Absorbance was measured at 820 nm
using spectrophotometer. For the P standard curve, the solutions added are given in the
Appendix E. Phytate phosphorus was calculated according to formula given below.
µg P x 12.5 ml (volume diluted, digested sample) x 2 (we used
10 ml of the original 20 ml extract)
Phytic acid P, mg/g =
0.1 ml (amount taken from dilute, digested sample for analysis)
×0.5 g (original sample weight)× 1000 (convert from µg to mg).

Since, phytate = 28.2% P (AOAC, 2005)

3.6.11 Determination of calcium

Calcium content in flour was determined by titration method as described in Ranganna
(2007).

3.6.12 Determination of iron

Iron content in flour samples were determined colorimetrically at 480 nm, as described in
Ranganna (2007).

3.7 Sensory evaluation

Sensory evaluation of bread for various sensory characteristics was carried out following
the score sheet given in Appendix A. The baked, cooled bread samples were presented to
10 semi-trained panelists (including teachers and research students) using the method
described by Ranganna (2007). The different composite breads with different proportions
of malted and unmalted millet flour were coded as A, B, C and D. The panelists were
asked to indicate their observations using a 9 point hedonic rating scale for taste, flavor,

47
texture, crumb, color and overall acceptability. Like extremely and dislike extremely were
ranked 9 and 1 respectively.

3.8 Statistical analysis

The obtained data was analyzed statistically by Genstat Discovery Edition 3 (DE3), for
Analysis of Variance (ANOVA) at 5% level of significance. The data obtained from
proximate analysis and sensory evaluation were subjected to two way Analysis of Variance
whereas the data obtained from amylase activity, phytic acid, total and reducing sugar,
calcium and iron content were subjected to one way Analysis of Variance. LSD and
interaction effects were obtained to determine whether the samples were significantly
different from each other and also to determine which one is superior between them.

48
 Part IV
Results and discussion

4.1 Proximate composition

The proximate compositions of wheat flour, malted finger millet flour, and unmalted finger
millet flour were determined in triplicate samples. A summary of results obtained after
analysis of variance (Two-Way ANOVA) is given in Table 4.1. The ANOVA tables and
analysis of individual differences (LSD, 5%) are given in Appendix B. Discussions on the
results are presented in Sections 4.1.1 to 4.1.7.

4.1.1 Moisture content

The average moisture content were found to be 13, 10, 10 and 12.4% for wheat flour (WF),
malted finger millet flour (MFMF), unmalted finger millet flour (UFMF) and composite
flour (CF) respectively. Statistical analysis showed that the malting and partial substitution
of wheat flour with finger millet flour had significant effect (p< 0.05) on the moisture
content of flour samples (Table 4.1). While moisture is a prime determinant of the shelf-
life of flour, it can be easily controlled and manipulated to a safe level during drying and
hence should not be issue of prime concern.

4.1.2 Crude protein

The average protein content was found to be 11.3, 9.52, 8.81 and 10.94% for WF, MFMF,
UFMF and CF respectively. Statistical analysis showed that the malting and partial
substitution of wheat flour with finger millet flour had significant effect (p< 0.05) on the
protein content of flour samples Table 4.1. The LSD measurements (Appendix B) show
that all the samples are significantly different from each other with respect to protein
content. The protein content was found to be within the range as reported by McDonough
et al. (2000). The protein content was found to be significantly higher for WF within the
samples, which decreased with the substitution of WF with lower protein MFMF and
UFMF. Malting significantly improved the protein content of finger millet flour, which is
similar to the result reported by Akubor and Obiegbuna (1999). According to Shrestha
(2006), malting also significantly increases the total free amino acid content of finger
millet grain.
4.1.3 Crude fat
The average fat content was found to be 0.9, 1.2, 1.3 and 0.96% for WF, MFMF, UFMF
and CF respectively. Statistical analysis showed that the malting and partial substitution of
wheat flour with finger millet flour had significant effect (p< 0.05) on the fat content of
flour samples (Table 4.1). The LSD shows that there is no significant difference in fat
content in between the sample A and D. But sample A was found significantly different
from sample B and C and sample B from C and D and C from D with respect to fat
content. Substitution has no significant effect on the fat content of CF with respect to the
fat content of wheat flour though the fat content of millet flour was found to be
significantly higher with respect to WF and CF. Malting has significantly decreased the fat
content of finger millet (Table 4.1), which is similar to the result reported by Akubor and
Obiegbuna (1999). The fat content (free lipids) of finger millet grain is relatively lower
than that of sorghum and other millets and similar to that of wheat (Siwela, 2009). Finger
millet grain has low fat (Table 2.3) content probably because it has a relatively smaller
germ (Sarna-Saldivar and Rooney, 1995). The low fat content of finger millet may be
significant in that the grain may have superior storage properties due to a low tendency to
become rancid.

4.1.4 Crude fiber

The average fiber content was found to be 0.3, 3.2, 2.34 and 0.88% for WF, MFMF,
UFMF and CF respectively. Statistical analysis showed that the malting and partial
substitution of wheat flour with finger millet flour had significant effect (p< 0.05) on the
fiber content of flour samples (Table 4.1). The LSD shows that all the samples are
significantly different from each other with respect to fiber content. Substitution has
significantly improved the fiber content of composite flour with respect to wheat flour
because of significantly higher fiber content of millet flour. The fiber content of the malted
finger millet flour was found to be significantly higher. Malting significantly improved the
fiber content of finger millet flour, which is similar to the result reported by Akubor and
Obiegbuna (1999).

4.1.5 Crude ash

The average ash content was found to be 0.6, 2.6, 1.6 and 1% for WF, MFMF, UFMF and
CF respectively. Statistical analysis showed that the malting and partial substitution of
wheat flour with finger millet flour had significant effect (p< 0.05) on the ash content of

50
flour samples. The LSD shows that all the samples are significantly different from each
other with respect to ash content. Substitution has significantly improved the ash content of
composite flour with respect to wheat flour because of significantly higher ash content of
millet flour. The ash content of the MFMF was found to be significantly superior. Malting
significantly improved the ash content of finger millet flour, which is similar to the result
reported by Akubor and Obiegbuna (1999). Since the amount of minerals is practically
constant (except for the probable loss by leaching during steeping) the increase in total ash
after malting defies simple explanation. It is possible that the increase is merely in
percentage (while the actual amount is constant) because of loss in seed constituents
through respiration. This is also evidenced by the reduction in carbohydrate level as dealt
with in Section 4.1.6.

Table 4.1 Proximate composition of wheat flour, malted and unmalted finger millet flour
Parameters Moisture Crude Crude Crude Total Carbohy Energy
protein fat fiber ash drate (Kcal)
Wheat flour (%) 13.0a 11.3a 0.90a 0.30a 0.60a 73.9 a
348.9a
(1.00) (0.10) (0.10) (0.10) (0.10) (0.10) (0.10)

Malted finger 10.0b 9.52b 1.20b 3.20b 2.60b 73.48b 342.8b

millet flour (%) (1.00) (0.02) (0.10) (0.10) (0.10) (0.01) (0.10)

Unmalted finger 10.0b 8.81c 1.30c 2.34c 1.60c 75.95c 350.74c

millet flour (%) (1.00) (0.01) (0.10) (0.02) (0.10) (0.01) (0.01)
Composite flour 12.4a 10.94d 0.96a 0.88d 1.00d 73.82a 347.68d
(20% millet malt) (0.2) (0.04) (0.02) (0.01) (0.10) (0.01) (0.01)
LSD (5%) 0.7990 0.0805 0.0799 0.0984 0.1883 0.0899 0.1038
Values are the means of triplicates and figures in the parenthesis are standard deviation of
the triplicates.

4.1.6 Carbohydrate
The average carbohydrate content were found to be 73.9, 73.48, 75.95 and 73.82% for WF,
MFMF, UFMF and CF respectively. Statistical analysis showed that the malting and partial
substitution of wheat flour with finger millet flour had significant effect (p< 0.05) on the
carbohydrate content of flour samples (Table 4.1). The LSD shows that there is no
significant difference in carbohydrate content in between the sample A and D. But sample

51
A was found significantly different from sample B and C and sample B from C and D and
C from D with respect to carbohydrate content. However, substitution of wheat flour by
finger millet flour (malted as well as unmalted, 15 and 20% substitution) showed no
significant change in the carbohydrate content of composite, when compared with that of
wheat flour. Compared to finger millet flour, however, the carbohydrate level of composite
flour was found to be significantly higher. As expected, carbohydrate content of unmalted
finger millet flour was found to be significantly superior. Malting has significantly
decreased the carbohydrate content of finger millet (Table 4.1), which is similar to the
result reported by Akubor and Obiegbuna (1999).

4.1.7 Energy
The average energy content were calculated (using tabulated standard values) to be 348.9,
342.8, 350.74 and 347.68 Kcal for WF, MFMF, UFMF and CF, respectively. Statistical
analysis showed that the malting and partial substitution of WF with finger millet flour had
significant effect (p<0.05) on the energy content of flour samples (Table 4.1). The LSD
shows that all the samples are significantly different from each other with respect to energy
content. Substitution has significantly lowered the energy content of CF with respect to the
energy content of WF. Malting has significantly lowered the energy content of millet flour
because of significant decrease in fat and carbohydrate content. The UFMF was calculated to
have significantly higher energy content. Energy, however, is only one of the many desirable
attributes we tend to seek in the malt formulation. There are many other beneficial effects of
using malt, which counterweighs the decrease in energy content of malted flour: reduction in
phytic acid level, improvement in digestibility (FAO, 1989), and increase in free amino acid
levels (Shrestha, 2006) can be cited as cases in point.

4.2 Sensory properties

Statistical analysis of sensory scores obtained from 10 semi-trained panelists using 9-point
hedonic rating scale (9 = like extremely, 1 = dislike extremely) for composite bread
formulations has been summarized in the Table 4.2. The ANOVA and LSD tables for
sensory evaluation are presented in the Appendix D. Color photographs of cross-sections
of different composite bread formulations are shown in the Fig. 4.1. Additional color plates
of the bread are given in Appendix F.

52
4.2.1 Taste
The mean sensory score for taste were found to be 7.6, 7.7, 7.5 and 7.5 on a 9-point
hedonic rating scale for the bread formulation A, B, C and D respectively. Statistical
analysis showed that the malting and partial substitution of wheat flour with finger millet
flour had no significant effect (p< 0.05) on the taste of the different bread formulations
(Table 4.2). This implies that composite finger millet breads do not differ significantly
irrespective of whether it is malted or not, at the level incorporated in the present work (15
and 20%). The panelists also seemed to disagree significantly in response. This implies
that the training for the panelist was either a failure or was inadequate. Given the nature of
the product, which was completely different from the market bread, it is understandable
that panelists might have had difficulty in judging the quality, which reflected in the
response during the sensory analysis.

4.2.2 Flavor
The mean sensory score for flavor were found to be 7.1, 7.7, 7.2 and 6.6 on a 9-point
hedonic rating scale for the bread formulation A, B, C and D respectively. Statistical
analysis showed that the addition of malt and partial substitution of wheat flour with finger
millet flour had significant effect (p< 0.05) on the flavor of the different bread
formulations (Table 4.2). The LSD shows that there is no significant difference in flavor of
sample A from C and D and B from C. But sample A was found significantly different
from sample B and sample D from B and C with respect to flavor. The flavor of the
composite bread improved significantly on increase of the malt content up to 20% of
composite bread. And the flavor significantly decreased on further addition of unmalted
finger millet flour. However, 20% malted bread was not significantly different from 15%
unmalted bread with respect to flavor. The flavor of the 20% malted finger millet bread
was found to be significantly superior.

4.2.3 Texture
The mean sensory score for texture were found to be 6.9, 7.3, 7.3 and 7.4 on a 9-point
hedonic rating scale for the bread formulation A, B, C and D respectively. Statistical
analysis showed that the malting and partial substitution of wheat flour with finger millet
flour had no significant effect (p< 0.05) on the texture of the different bread formulations
(Table 4.2).

53
4.2.4 Crumb
The mean sensory score
ore for crumb were found to be 6.7, 7.2,
7.2, 7.0 and 7.1 on a 9-point
9
hedonic rating scale for the bread formulation A, B, C and D respectively. Statistical
analysis showed that the malting and partial substitution of wheat flour with finger millet
flour had no significant effect (p< 0.05) on the crumb
rumb of the different bread formulations
(Table 4.2). Color plates for crumb of composite are shown in the Appendix F.

4.2.5 Color
The mean sensory score
ore for color were found to be 6.9, 7.2,
7.2, 7.3 and 6.9 on a 9-point
9
hedonic rating scale for the bread formulation
formulation A, B, C and D respectively. Statistical
analysis showed that the malting and partial substitution of wheat flour with finger millet
flour had no significant effect (p< 0.05) on the color of the different bread formulations
(Table 4.2). Color plates for crust color are shown in the Appendix F.

4.2.6 Overall acceptability

The mean sensory score for overall
over acceptability were found to be 7.2, 7.6, 7.4 and 7.1 on a
9-point
point hedonic rating scale for the bread formulation A, B, C and D respectively.
Statistical analysis showed that the malting and partial substitution of wheat flour with
finger millet flour had no significant effect (p< 0.05) on the overall acceptability of the
different bread formulations (Table 4.2). During the course of sensory analysis, all the
panelists commented that the bread was unique and very appealing in all characteristics.

Formulation A Formulation B Formulation C Formulation D

Fig. 4.1 Cross sections of different bread formulations

Table 4.2 Mean score given to different sensory attributes of different composite breads
(Panelists = 10)

54
 Codes Composite Quality attributes
breads
WF:MF Taste Flavor Texture Crumb Color Overall
A 85:15* 7.6a 7.1a 6.9a 6.7a 6.9a 7.2a
(0.69) (0.87) (0.99) (1.05) (0.73) (0.63)
B 80:20* 7.7a 7.7b 7.3a 7.2a 7.2a 7.6a
(1.15) (0.94) (0.94) (0.78) (0.42) (0.96)
C 85:15** 7.5a 7.2ab 7.3a 7.0a 7.3a 7.4a
(0.70) (0.63) (1.33) (1.41) (0.94) (1.07)
D 80:20** 7.5a 6.6bc 7.4a 7.1a 6.9a 7.1a
(0.84) (0.96) (1.07) (1.19) (1.44) (0.56)
LSD (5%) 0.4987 0.5830 0.5080 0.8580 0.8830 0.7120

(WF: Wheat flour; MF: Millet flour, *: Malted finger millet flour; **: Unmalted finger
millet flour)

Values in Table 4.2 are mean scores of triplicate readings given by 10 semi-trained
panelists. Figures in parenthesis are standard deviation of the scores. Values in the column
having same superscripts are not significantly different at 5% level of significance.

As can be seen from Table 4.2, there is no significant difference in overall quality.
Strangely, flavor (which is the single attribute that showed significant difference) seemed
to have no role in overall acceptability. This might be because of semi-trained panelist,
who never had tasted composite bread of such characteristics before. However, mean
scores consistently above 6 in the analysis indicate to a definite liking of the bread by all
the panelists. The other reason might be the degree of variation in millet flour, which was
only 15% and 20%. It should have been further increased to 25% and 30%, making the
panelist work easier. On the other hand, significant difference found in the flavor of
composite bread, might be due to the malt flavor of malted millet flour. 20% malted bread
was found to be significantly superior to 15% malted bread. But, then there was no
significant difference between 15% unmalted and 20% malted bread with respect to flavor
as well as overall acceptability. So, taking only sensory parameter in consideration, it
seems to be totally irrelevance in adding extra cost of malting, if unmalted bread could be
acceptable. But again taking nutritional improvement in millet during malting under
consideration, malting seems to be an important step. Hence, as long as nutritional quality
in composite bread is given priority, malting remains a vital step.
55
4.3 Proximate composition of final product
The proximate composition of composite bread with 20 % incorporation of malted finger
millet flour, that is, final product was calculated and the obtained results are shown in the
Table 4.3. Only moisture content of the final product was analyzed. Since, no control was
used in the study, so no statistical comparison of the final product was done.

Table 4.3 Proximate composition of the final product

Parameters %
Moisture 37.0
Crude protein 7.10
Crude fat 1.79
Crude ash 1.30
Crude fiber 0.54
Carbohydrate 52.3
Energy value (Kcal/ 100 g) 253.71

The moisture content of the bread was found to be 37 %, which is according to the
requirement. The high moisture content makes it very prone to microbial attack but it also
gives the characteristic firmness to the bread. The protein content of the bread was
calculated to be 7.10%. The fiber content of white bread is usually very low due to the low
fiber content of the wheat flour (maida). Incorporation of finger millet flour to wheat flour
increased the fiber content of the bread. This also increased the mineral content of the
composite bread. The cost calculation for the final product is shown in the Appendix G.

4.4 Effect of malting on finger millet

Germination of the finger millet was terminated after 43 hours with drying in the cabinet
drier. The amylase activity and phytic acid content of malted and unmalted finger millet
flour were analyzed. A summary of statistical inference is given in Table 4.4. The ANOVA
tables and LSD values are given in Appendix C.

4.3.1 Amylase activity

The average amylase activity was found to be 0 and 165 mg/100g for unmalted and malted
finger millet flour samples respectively. Amylase activity was expressed as mg maltose
formed by 1 g of millet sample from 1% starch solution upon incubation for 15 minutes.
56
Statistical analysis showed that the malting of finger millet significantly increased (p<
0.05) amylase activity (Table 4.4). The LSD shows that sample A was found significantly
different from sample B with respect to amylase activity. The malted finger millet flour
was found to be significantly superior in amylase content. Malting significantly improved
the amylase content of finger millet, which is similar to the result reported by Shrestha
(2006). The amylase enzyme to some extent hydrolyses the finger millet starch and makes
it easily digestible to us (Nirmala and Muralikrishna, 2002). However, the amylase enzyme
is expected to get inactivated later at the baking temperature during bread baking.

4.3.2 Phytic acid

The average phytic acid content was found to be 642 and 500 mg/100g for unmalted and
malted finger millet flour samples respectively. Statistical analysis showed that the malting
of finger millet flour had significant effect (p< 0.05) on the phytic acid level (Table 4.4).
The LSD shows that sample A was found significantly different from sample B with
respect to phytic acid content. Malting significantly decreased the phytic content of finger
millet, which is similar to the result reported by Makokha et al. (2002). The phytic acid of
finger millet binds the vital minerals including calcium and iron present in our diet and
might cause micronutrient deficiency diseases (Greiner et al., 2006).

Table 4.4 Changes in amylase activity and phytic acid content during malting
Attributes Amylase activity (mg/100g) Phytic acid (mg/100g)
Unmalted finger millet flour 0.00a 642a
(0.00) (2.82)
Malted finger millet flour 165b 500b
(2.82) (2.82)
LSD (5%) 8.62 12.17

4.5 Effect of finger millet flour on mineral content of composite bread

The calcium and iron contents of flour samples and composite bread were analyzed. The
chemical analyses were done in triplicate samples. The chemical analyses are presented in
Table 4.5 and the ANOVA and LSD for it are presented in the Appendix C.

57
4.5.1 Calcium content
The average calcium content was found to be 23 and 358 mg/100g for wheat flour and
finger millet flour respectively and for bread it was calculated to be 117.4 mg/100g.
Statistical analysis showed that the substitution of wheat flour with finger millet flour had
significant effect (p< 0.05) on the calcium content of composite bread (Table 4.5). The
LSD shows that sample A was found significantly different from sample B and C and
sample B from C with respect to calcium content. The finger millet flour was found to be
significantly superior in calcium content within the given samples. However, the calcium
content of composite bread was found to be significantly lower with respect to millet flour
because of very small proportion (20%) incorporated into composite bread. The calcium
content of wheat flour was found to be significantly inferior.

4.5.2 Iron content

The average iron content was found to be 2.5 and 9.9 mg/100 g for wheat flour and finger
millet flour respectively and for composite bread it was calculated to be 3.28 mg/100 g.
Statistical analysis showed that the substitution of wheat flour with finger millet flour had
significant effect (p< 0.05) on the iron content of composite bread (Table 4.5). The LSD
shows that sample A was found significantly different from sample B and C and sample B
from C with respect to iron content. The finger millet flour was found to be significantly
superior in iron content within the given samples. However, the iron content of composite
bread was found to be significantly lower with respect to millet flour because of very small
proportion (20%) incorporated into composite bread. The iron content of wheat flour was
found to be significantly inferior.

Table 4.5 Mineral content of flour and composite bread

Attributes Calcium Iron
(mg/100g) (mg/100g)
Wheat flour 23a 2.5a
(1.41) (0.14)
Unmalted finger millet flour 358b 9.9b
(1.41) (0.14)
Composite bread 117.4c 3.28c
LSD (5%) 3.711 0.3684

58
4.6 Sugar content of flour samples
The reducing and total sugar content of flour samples was analyzed. The chemical analyses
were done in triplicate. The obtained data was analyzed statistically by Genstat Discovery
Edition 3 (DE3), for One Way Analysis of Variance (ANOVA) at 5% level of significance.
The chemical analyses are presented in Table 4.6 and the ANOVA and LSD for it are
presented in the Appendix C.

4.6.1 Reducing sugar

The average reducing sugar content was found to be 3.325 and 4.58% for unmalted and
malted finger millet flour samples respectively. Statistical analysis showed that the malting
of finger millet flour had significant effect (p< 0.05) on the reducing sugar content (Table
4.6). The LSD shows that sample A was found significantly different from sample B with
respect to reducing sugar content. The reducing sugar content of the malted finger millet
flour was found to be significantly superior. The increase in the reducing sugar might be
due to the breakdown of starch by amylase enzyme produced during germination. This
reducing sugar together with the added sugar acts as the source of gas production by the
yeast during fermentation stage of the bread making process.

4.6.2 Total sugar

The average total sugar content was found to be 6.04 and 7.38% for unmalted and malted
finger millet flour samples respectively. Statistical analysis showed that the malting of
finger millet flour had significant effect (p< 0.05) on the reducing sugar content (Table
4.6). The LSD shows that sample A was found significantly different from sample B with
respect to total sugar content. The total sugar content of the malted finger millet flour was
found to be significantly superior. This is because it includes both reducing and non-
reducing sugar.

Except for flavor, malting did not seem to have significant effect on the sensory quality
of composite bread, but had significant effect on all the nutritional parameters. Malting is
not a new method to the world. Traditional malting/germination methods are followed
even today by the Indians and Africans. They use it to produce traditional home-made
products. Such traditional methods, which do not require modern machinery, can reduce
the cost of malting.

59
 Another important technology is the “fermentation” which reduces the antinutritional
factors from ragi and on the other hand improves the nutritional quality (Makokha et al.,
2002). But the flavor or taste developed during fermentation may not be acceptable by all
consumers. “Decortication” also reduces the antinutritional factors, which are mainly
present in the seed coat, but only at the cost of fiber and other minerals.

However, antinutritional factors of ragi like phytic acid and tannins have their own
health benefits. Dietary phytate was reported to prevent kidney stone formation (Grasses et
al., 2000), protect against diabetes mellitus (Thompson, 1993), caries (Kaufman and
Kleinberg, 1971), atherosclerosis and coronary heart disease (Jariwalla et al., 1990) as well
as against a variety of cancers (Vucenik and Shamsuddin, 2003). Tannins exhibit
antioxidant and anti-fungal properties (Siwela, 2009). Hence, completely eliminating the
phytic acid and tannins from finger millet won’t be beneficial.

Table 4.6 Sugar content of flour samples

Attributes Reducing sugar (%) Total sugar (%)
Unmalted finger millet flour 3.325a 6.04a
(0.14) (0.14)
Malted finger millet flour 4.58b 7.38b
(0.14) (0.14)
LSD (5%) 0.6085 0.6085

Figures in the column bearing the same superscripts are not significantly different
(p=0.05). Values are the mean of triplicates and figures in the parenthesis are standard
deviation of the triplicates.

60
 Part V
Conclusions and recommendations

5.1 Conclusions
On the basis of the work done, following conclusions can be drawn. Since the work was
done under controlled condition and on a small scale, its generalization may warrant some
reservations:
1. Finger millet malt can be produced under controlled laboratory conditions (steeping
time 24 hrs at 28°C or until 37% moisture content; germination for 43 hrs at
32±2°C, drying at 60±2°C until 8% moisture content).
2. Antinutritional factors like phytic acid in finger millet can be significantly (p<0.05)
reduced by malting, increasing the nutrient availability.
3. Malting of finger millet significantly increases amylase activity, which is of great
relevance in bread making
4. Malting significantly (p<0.05) increases the nutrients like protein, fiber and
minerals of finger millet, making bread more nutritious and better for health except
fat and carbohydrate, which decreases significantly (p<0.05).
5. Finger millet flour can be incorporated to the extent of 20% (m/m) in wheat flour to
produce composite bread.
6. The overall acceptability of composite bread from malted and unmalted finger
millet does not differ significantly but the nutritional attributes in the former is
greatly improved.
7. Based on panelists’ comments, the composite bread was very unique and appealing.
This indicates to ample possibilities for value-addition of finger millet, thereby
helping ensure food security amongst the poor.

5.2 Recommendations
1. The effect of finger millet flour on bread quality above 20% can be studied.
2. The destruction of amino acids during baking of such composite bread can be
studied.
3. Like phytate, effect of tannins on nutritional quality of finger millet composite
bread can also be studied.
 Part VI
Summary
Finger millet (Elusine coracana) is a very nutritious cereal, rich in fiber and minerals and
is suitable for growing in country like Nepal. But, it is more often neglected saying bird’s
feed or poor man’s cereal. It is the fourth largest cereal production of Nepal. If finger
millet could be successfully incorporated into bread to make composite bread, then not
only bread would become nutritious, but it will also save the foreign exchange to some
extent as Nepal is highly dependent on wheat imports. This value addition of the cereal
will also ensure food security amongst the poor.

Bread itself is a remarkable product. Its consumption has been an essential element of
almost all cultures for more than 6000 years, and it is a rich source of vitamins, proteins
and carbohydrates (Vinning and McMahon, 2006). It is gaining popularity in Nepal too.

Malting was done according to Shrestha (2006). The finger millet was malted before
being milled to flour. The main objectives of malting were reducing the anti nutrients like
phytate from the millet, making it more digestible by stimulating amylase enzyme and
giving malt flavor to the bread. Four different bread formulations, namely A (15% malted),
B (20% malted), C (15% unmalted) and D (20% unmalted) were prepared, by straight
dough process with incorporation of yeast 2%, salt 1%, sugar 10%, fat 2%, milk powder
2%, and custard powder 2% per 100 parts of flour mixture.

The proximate analysis for moisture, crude protein, crude fat, crude fiber, total ash and
carbohydrate of the wheat flour, malted and unmalted finger millet flour was done and the
values were found to be (13.0, 11.30, 0.90, 0.30, 0.60, 73.9), (10.0, 9.52, 1.20, 3.20, 2.60,
73.48) and (10.0, 8.81, 1.3, 2.34, 1.6, 75.95) respectively. The effect of malting on the
proximate composition of millet flour indicated significant decrease in crude fat and
carbohydrate, whereas the ash, crude fiber and protein increased significantly. The energy
value of the bread was calculated to be 253.71 Kcal per 100 gram. Malting significantly
increased the amylase and sugar content whereas significantly decreased the phytic acid
content of the flour samples. The analysis of minerals like calcium and iron in the wheat
and millet flour samples were found be (23 and 2.5 mg/100 g) and (358 and 9.9 mg/100 g)
respectively. The effect of incorporation of finger millet flour to the wheat flour resulted in
the significant rise of calcium and iron content of the bread. The breads were subjected to
sensory evaluation following 9-point hedonic rating (1=dislike extremely, 9=like
extremely). The obtained data was analyzed statistically by Genstat Discovery Edition 3
(DE3), for Analysis of Variance (ANOVA) at 5% level of significance. The sensory scores
and statistical analysis showed that 20% malted bread was significantly superior to all
bread formulations, except 15% unmalted bread with respect to flavor. It means both were
accepted on sensory grounds, but taking nutritional factor also into account malted bread
seems to far outweigh the extra cost of malting. The results of the present work indicate
that the composite bread made from incorporation up to 20% malted millet flour can be
commercialized.

63
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 APPENDICES

Appendix A

Sensory evaluation of composite bread

Hedonic rating test
Name …………………………… Date: …/…/2009

Product: Composite bread

Observe the product by tasting and check how much you like or dislike each one i.e. by
your perception of individual parameter. Give your appropriate point that best describes
your feeling about the product. An honest expression of your personnel feeling will help
me.
Give points as follows.
Attributes Points Attributes Points
Like extremely 9 Dislike slightly 4
Like very much 8 Dislike moderately 3
Like moderately 7 Dislike very much 2
Like slightly 6 Dislike extremely 1
Neither like nor dislike 5

Attributes A B C D
Taste
Flavor

Texture
Crumb
Color
Overall acceptability

Comments: ……………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………

Signature

70
 Appendix B

ANOVA for proximate composition of flour samples.

Codes used for samples: A= wheat flour; B= malted finger millet flour; C= unmalted
finger millet flour; D= composite flour; F-ratio ≤ 0.05 indicate significant difference at 5%
level of significance.

Table B.1 ANOVA for moisture content of flour samples

Source of Degree of Sum of Mean Variance F profitability
variation freedom squares Squares ratio Ratio
Sample 3 22.41 7.47 46.69 <.001
Replicate 2 5.12 2.56 16 0.004
Residual 6 0.96 0.16
Total 11 28.49

Difference observed both in replication and sample. LSD between samples = 0.799

Table B.2 ANOVA for protein content of flour samples

Source of Degree of Sum of Mean Variance F profitability
variation freedom squares Squares ratio Ratio
Sample 3 12.41663 4.138875 2547 <.001
Replicate 2 0.01445 0.007225 4.45 0.065
Residual 6 0.00975 0.001625
Total 11 12.44083

Difference observed between samples. LSD between samples = 0.0.0805

Table B.3 ANOVA for fat content of flour samples

Source of Degree of Sum of Mean Variance F profitability
variation freedom squares Squares ratio Ratio
Sample 3 0.3276 0.1092 68.25 <.001
Replicate 2 0.0512 0.0256 16 0.004
Residual 6 0.0096 0.0016
Total 11 0.3884

Difference observed between samples as well as replicates. LSD between samples =

0.0799

71
Table B.4 ANOVA for fiber content of flour samples
Source of Degree of Sum of Mean Variance F profitability
variation freedom squares Squares ratio Ratio
Sample 3 15.8712 5.2904 2181.61 <.001
Replicate 2 0.02645 0.013225 5.45 0.045
Residual 6 0.01455 0.002425
Total 11 15.9122

Difference observed between samples as well as replicates. LSD between samples =

0.0984

Table B.5 ANOVA for ash content of flour samples

Source of Degree of Sum of Mean Variance F profitability
variation freedom squares Squares ratio Ratio
Sample 3 6.81 2.27 68.25 <.001
Replicate 2 0.08 0.04 16 0.004
Residual 6 0 0
Total 11 6.89

Difference observed between samples as well as replicates. LSD between samples =

0.3926

Table B.6 ANOVA for carbohydrate content of flour samples

Source of Degree of Sum of Mean Variance F profitability
variation freedom squares Squares ratio Ratio
Sample 3 11.35403 3.784675 1868.98 <.001
Replicate 2 0.00845 0.004225 2.09 0.205
Residual 6 0.01215 0.002025
Total 11 11.37463

Difference observed between samples. LSD of between samples = 0.0899

72
Table B.7 ANOVA for energy content of flour samples
Source of Degree of Sum of Mean Variance F profitability
variation freedom squares Squares ratio Ratio
Sample 3 103.7292 34.5764 12806.07 <.001
Replicate 2 0.0242 0.0121 4.48 0.064
Residual 6 0.0162 0.0027
Total 11 103.7696

Difference observed between samples. LSD of between samples = 0.1038

73
 Appendix C

ANOVA for chemical analyses of flour samples.

Sample code: A= unmalted finger millet flour; B= malted finger millet flour; F-ratio ≤ 0.05
indicate significant difference at 5% level of significance.

Table C.1 ANOVA for amylase activity of flour samples

Source of Degree of Sum of Mean Variance F profitability
variation freedom squares squares ratio Ratio
Attribute 1 27225 27225 6789.28 <.001
Residual 2 8.02 4.01
Total 3 27233.02

Difference observed between samples. LSD = 8.62

Table C.2 ANOVA for phytic acid of flour samples

Source of Degree of Sum of Mean Variance F profitability
variation freedom squares squares ratio Ratio
Attribute 1 20164 20164 2520.5 <.001
Residual 2 16 8
Total 3 20180

Difference observed between samples. LSD = 12.17

Table C.3 ANOVA for calcium content of flour samples

Source of Degree of Sum of Mean Variance F profitability
variation freedom squares squares ratio Ratio
Attribute 2 119349.8 59674.91 43878.61 <.001
Residual 3 4.08 1.36
Total 5 119353.9

Difference observed between samples. LSD = 3.711

74
Table C.4 ANOVA for iron content of flour samples
Source of Degree of Sum of Mean Variance F profitability
variation freedom squares squares ratio Ratio
Attribute 2 66.12853 33.06427 2467.48 <.001
Residual 3 0.0402 0.0134
Total 5 66.16873

Difference observed between samples. LSD = 0.3684

Table C.5 ANOVA for reducing sugar of flour samples

Source of Degree of Sum of Mean Variance F profitability
variation freedom squares squares ratio Ratio
Attribute 1 1.57503 1.57503 78.75 0.012
Residual 2 0.04 0.02
Total 3 1.61503

Difference observed between samples. LSD = 0.6085

Table C.6 ANOVA for total sugar of flour samples

Source of Degree of Sum of Mean Variance F profitability
variation freedom squares squares ratio Ratio
Attribute 1 1.7956 1.7956 89.78 0.011
Residual 2 0.04 0.02
Total 3 1.8356

Difference observed between samples. LSD = 0.6085

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 Appendix D

ANOVA for sensory analyses of different bread formulations.

F-ratio ≤ 0.05 indicate significant difference at 5% level of significance

Table D.1 ANOVA for taste of composite bread

Source of Degree of Sum of Mean Variance F profitability
variation freedom squares Squares ratio Ratio
Formulate 3 0.275 0.0917 0.31 0.818
Panelist 9 19.525 2.1694 7.34 <.001
Residual 27 7.975 0.2954
Total 39 27.7750

No difference observed between formulations. However, lack of agreement is observed

between panelists.

Table D.2 ANOVA for flavor of composite bread

Source of Degree of Sum of Mean Variance F profitability
variation freedom squares Squares ratio Ratio
Formulate 3 6.1 2.0333 5.04 0.007
Panelist 9 16.1 1.7889 4.43 0.001
Residual 27 10.9 0.4037
Total 39 33.1

Difference observed between samples as well as panelists. LSD between samples = 0.583

Table D.3 ANOVA for texture of composite bread

Source of Degree of Sum of Mean Variance F profitability
variation freedom squares Squares ratio Ratio
Formulate 3 1.475 0.4917 1.6 0.212
Panelist 9 35.225 3.9139 12.77 <.001
Residual 27 8.275 0.3065
Total 39 44.975

No difference observed between samples. Lack of agreement among panelists.

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Table D.4 ANOVA for crumb of composite bread
Source of Degree of Sum of Mean Variance F profitability
variation freedom squares Squares ratio Ratio
Formulate 3 1.4 0.4667 0.53 0.663
Panelist 9 25 2.7778 3.18 0.01
Residual 27 23.6 0.8741
Total 39 50

No difference observed between samples. Lack of agreement among panelists.

Table D.5 ANOVA for color of composite bread

Source of Degree of Sum of Mean Variance F profitability
variation freedom squares Squares ratio Ratio
Formulate 3 1.275 0.425 0.46 0.713
Panelist 9 8.525 0.9472 1.02 0.446
Residual 27 24.975 0.925
Total 39 34.775

No difference between samples as well as panelists

Table D.6 ANOVA for overall acceptability of composite bread

Source of Degree of Sum of Mean Variance F profitability
variation freedom squares Squares ratio Ratio
Formulate 3 1.475 0.4917 0.82 0.496
Panelist 9 9.025 1.0028 1.66 0.147
Residual 27 16.275 0.6028
Total 39 26.775

No difference between samples as well as panelists

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 Appendix E

Phytate P determination

Table E.1 Phytate P determination: Solutions for the P standard curve

Tube 1 2 3 4 5 6

1 mM P (µL) 0 25 50 100 200 400

Zero digest (µL) 100 100 100 100 100 100

Distilled water (ml) 3.9 3.88 3.85 3.8 3.7 3.5

Chen’s reagent (ml) 4 4 4 4 4 4

Chen’s reagent: 1 volume of 6N H2SO4

1 volume 2.5% ammonium molybdate
1 volume of 10% ascorbic acid
2 volumes of deionized water

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 Appendix F

Color plates of composite bread

Formulation A Formulation B

Formulation C Formulation D
Fig. F.1 Showing the crumb structure of the four formulations of composite bread

Formulation A Formulation B Formulation C Formulation D

Fig. F.2 Showing crust color of the four formulations of composite bread

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 Appendix G

Cost calculation of composite bread

Materials Wt. (Kg) Cost per Kg (NRs) Cost (NRs.)

Wheat Flour (Maida) 32 30 960
Finger millet flour 8 20 160
Fat 1 100 100
Sugar 4 56 224
Yeast 0.8 500 400
Salt 1 12 12
SMP 0.8 300 240
Custard powder 0.8 200 160
Total cost - 2256
Cost per 100 gram - 2.256
Note: The cost excludes processing, packaging, manpower cost and profit margin.

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 Appendix H

Finger millet production in Nepal

Fig. H.1 Distribution map for finger millet production

Source: Dawadi (1999)

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 Fig. H.2 Finger millet field in Annapurna region of Nepal
Source: Wikipedia (2009c).

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