STUDENTS’ INDUSTRIAL WORK EXPERIENCE SCHEME (SIWES) REPORT

UNDERTAKEN AT FEDERL UNIVERSITY OF TECHNOLOGY AKURE

(BREEDING UNIT)

PMB 704, AKURE,

ONDO STATE, NIGERIA.

BY

AISOLE ADOMOKAIH VICTOR

CSP/15/1509

SUBMITTED TO THE

DEPARTMENT OF CROP, SOIL AND PEST MANAGEMENT

FEDERAL UNIVERSITY OF TECHNOLOGY, AKURE, NIGERIA

IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE AWARD OF A

BACHELOR OF TECHNOLOGY (B.TECH) DEGREE IN CROP PRODUCTION AND

SOIL SCIENCE

FEBUARY 2020.
 CERTIFICATION

This is to certify that this technical report on student’s industrial work experience scheme

(SIWES) undertaken at Federal University of Technology, Akure was carried out by Mr. AISOLE

ADOMOKAIH VICTOR with Matric Number CSP/15/1509 and have been prepared in line with

the regulation guiding the preparations of report in the department of Crop, Soil and Pest

Management, school of Agriculture and Agriculture Technology, Federal University Of

Technology, Akure, Nigeria.

_____________________           _______________________

    Head of Department           Date

 
 DEDICATION

This report is dedicated to God Almighty for his unending love and support, the beginning and

the end, the only one who has been my strength all through my industrial training programme.

     
 AKNOWLEDGEMENT

With sincere gratitude, I give thanks to Almighty God that made the completion of the Six month

program possible in good health.

I also want to thank my mother Mrs. Janet Aisole, my sibling for giving me financial support,

care and prayers throughout the entire process.

I appreciate the HOD and the entire staff of Industrial training coordinating Centre for the

Students’ industrial work experience scheme (SIWES), which made the practical experience

opportunity available to the students. It is indeed a gap between theory and practical.

I wish to express my profound gratitude to my Supervisor DR Lawrence Fayeun and the farm

manager in the person of MR. Mogaji for their immense contribution to the success of my

SIWES program. May the good lord continue to be with you and your family in Jesus name

(AMEN).

My special thanks are extended to my colleagues during the course of the program, I can’t thank

you all enough for making the program worthwhile and enjoyable, the constant support and

guidance either directly or indirectly towards the completion of my internship was very much

appreciated.

Finally, I want to express my sincere appreciation to my able lecturers in the Department of

Crop, Soil and Pest Management, Federal University of Technology, Akure whose theoretical

thoughts has been a prerequisite to the practical knowledge acquired during the course of my

SIWES program and has alongside made my skills acquisition easier.

 
 

TABLE OF CONTENTS

TITLE PAGE

CERTIFICATION

DEDICATION

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

TABLE OF CONTENTS

LIST OF PLATES

LIST OF FIGURES

LIST OF TABLES

CHAPTER ONE

1.0 Introduction to Siwes

1.1 Objectives of Siwes

1.2 Bodies Involved in Siwes

CHAPTER TWO

2.0 Crop, Soil, and Pest Management

2.1 Brief History of Crop Soil and pest Management

2.2 Mission and Agenda of Crop Soil and Pest Management

2.3 Organogram of Crop Soil and Pest Management Department

CHAPTER THREE

3.0 Industrial Work Experience

3.1 Brief History of Cassava

3.2 Off Farm Trial of Cassava Clones

3.2.1 Agronomy of Cassava

3.2.2 Objectives of Cassava

3.3 Land Preparation of Cassava

3.4 Planting of Cassava

3.5 General Evaluation of Cassava

3.5.1 Sprout

3.5.2 Vigour

3.5.3 Cassava Mosaic Disease (CMD)

3.5.4 Cassava Bacterial Blight (CBB)

3.5.5 Cassava Anthracnose Disease (CAD)

3.6 Cultural Practices

 3.6.1 Weed Control and Weed Management

3.7 Dry Matter Evaluation

3.7.1 Oven Dry Method

3.8 General Description of Maize

3.8.1 Taxonomy of Maize

3.8.2 Growth and Development

3.8.3 Floral Biology of Maize

3.8.4 Objectives of Maize Breeding

3.8.5 Development of Lines

3.8.6 Hybrid Developement

 LIST OF PLATES

PLATE 1:

PLATE 2:

PLATE 3:

PLATE 4: CASSAVA PLANT WITH CASSAVA MOSAIC DISEASE SYMPTOMS

PLATE 5: SCORING FOR CASSAVA MOSAIC DISEASE

PLATE 6: SCORING FOR CASSAVA BACTERIAL BLIGHT

PLATE 7: SCORING FOR CASSAVA ANTHRACNOSE DISEASE

PLATE 8:
PLATE 9:

PLATE 10: WEIGHING OF 100GRAM OF SHREDDED CASSAVA ROOT

PLATE 11:

PLATE 12:

LIST OF FIGURE

FIGURE PAGE

FIGURE 1 ORGANOGRAM OF CSP DEPARTMENT

LIST OF TABLES
 CHAPTER ONE

1.0 INTRODUCTION TO SIWES

SIWES, an acronym for student Industrial Work Experience Scheme started in 1973 by the ITF

(Industrial Training Fund) which are designed to expose and prepared students for the industrial

work condition they are likely to find themselves after graduation. The scheme also offer

students the opportunity of familiarizing themselves to the needed experience in handling

equipment and machinery pertaining to their respective field of study, which are in most cases

not usually available in their institutions. This program also helps students in developing public

relations with their co-worker which are very vital role lacks by many industrialist as little or no

human resources management are put in place. This solve the problem of insufficient practical

skills which are the key point required from graduate of any Nigeria tertiary institutions as

enacted from decree No.47 of October 8th , 1971 given a mandate to ITF in promoting and
encouraging the acquisition of skills in industry and commerce with a view of the Nigeria

economy. The duration of SIWES is four months in polytechnics at the end of ND1, four months

in colleges of education at the end of NCE II and six or three months in universities at the end of

3,4 or 5 years depending on the discipline.

1.1 AIMS AND OBJECTIVES OF SIWES

❖ The program was specially designed to carry out the following; Bridge the gap between theory

and practical thereby giving students the opportunity to apply their knowledge accurately.

❖ Expose students to what their professions entail.

❖ Improve inter-personal relationship skills of the students.

❖ Develop skills on practical knowledge.

❖ To give students the opportunity to know how things are done in corporate organizations and

how to relate with authorities.

❖ To help students prepare for the corporate world and enhance their curriculum vitae.
1.2 BODIES INVOLVED IN SIWES

The bodies involved are the Federal Government, Industrial Training Fund (ITF); other

supervisory agencies are the National Council for College of Education (NCCE). The success or

otherwise of the SIWES depends on the bodies, institutions, employers of labor and general

public involved in articulation and management of the program.

The bodies are to collectively set polices for participating institutions, yet student reports and

grade them, establish and accredit SIWES in institutions and also to ensure payment of

participating students.
 CHAPTER TWO

2.0 BRIEF HISTORY OF FUTA RESERCH FARM

Futa research farm is an agriculture business organization set on an agriculture landscape. The

university land along Akure/Owo road is planned for commercial agriculture and forest

plantation for teaching, research and industrial development of the university. It was established

in the year 1982 and the organization specializes in planting maize, tomato, cucumber, sorghum,

cowpea, cassava, and pepper. The farm also process palm oil and engage in the production of

vegetables (leaf and fruit vegetable) such as cucumber, tomato, amaranthus, etc.

2.1 WHAT THE ORGANIZATION OFFERS

The mission of FUTA TEACHING AND RESEARCH FARM is to provide food security, its aim

and objectives is to provide opportunities for agriculture, breed new varieties through breeders,

enhance crop quality and productivity and thus create a positive impact on the lives of the poor,

the farm also creates an avenue for educating Nigerian farmers on the latest developments in

global agriculture through its agriculture extension.

ORGANOGRAM OF THE
 CHAPTER THREE

3.0 INDUSTRIAL WORK EXPERIENCE

3.1 BRIEF HISTORY OF CASSAVA

Cassava just like any other living creatures has its botanical name Manihot esculenta crantz. It is

also called yucca,tapioa or manioc. It’s a woody shrub of the Ephorbiaceae (Spurge) family

originates from South America. Cassava is extensively cultivated as annual crop in the tropical
and sub-tropical regions. It is known by various names in Nigeria, depending on the location

where it is grown. To mention a few, the plant is called akpu in Igbo, Ege in Yoruba, Igari in Ika,

rogo in Hausa, ijiakpu in Olukwumi, midaka in Urhobo, iwa in Annang, okponkore in Ijaw,

bobozi in Ishan and oyila in Idoma. Nutritional, cassava contains potassium, calcium, iron,

vitamin A, folic acid, sodium, vitamin B-6 and protein which are very vital in human diets.

Cassava can be used in many types of product such as foods, confectionery, sweeteners, glues,

plywood, textile, papers, biodegradable products, also in the manufacture of monosodium

glumate and medicines. Dry cassava chips and pellets are used in animal feeds and in the

production of alcohol. This is discussed below:

Food: cassava is widely in Nigeria as food. Cassava leaves are very high in protein and are

consumed as a vegetable in some part of Africa. The roots are mostly consumed in form of gari,

fufu, tapiocal , starch, kpokpo, gari and in lafun.In the northern parts of the country, they are

eaten as a raw snack. Cassava flour is mainly used in bakery products and cassava starch can be

used as a general thickening, binding, texturing, and stabilizing a range of food products such as

canned food, frozen foods, salad dressings, sauces and infant foods.

Glues: Cassava starch is a very important ram materials in making glues. Cassava starch-based

extracts are excellent adhesives and are used in many applicants including pre-gummed papers,

tapes, labels, and stamps and envelops.

Plywood: Glue made from cassava starch is a key material in plywood manufacturing. The

quantity of plywood depends heavily on the glue that is used.

Biodegradable products: cassava starch can be used as a bio-degradable polymer to replace

plastics in packaging materials.

Pharmaceutical products: Native and modified cassava starches are used as binders, fillers, and

disintegrating agents for tablet production

Sweeteners: Glucose and fructose made from cassava starch are used as substitutes for sucrose

in jams and canned fruits. Cassava-based sweeteners are preferred in beverage formulations for

their improved processing characteristics and product enhancing properties.

Confectionery: Modified cassava starch or starch derivatives are used in confectionery for

different purpose such as thickening and glazing. Cassava starches are widely used in sweets

such as jellies and gums.

Monosodium glutamate: Cassava starch is a common source for making monosodium

glutamate in Asia. It is used to enhance flavor in food, e.g., Ajinomoto.

Ethanol: Cassava chips are an alternative source of raw materials for producing alcoholic drinks

as well as medical and industrial alcohols.

Livestock feeds: Cassava roots can be produced into chips and pellets which are mainly used in

animal feeds for cattle, sheep, pigs, poultry, and farmed fish. The cassava leaves are also a good

source of feeds for livestock.

OFF FARM TRIAL OF CASSAVA

I participated in a farm trail where clones of cassava was planted in four different locations in

akure, Ondo states and two main varieties which are the next-gen (white root) and harvest plus
(yellow root) was planted in other to strengthening the capacity of national breeding programs by

achieving self-sustaining breeding system. Theses farm trails is a measure of the improvements

of cassava performances before it is been release to the farmers. The cassava clones was planted

on the 1st of October in all three different locations. Compared with other major staples like

maize, rice, and wheat, cassava has undergone few advances in productivity and yield. Because

cassava is clonally propagated and has a low multiplication rate, it can take almost six to eight

years before a new cassava variety makes it from breeders’ nurseries through field trials to

farmers’ fields. “Breeders must be able to move quickly to develop cassava varieties that resist

diseases, are climate resistant and meet the needs of end-users and consumers,” (Egesi, 2004).

3.2 OBJECTIVES OF OFF-FARM CASSAVA BREEDING

The objectives off farm cassava breeding:

i. Diseases and pest resistances

ii. Drought tolerance

iii. Soil nutrient use efficiency

iv. Plant types preferred by farmers

v. Early bulking

vi. Poundability

vii. High stable yield across diverse agricultural growing regions

viii. Enhanced nutrition quality including at least 15ug/g fresh weight of protein-vitamin A,

Beta-carotene.
TABLE 1: TABLE SHOWING TAGGING, ORIGIN OF CLONES, SPACING, AND NUMBER

OF STANDS PER CLONES OF THE FIRST LOCTION OF PLOT A BESIDE SAAT

ORIGIN OF SPACING NUMBER OF

NO OF TAG CLONES (m) STAND PER

CLONES

101 IBA 164785 1X0.8 16

102 KN 130010 1X0.8 25

103 IBA 1504810 1X0.8 30

IBA 154798 14
 104 1X0.8

105 IBA 164776 1X0.8 10

106 LOCAL 1X0.8 27

TABLE 2: TABLE SHOWING VARIETIES, ORIGIN OF THE VARIETIES, SPACING, AND

NUMBER OF STANDS PER CLONES OF THE FIRST LOCTION OF PLOT B AT SAAT

FARM
 ORIGIN OF SPACING NUMBER OF

NO OF TAG CLONES (m) STAND PER

CLONES

101 TMS 13FI343P021 1X0.8 18

102 IBA OOOO7O 1X0.8 19

103 TMS 13F13O7P616 1X0.8 18

104 LOCAL 1X0.8 18

105 TMS 13F1160P0004 1X0.8 13

106 TMS 1X0.8 8

13F116OPOO44

TABLE 3: TABLE SHOWING VARIETIES, ORIGIN OF THE VARIETIES, SPACING, AND

NUMBER OF STANDS PER CLONES OF THE FOURTH LOCTION OF PLOT D AT

APATAPITI

ORIGIN OF SPACING NUMBER OF

NO OF TAG CLONES (m) STAND PER

CLONES

101 TMS 13FI343P0022 1X0.8 20

102 IBA OOOO7O 1X0.8 19

103 TMS 13F1160P004 1X0.8 22

104 TMS 1X0.8 12

13F1343POO44

105 POO16 1X0.8 12

106 LOCAL 1X0.8 17

AGRONOMY PRACTICES CARRIED OUT IN THE OFF FARM CASSAVA TRIAL

The agronomic practices associated with cassava breeding are discussed in this section under the

heading of field preparation, planting, and cultural practices (weed control and fertilizer

application) as well as harvesting.

LAND PREPARATION

Fields used for the breeding program are always cleared, ploughed, harrowed and ridged

mechanically using tractors and other implements coupled to it. Fields were marked and pegged

into blocks using measuring tape and pegs leaving an alley way of 1m in between 2 blocks for

easy movement during data collection and maintenance.

PLANTING

Healthy planting material with good pit ratio are prepared prior to planting. Planting is done with

bamboo peg. The soil is loosen with cutlass or bamboo peg and planting is done at angle to the

horizontal of the soil with two-third of the cuttings inside the soil, it necessitate easy harvesting

Cassava stem cuttings of about 25cm with at least 5 nodes are planted in all trials except for
seeding nursery where seeds are sown and rapid multiplication. And the spacing used is 1x 0.8m

in 9m long ridge. The node of the cutting usually faces up when planting. The clone number of

each planted trial is tagged on the first cuttings of the clone which is often planted as behind peg.

Some ridges are left in between blocks for planting diseases spreader, checks, or local control

depending on the planted trial. The planting of the different varieties of cassava clones on four

different location was carried on the 1 st of October. Plate 2 shows planting of cassava stem using

a bamboo peg as the planting material.

Plate 2: pegging of cassava stem using bamboo peg
CULTURAL PRACTICES

WEED CONTROL AND MANAGEMENT

The most important cultural practice observed in the breeding trial program is weeding. Like

many other crops grown in the tropics, cassava is susceptible to early weed competition. Slow

initial development of spout from cassava cuttings makes all cassava cultivars susceptible to

weed interference during 3-4 months after planting (IITA 1990). Common weeds found in

cassava fields are Imperata cylindrical, Mucuna puriens, Andropogons spp, Panicum maximum,

Pennisetum spp, Talinum triangulaire, Argeratum conyzoides, Cynodon dactyylon, Eluesine

indica, Chromolaene odorota, Borhevia diffusa, Tridax procumbes, Commelina spp, etc

There are two methods used in controlling weeds in breeding program. They are (i) Hoe weeding

(ii) Chemical weeding.

(i) Hoe weeding: this involves the use of hoe to control weeds present on the field trials.

It is very effective when used few weeks after planting especially when weed

populations is still low. Hoe weeding is timely (three weeding at 3, 8, 12 weeks after

planting) as shown in plate 3.

 Plate 3: weeding of the yellow root cassava (harvest plus)

(II) Chemical weeding: this involves the use of herbicides to control weeds present on the

field. They are often used when population is very high and can no longer be suppressed using

hoe weeding. They are applied as pre-planting and post-emergent herbicide.

There are two types of herbicides used. They are contact and synthetic herbicide. Some of the

names of the herbicides used in weed control are glyphosate pendimenthaline, dufuran, primext.

PRE-HARVEST DATA COLLECTION FOR ONE MONTH

STANDARD SCORING SYSTEM OF EVALUATING CASSAVA AT ONE AND THREE

MONTH

This section provides us some information on data collection and scoring for the major diseases

and pest in cassava. Cassava is breed for the resistance of these major diseases and pests. These

are the basic information on standard scoring system for the major diseases and pests used in

cassava breeding program. During the growing season, the data collected are recorded on field

note book, before entering it in a computer.

The major evaluation system carried out are as follows:

(ii) Sprout count

(iii) Vigor

(iv) Cassava mosaic disease (CMD)

(v) Cassava bacterial blight diseases (CBB)

(vi) Cassava anthracnose diseases(CAD)

(vii) Color of apical leaves

(viii) Pubescence on apical leaves

SPROUT COUNT
I took the total number of emergence per stand in a variety in other to know the sprout count in

each variety or to know the germination count per variety which is usually taken in one month

and these usually occurs when there is production of new shoots from the nodes.

VIGOUR

This is an important evaluation for one month which was carried out on the 1 st of November

2019 and it is usually done after planting to check the initial plant growth visually and it is done

per stand for a variety. Vigor evaluation was taking on a scoring scale of 3, 5, and 7 as seen on

the table below

3 Poor vigor

5 Intermediate vigor

7 Vigorous

CASSAVA MOSAIC DISEASES (CMD)

Cassava mosaic disease is caused by a germ which cannot be seen with the naked eyes this germ

is given to the crop by a white fly (Bemisia tabasi) which lives on the underside of the leaves

where they lay their eggs. This germ causes the leaves to lose their green color which can lead to

100% yield loss. When the leaves are green it aids photosynthesis. Cassava mosaic diseases

evaluation can be done in two ways (i) incidence (ii) severity.

(I) Incidence: this is the total number of infected cassava clones in a variety

(II) Severity: this defines how susceptible the plant is in a variety where it shows many

symptoms of the cassava mosaic disease and the evaluation was carried out using

diseases severity and it was done using a scale of 1 to 5

Symptoms: leaves are reduced in size, misshapen and twisted with chlorotic areas separated by

green areas, light green, yellow or white patches on the leaves, wrinkling of leaves, shrinking of

leaves and stunted plants. Leaflets may show a nearly uniform mosaic pattern.
 Plate : CASSAVA PLANT WITH CASSAVA MOSAIC DISEASES

SYMPTOMS
The figure below shows cassava mosaic diseases using disease severity on the scoring scale of 1-

5
 Plate : scoring for cassava mosaic disease

Control:

(i) The use of disease-free cuttings and resistant varieties

(ii) Early planting to avoid peak of whitefly vector

(iii) Regular field inspection (2-3 times) to rogue out infected plant in low disease

incidence

(iv) Control insect vectors where possible

CASSAVA BACTERIAL BLIGHT (CBB)

Cassava bacterial blight is caused by a bacterium (Xanthomonas campestris pathovar

manihotis.)

Which occurs inside the leaves and stem. Initially, damage by CBB appears as water-soaked

dead spots. The lesions occur between leaf veins and are most evident on the lower surfaces of

the leaves. Severely blighted leaves wilt, die and fall causing defoliation and shoot tip die-back

or complete death of the shoots. The damage symptoms of CBB are more evident in the dry

season. The disease is more severe in young plants than in older plants. The manifestation of its

severity depends partly on plant age and time of evaluation.

Therefore, CBB was taking after one month prior to planting of the different cassava varieties

where two parameters were used to evaluate the resistance of cassava genotypes: CBB incidence

and symptom severity score severity score. CBB incidence is calculated as a number of infected

clones over total numbers of clones while CBB severity is scored on a scale 1-5

Symptoms

I. During the early morning hours when periods of high relative humidity occur,

bacterial exudations can readily be observed on the lower surfaces of infected leaves

and on thr petioles and stems of highly susceptible varieties.

II. Characteristics angular water-soaked leaf spot, blight, gum exudation, stem die-back,

wilting of the leaves and vascular necrosis.

The scoring system for cassava bacterial blight is based on the following five classes
Plate : scoring for cassava bacterial blight
Control of CBB

i. Use clean planting materials. These reduces disease incidence in areas where cassava

bacterial blight is widespread.

ii. Collecting cuttings from healthy plants and from lignified portion of the stem, up to

1m from the base: check visually for vascular browning

iii. Disinfect tools regularly between (cuttings)

iv. Intercrop cassava with maize or melon

v. Practice crop rotation and fallowing

vi. Remove and burn all infected plant debris and weeds

vii. Alternatively plough them into the soil

CASSAVA ANTHRACNOSE DISEASE (CAD)

Cassava anthracnose disease is caused by a fungi (Colletricumgloesporiodes) which occurs on

the surface of cassava plants stems and leaves. The main sources of the fungus that causes CAD

are cassava plants with the disease. The fungus spreads by wind carrying spores from cankers on

the stem, or by planting stem cuttings with cankers.

Scoring for CMD is usually carried out in six months after planting to make sure that the stem is

already mature and two parameters is used to evaluate the resistance of cassava genotypes: CAD

incidence is calculated as number of infected clones over total numbers of clones while CAD

severity is scored on a scale 1-5.

Symptoms:

1. The fungus attacks mainly the stem, twigs, and fruit, causing deep wounds (“cankers”)

leaf spotting and tip die-back. The first symptoms appear on the young stems are slightly

depressed oval lesion which turn dark brown.

2. On the older stem, raised fibrous lesions eventually develop into deep cankers which

made the stems brittle.

3. The incidence and severity of the disease have not been correlated with yield loss in the

field but the infected stems produce poor quality planting materials; this animal does not

establish well in the following planting season and thus yields are reduced.

The scoring system is based on the following five classes:

Plate 8: Scoring for Cassava Anthracnose Disease
DRY MATTER EVALUATION

This is the checking of the amount of food content and water content in freshly harvested cassava

root. The tagged cassava clones harvested on the field are brought to the yarn barn and left for

the period of 10 days, 7 days, and 3 days. This tagged clones are then sliced into equal slices and

arranged on a flip chart, the flat tray and the knife should be sterilized with ethanol to prevent

contamination. After it has been arranged on a flat tray, you will check for the level of

deterioration using a scale of 1-10. Then after checking for the deterioration, the sliced roots will

be peeled and shredded manually by the shredder operated by human in other for the surface area

to increase so that it can be oven dried. This is achieved through two methods: (a) oven-dried

method. (b) Specific gravity method

OVEN-DREIED METHOD PROCEDURE:

(i) Collect samples of about 200gram from each clone

(ii) Put them in a polythene bag and tag them with their clone number on a ribbon

(iii) Washes samples with clean water to remove the sands

(iv) Shred the samples using the shredding machine

(v) Weighed about 100grams of shredded cassava tuber using electronic sensitive scale

(vi) Put the weighed 100grams into a clean envelope, keep in an oven to dry for about 72

hours (3days) at 720C

(vii) Remove samples and re-weigh, after 72 hours using sensitive scale/electronic scale

(viii) Record new weight in field notebook for analysis

EQUIPMENTS
i. Knife

ii. Flat tray

iii. Shredder

iv. Ribbon

v. Flip chart sheet

NOTE: White root cassava deteriorate faster because of the lack of antioxidants which is present

in yellow roots
Plate : cutting of cassava root with the use of a knife
Plate : weighing of 100gram of shredded cassava root and oven drying
GENERAL DESCRIPTION OF MAIZE

Maize (Zea mays L) is a cereal crop adapted to a wide range of environmental conditions and is

cultivated in all agro-ecologies of West and Central Africa (WCA). In fact the suitability of

maize to diverse environments is unmatched by any other crops. It is grown from 58 0N to 400S,

from below sea level to altitudes higher than 3000m, and in areas with 250 mm to more than

5000 mm of rainfall per year (Shaw, 1988; Dowswell et. al., 1996) and with a growing cycle

ranging from 3 to 13months(CIMMYT 2000). It is a member of the grass family, Gramineae.

Worldwide, wheat, rice and maize are produced in greater quantities than any other crops. Of

these crops, maize has the highest average yield per hectare (Table 1). Maize is third after wheat

and rice in area harvested and total production. It is used for many different purposes including

food for human, feed for livestock, and raw materials for agro-allied industries.

However, the major maize production areas are located in temperate regions of the globe. The

United States, China, Brazil and Mexico account for 70% of global production. India has 5% of

corn acreage and contributes 2% of world production. The use of maize varies in different

countries. In USA, EU, Canada and other developed countries, maize is used mainly to feed

animals directly or sold to feed industry and as raw material for extractive/fermentation

industries (Morris, 1998; Galinat, 1988; Shaw, 1988, Mexico, 1994). In developing countries use

of maize is variable. In Latin America and Africa the main use of maize is for food while in Asia

it is used for food and animal feed. In fact in many countries it is the basic staple food and an

important ingredient in the diets of people. Globally, it has been estimated that approximately

21% of the total grain produced is consumed as food.

For this reason, there are different types or varieties bred specifically for each end use. The term

‘‘variety’’ refers to a subdivision of a species that is morphologically or physiological distinct. It

is used in a general way to refer to open-pollinated populations (landraces and improved

varieties), inbred lines, and hybrids.

‘‘Cultivar’’ is another term used by plant breeders and agronomists. It refers to a variety which is

widely cultivated and generally implies that the variety has been improved by selection.

Although the two terms are often used interchangeably, Variety seems to be more commonly

used in maize research and production.

A variety or cultivar is different from others in at least one characteristic or trait. Varieties can be

distinguished by a number of features including the following:

 Ecological adaptation – temperate vs. tropical adaptation, lowland vs. mid-altitude, mid-

altitude vs. high altitude

 Maturity – time required to reach physiological or harvest maturity (< 90 days = extra-

early, 90-95 days = early, 105-110 days = intermediate, 115-120 days = late, >120 days =

extra late)

 Grain texture – flint, dent, semi-dent, dent, floury.

 Grain color – white, yellow

 Protein quality – normal vs. quality protein maize(QPM)

 Endosperm content – field maize, pop corn or sweet corn

 Resistance to biotic factors including diseases, insects, and parasitic weeds.

 Resistance to abiotic factors including drought, adverse fertility conditions, acid soils and

temperature extremes.

 Yield of grain or fodder.

Some morphological features are used as descriptors to identify maize varieties in the field

including grain color and texture, plant architecture, leaf angle or orientation, plant and ear

height, tassel size, shape and color, silk color, and stem pigmentation. The genetic diversity

among maize varieties provides a high degree of versatility for the crop.

However, it is not always easy to identify specific open-pollinated varieties (OPVs) of maize in

the field, due to the allogamous (out-crossing) nature of the crop and the variation that exists

within varieties. Inbred and hybrids are more readily distinguished because they are more

uniform.

Table1. World production of major cereal crops (FAO 1993)

Crop Area harvested Yield Total production

(million ha) (t/ha)

Wheat 222 2.5 564

 Rice 148 3.6 527

Maize 127 3.7 471

TAXONOMY OF MAIZE

Maize belongs to the tribe Maydeae of the grass family poaceae. ‘‘Zea’’ (zeal) was derived from
an old name for a food grass. The genus Zea consists of four species of which Zea mays L. is

economically important. The other zea sp., referred to as teosinites are largely wild grasses native

to Mexico and Central America (Doeblay, 1990). The number of chromosomes in Zea mays is 2n

= 20. Tribe maydeae comprises of seven generals which are recognized as Old and New World

groups. Old world comprises of Coix (2n = 10/20), Chionachne (2n = 20), Sclerachne (2n = 20)

and Polytoca (2n = 20), and New World group has Zea and Tripsacum. It is generally agreed that

maize phenology was largely determined by the American genera Zea and Tripsacum, however it

is accepted that the genus Coix contributed to the phylogenetic development of the species Zea

mays (Radu et al. 1997).

Kingdom – Plantae

Division - Magnoliophyta

Class – Liliopsida

Order – Poales

Family – Poaceae

Genus – Zea

Species – Z. mays
Table 2: Composition per 100g of edible portion of maize (dry) (Radu et al. 1997)

Moisture 14.9g

Protein 11.1g

Minerals 1.5g

Carbohydrates 66.2g

Fat 3.6g

Calcium 10mg

Fibre 2.7g

Iron 2.3mg

Calories 342mg

Potassium 286mg

Phosphorus 348mg

Thiamine 0.42mg

Sodium 15.9mg

Carotene 90ug

Sulphur 114mg

Vitamin C 0.12mg

Riboflavin 0.10mg
Magnesium 139mg

Amino acids 1.78mg

1.6.1 GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT

Maize is a tall, determinate, monoecious, annual plant. It produced large, narrow,

opposite leaves, borne alternatively along the length of stem. All maize varieties follow same

general pattern of development, although specific time and interval between stages and total

number of leaves developed may vary between different hybrids, seasons, time of planting and

location. Maize has the basic structure of the grass family with conspicuous nodes and internodes

on the stem. The leaves grow on opposite sides; one leaf per node. Maize is botanically unique

among cereal crops and produces grains on lateral rather than terminal branches. Maize is a

cross- pollinating (allogamous) species; therefore a natural population is usually heterogenous.

For standardization of definitions, maize researchers developed a guide for identifying different

growth stages of maize. Not all plants in a field reach a particular stage at the same time.

Therefore, researchers assume that the crop reaches a specific stage when at least 50% of the

plants show the corresponding features (Jennifer G. Kling, Gregory Edmeades 1997)

Standardization of definitions allows researchers to relate problems, cultural practices and other

agronomic observations to specific growth stages. Researchers can also compare the phenology

of maize under different environmental conditions and experimental treatments.

The various stages of maize growth are broadly divided into two categories (Table 3):

 Vegetative (V)

 Reproductive (R)Table3. Growth stages (Jennifer G. Kling, Gregory

Edmeades 1997)

Stage DAS* Features

VE 5 The coleoptiles emerges from

 the soil surface

V1 9 The collar of the first leaf is

visible

V2 12 The collar of the second leaf

is visible

Vn The collar of the leaf number

‘n’ is visible. The maximum

value of ‘n’ represents the

final number of leaves, which

is usually 16-23 but by

flowering, the lower leaves

have disappeared

VT 55 The last branch of the tassel is

completely visible when the

plant is just knee-high

R0 57 Anthesis or male flowering.

Pollen shed begins

R1 59 Silks are visible

 R2 71 Blister stage. Kernels are

filled with clear fluid and the

embryo can be seen

R3 80 Milk stage. Kernels are filled

with a white, milky fluid

R4 90 Dough stage. Kernels are

filled with a white paste. The

embryo is about half as wide

as the kernel. The top part of

the kernels are filled with

solid starch

R5 102 Dent stage. If the genotype is

a dent type, the grains are

dented. The milk line is close

to the base when the kernel is

viewed from the side in both

flint and dent types

R6 112 Physiological maturity. Grain

moisture is usually 35%

*
DAS: approximate number of days after sowing (Note: in lowland tropics where maximum and
minimum temperatures may be 33oC and 22oC respectively).

Figure 2: Reproductive structures in maize

1.6.2 FLORAL BIOLOGY OF MAIZE

Maize is a monoecious plant, that is, the sexes are partitioned into separate pistillate

(ear), the female flower and staminate (tassel), the male flower. It has determinate growth habit

and the shoot terminates into the inflorescences bearing staminate or pistillate flowers (Dhillon

and Prasanna, 2001).The main shoot terminates in a staminate tassel. Maize is generally

protandrous, that is, the male flower matures earlier than the female flower. Within each male

flower spikelet, there are usually two functional florets, although development of the lower floret

may be delayed slightly in comparison to the upper floret. Each floret contains a pair of thin

scales i.e. lemma and palea, three anthers, two lodicules and rudimentary pistil. Pollen grains per

anther have been reported to range from 2000 to 7500 (Kiesselbach, 1949). Within an average of

7000 anthers per tassel and 2000 grains per anther, each tassel could produce 14 x 10 -6 pollen

grains. Kiesselbach (1949) estimated that 42,500 pollen grains are produced per square inch of

cornfield. In terms of the ratio of pollen grains produced per ovules fertilized, it appears that

since each ear requires about 1000 pollen grains for fertilization, there are about 20,000 pollen

grains per kernel in excess of what is actually needed if pollination were 100 percent efficient.

The pollen grains are very small, barely visible to the naked eye, light in weight, and easily

carried by wind. The wind borne nature of the pollen and protandry lead to cross-pollination, but

there may be about 5 per cent self-pollination.

The female flower initially is smooth but protuberances soon form in rows. The basal

protuberances are formed first and development advances towards the tip of the ears. The part

above the attachment of the carpel develops a single sessile ovule, which consists of a nucellus

with two integuments or rudimentary seed coats. The united carpel’s, which will form the ovary

wall or pericarp of the mature kernel, grow upward until they completely enclose the ovule. The
two anterior carpel, which face the ear tip, form outgrowths, which develop into the style

i.e into long thread, know as silks. Silks are covered with numerous hairs, trichomes which form

an angle with the silk where pollen grains are harbored.

The base of the silk is unique, as it elongates continuously until fertilization occurs. The cobs

bear many rows of ovules that are always even in number.

The female inflorescence or ear develops from one or more lateral branches (shanks)

usually borne about half-way up the main stalk from auxiliary shoot buds. As the internodes of

the shanks are condensed, the ear remains permanently enclosed in a mantle of many husk.

OBJECTIVES OF MAIZE BREEDING

The objectives of maize breeding are;

 To develop high yielding hybrids and composite having various maturity

duration.

 To breed varieties for high grain and fodder yield

 To breed fertilize responsive varieties

 Breeding for wider adaptability to soil and agro-ecologies

 Breeding for resistance/tolerance to diseases, parasitic weeds (Striga), drought

and lodging

 Breeding for industrial qualities (Starch, protein and oil content)

 Breeding for resistance to biotic (pest and diseases) and abiotic (temperature
 extremes, acidic soils, adverse fertility conditions e.t.c) stresses

BREEDING STRATEGIES

Maize breeders employ a variety of techniques to improve genetic composition of maize

and a successful strategy is dependent on physiological, physical and hereditary characteristics of

the germplasm (Carena, 2007). Different breeding approaches are required for inbred line

development, hybrid formation etc. The procedures taken have developed along with the

advancement of human civilization and have expanded to incorporate humanity’s increased

knowledge of genetics.

Maize breeding programs include three important phases to meet the short, intermediate

and long-term objectives:

I. Choice of germplasm.

II. Phenological improvement of germplasm chosen

III. Development of lines for use as parent stocks in production of single-cross,

testcross, doublecross, topcross hybrids (for areas requiring hybrids) and

 development of improved varieties, synthetics and composites. (Dowswell et

al.,1996; Carena, 2005; Carena and wicks III, 2006).

2.2.3 DEVELOPMENT OF LINES

The third important phase of increasing effectiveness and efficiency of maize breeding

is to integrate recurrent selection with inbred line development programs which is the most

important tool in maize breeding program.

Pollination is the transfer of pollen grain from the anther to the stigma of a flower. The different

types of pollination include:

 Self pollination (selfing)

 Cross pollination (hybrid formation)

Figure 3: female and male flower of a maize plant

2.2.3.1 INBRED LINE DEVELOPMENT

Inbred lines are the crosses between closely related parents, a plant resulting from

successive self-fertilization of parents throughout several generations which is usually 6-7

generations. In maize breeding it is also called cytoplasmic sterile line which is usually the A

lines of maize (parental lines), the seed-bearing parent line used to produce hybrid seed that is

male sterile; in maize hybrid seed production, a male-sterile parent line used to produce hybrid

seeds and hence the seed-producing parental line.

In maize breeding program in IITA, inbred line development is achieved by crossing two related

parents such as TZLCOMP3 and TZL COMP4 which are both flint and dent type respectively

and after examining the genotype of the resulting progeny and the desired traits have been found,

efforts are made to allow the gene to be homogenous which are achieved by self-pollinating the

material for about 6-7 generations because it is only after 6-7 generations that the gene can be

stable.
Compared to normal maize varieties or hybrid maize the inbred lines usually have

 Shorter height

 Less heterosis

 Thinner stem

 Smaller tassel

 Smaller/uniform ear

 Lower yield

All these are due to continuous selfing for many generations which would have made the gene to

be more diversified.

The most important part of any good pollination is shoot covering, which is the covering of the

female ear (pistillate) shoot cover so as to ensure that no pollen is being carried by wind to the

silk to avoid cross pollination. The tassel (staminate) is being bagged with a pollination bag,

usually this is done in the afternoon because it is believed that pollen sheds very well in the

afternoon. Pollination is then carried out in the next morning by transferring the pollen grains
from the anther (tassel) of that flower to the stigma (silk) of that same flower and then covered

with the bag.

2.2.3.2 HYBRID DEVELOPMENT

Hybrid maize is always produced by crossing two or more parental inbred lines. It is also

the B-lines of maize which is the maintainer of an A-line or fertile counterpart used as the pollen

parent to maintain the A-line. In general, inbred lines are a kind of end product for hybrid

development since they are developed by five to six generations of inbreeding. The term hybrids

used to designate F1 populations obtained by crossing genetically unlike parents.

Cross pollination is involved in the development of hybrids which is the transfer of pollen

grain from the anther (tassel) of a plant to the stigma (silk) of another plant.

In any pollination either selfing or cross pollination, the first step we normally carry out is shoot

covering which is very important because the success of your pollination depends on the success

of your shoot covering. It is normally carried out 55-59 days after planting depending on the

maturity of the plant, for good shoot cover (not to cover the smaller ears) we must ensure that the

plant has reached anthesis or male flowering and this is the time it is believed that the ear is

matured to be covered.

When covering it is important to note that second ears are not being covered and this is
because since plant feeds acropetally (towards the apex), nutrients are being utilized basipetally

(towards the root) and it is believed that the first ear that nutrient met would have taken a larger

percentage of the nutrient. Although in some cases where the first ear fails the second ear is

being covered.

Shoot covering of some B-lines

There are different types of crosses used in the development of hybrids, they are;

 Single crosses

 Double crosses
  Top crosses

 Double top crosses

 Three way crosses

 Test crosses (Pair crosses/Reciprocal crosses)

I. Single crosses

It is hybrid progeny from crosses between two unrelated inbred lines (A x B). It is also

the first generation of a cross between two specified inbred lines.

II. Double crosses

It is the hybrid progeny from crosses between two single crosses (A X B) X (C X D).

III. Top crosses

It is the hybrid progeny from crosses between inbred and variety E.g. A X variety.

IV. Double Top crosses

It is the progeny of the cross between single cross of inbreds and variety. E.g. (AXB) X

Variety, single cross × variety; A × Population or (A × B × Population.

V. Three-way crosses

It is the progeny of the cross between inbreds and hybrids. E.g. (A X B) X C

It is important to note the symbol used in maize breeding and it is explained as below;
For self pollination –

Cross pollination – X