Chapter 1 PDF

CHAPTER 1
1.0 INTRODUCTION
Maize or corn (Zea mays L.) is an important annual cereal crop of the world belonging to family
Poaceae. Zea is an ancient Greek word which means “sustaining life” and Mays is a word from
Taino language meaning “life giver.” Nutritional, medicinal and economical importance of corn
It is considered as a staple food in many parts of the world. It is a third leading crop of the world
after rice and wheat (Sandhu et al, 2007). Maize kernel is an edible and nutritive part of the
plant. It also contains vitamin C, vitamin E, vitamin K, vitamin B1 (thiamine), vitamin B2
(niacin), vitamin B3 (riboflavin), vitamin B5 (pantothenic acid), vitamin B6 (pyridoxine), folic
acid, selenium, N-p-coumaryl tryptamine, and N-ferrulyl tryptamine. Potassium is a major
nutrient present which has a good significance because an average human diet is deficient in it
(Kumar and Jhariya, 1992).
Wheat (Triticum vulgare) is the major ingredient used by food industries in Nigeria and the only
source of flour for cake production before the reduction policy of wheat importation. It is ranked
after sorghums as a staple food crop especially in urban centres (Berdanier et al., 2008). The
wheat varieties are classified into soft and hard. The soft flour is majorly preferred for cake
baking because of less amount of gluten (Micheal et al., 2009). Due to the availability and
nutritional value of other cereals such as rice, millet, maize, sorghum, rye etc, there can be
modification of complementing wheat with other cereals such as sorghum, and to reduce the cost
of wheat flour.
1.1 Justification
Corn is a global cornerstone of global food security as many make it a central commodity and of
great influence on prices and global food security, as its disruption can create global crisis.
(Callie, 2013). The application of composite flour in various food products would be
economically advantageous if the import of the wheat could be reduced or even eliminated and
that demand for bread and pastry products could be met by the use of domestically grown
products instead of wheat (Jisha et al., 2008). Yellow maize meal has a unique characteristics
and it contains more vitamin As and carotenes (Jones et al., 2006). Yellow corn meal has a
unique characteristics and are important actors of Healthy and Sustainable diet, this food are rich
in compound that help against several chronic diseases like cancer, Obesity and diabetics Type II
(Jones et al., 2006).
1.2 Main Objective
The main objective of this study is to evaluate the proximate and functional properties of
composite flour of corn meal flour and wheat flour.
1.3 Specific Objective
These are to:
(i) Determine the interaction and influence of various input samples of maize flour and
wheat flour.
(ii) Obtain condition with the best output for the composite blends
(iii) Determine the proximate composition, functional properties and colour attributes of
maize and wheat composite blend

CHAPTER TWO
2.0 LITERATURE REVIEW
2.1 Composite Flour Technology
Local raw materials substitution for wheat flour is increasing due to the growing market for
confectioneries (Noor and Komathi, 2009). Milligan et al. (1981) defined composite flour as a
mixture of flours, starches and other ingredients intended to replace wheat flour totally or
partially in bakery and pastry products. Shittu et al. (2007) also agreed with that as the composite
flours used were either binary or ternary mixtures of flours from some other crops with or
without wheat flour.It is considered advantageous in developing countries as it decreased the
importation of wheat flour and encouraged the use of locally grown crops as flour (Hugo et al.,
2000).
The concept of composite technology initiated by the Food and Agricultural Organization (FAO)
in 1964 was targeted at reducing the cost of support for temperate countries by encouraging the
use of indigenous crops such as cassava, yam, maize and others in partial substitution of wheat
flour (Satin, 1988). The FAO reported that the application of composite flour in various food
products would be economically advantageous if the imports of wheat could be reduced or even
eliminated, and that demand for bread and pastry products could be met by the use of
domestically grown products instead of wheat (Jisha et al., 2008). FAO and the developing
countries became interested in research on flours from local crops to replace wheat or use in
conjunction with wheat flour reduce the cost on wheat importation and subsequently cost of
production. This has led to the various works on composite flour (Igbabul et al.,2012; Chinma et
al., 2012; Adeleke and Odedeji, 2010) which has higher nutritional advantage over individual
flours and subsequent products. Local raw materials substitution for wheat flour is increasing
due to the growing market for confectioneries (Noor and Komathi, 2009).
Thus, several developing countries have encouraged the initiation of programmes to evaluate the
feasibility of alternative locally available flours as a substitute for wheat flour (Abdelghafor et
al., 2011). The FAO reported that the application of composite flour in various food products
would be economically advantageous if the imports of wheat could be reduced or even
eliminated, and that demand for bread and pastry products could be met by the use of
domestically grown products instead of wheat (Jisha et al., 2008).
Formulation of product is an alternative for developing new products with controlled attributes
such as nutritional composition, weight, color, etc. As a result of this, formulated products are
gaining importance in the snack industry as a good alternative to the use of raw materials
because of the advantages of reproducibility, uniformity, and lack of defects (Gebhardt,1996).
Hence, an understanding of the functionality of the structure elements prior to or during
processing is very crucial in obtaining products that can contribute to wellness and health as well
as with specific textures, flavours and colours.
2.2 Production and Classification of maize
Maize (Zea mays L.) is the third most important cereal in the world after rice and wheat and
ranks fourth after millet, sorghum and rice in Nigeria (FAO, 2009). Maize or corn is the most
important cereal crop in sub Saharan Africa (Akingbala et al., 1987). It is mostly used and traded
as a leading feed crop but is also an important food staple. In addition to food and feed, maize
has a wide range of industrial applications ranging from food processing to manufacturing of
ethanol (FAO, 2006).

Global statistics for cereal consumption indicate that the average total consumption in the
African diet is 291.7g/person/day, including an average maize consumption of
106.2g/person/day (FAO, 2009). Maize is known and called by different vernacular names in
Nigeria depending on locality like agbado, igbado or yangan(Yoruba); masara or
dawarmasara(Hausa); ogbado or oka(Ibo); apaapa(Ibira); oka(Bini and Isha); ibokpotor ibokpot
union (Efik) and igumapa(Yala) (FAO,1992).
2.2.1 Origin of maize
Maize is one of the oldest human-domesticated plants. Its origin is believed to date back to at
least 7000 years ago when it was grown in the form of a wild grass called teosinte in Central
Mexico. Recognizing its early potential as a major food crop, over time the Mesoamerican
natives managed to improve the crop, by systematically selecting certain varieties for their
desired traits. This process led to the gradual transformation of teosinte to its present-day form
known as maize, a name which is a likely derivative of "mahis", meaning "source of life" for
Tanio people, the natives known to have mastered its cultivation. Maize is also known as corn,
which is the name that has come into common usage primarily because it is used in the United
States, the world’s largest producer, consumer and exporter of maize. Maize is an annual plant
with high productivity which also enjoys exceptional geographic adaptability, an important
property which has helped its cultivation to spread throughout the world. Its gradual expansion in
the Americas by the Natives was rapidly propagated in the 16th century following the return of
Columbus to Europe. Colonial conquests and trade played a central role in the spread of maize
cultivation well beyond the European continent, to Africa and Far East Asia (FAO, 2006). There
exist several hybrids of maize, each with their own specific properties and kernel characteristics;
the most common ones include: dent (or field maize, used for livestock feeding and can be
yellow or white), flint (or Indian maize, grown in Central and South America), and sweet (or
green maize).
Depending on their colour and taste, maize grown around the world is generally categorized into
two broad groups: yellow and white. Yellow maize constitutes the bulk of total world maize
production and international trade (FAO, 2006). It is grown in most northern hemisphere
countries where it is traditionally used for animal feed. White maize, which requires more
favourable climatic conditions for growing, is produced in only a handful of countries, the
United States, Mexico and in southern Africa. White maize is generally considered a food crop.
Market prices are usually higher for white maize compared to the yellow type but the premium
can vary depending on local supply and demand conditions.
2.2.2 Advances in global maize production
The term Green Revolution refers to the transformation of agriculture which resulted in
significant gains in cereal production between the 1940s and 1960s in the developing countries.
The novel technological development of the Green Revolution was the production of high
yielding varieties of maize, wheat, and rice. At around 700 million tonnes, world maize
production represents over one-third of world cereal output (FAO, 2006). Over the past two
decades, global maize production has increased by nearly 50 percent, or 1.8 percent annual
compound growth rate (FAO, 2006). Most of the increase in world maize production during the
past decade can be attributed to a rapid expansion in Asia (FAO, 2006). Asian maize production
grew by nearly 35 percent during the past decade, accounting for almost 30 percent of the global
increase (FAO, 2006). Both area and yield increases contributed to this high level of growth,
with China making the most significant advance by contributing to as much as 60 percent of the
total gains in Asian maize production over the past decade (FAO, 2006). In spite of the advances
attributed to the Green Revolution and the introduction of high yield maize varieties, the
possibilities for maize yield improvements in many countries has remained large as the degree of
production efficiency, especially in the developing countries, still falls below major commercial
producers. Average maize yields among the developing countries, as an aggregate, are about
one-third of the amount of the major maize producers which include: United States, China and
Republic of South Africa (FAO, 2006).
2.2.3 Chemical composition of maize
Generally, whole maize contains 362 Kcal/100g; 8.1% crude protein; 72% starch, 5% fat, 1.3%
ash, 1.2% fibre; 60 ppm calcium, 35 ppm iron; 1.8 ppm Zinc; 3.9 ppm Thiamine; 2.0 ppm
Riboflavin; 36ppm Niacin; 3.0ppm pyridoxine; 0.25 ppm folates; 241 mg/100g phosphrous; 0.16
ppm selenium (Bressani, 1972).
Starch: is a major chemical component of the maize kernel, it provides up to 72 to 73% of the
kernel weight. Other carbohydrates are simple sugars present as glucose, sucrose and fructose in
amounts that vary from 1 to 3% of the kernel. The starch in maize is made up of two glucose
polymers: amylose (an essentially linear molecule), and amylopectin (a branched form). The
composition of maize starch is genetically controlled. In common maize, with either the dent or
flint type of endosperm, amylose makes up 25 to 30% of the starch and amylopectin makes up 70
to 75%. Waxy maize contains a starch that is 100 % amylopectin. An endosperm mutant called
amylose-extender (ae) induces an increase in the amylose proportion of the starch to 50% and
higher. Other genes, alone or in combination, may also modify the amylose-to-amylopectin ratio
in maize starch (Zarkadas et al., 2000; Boyer and Shannon, 1987).

Protein: After starch, protein is the next largest chemical component of the kernel. Protein
content varies in common varieties from about 8 to 11% of the kernel weight, with most of it
found in the endosperm. The protein in maize kernels is made up of at least five different
fractions: albumin (7%), globulins (5%) and non-protein nitrogen (6%) amounting to about 18%
of total nitrogen as well as the prolamine fraction (52%) and glutelin fraction (25%) of the total
protein in the kernel. Usually a small amount, about 5%, is residual nitrogen (Afoakwa et al.,
2002; Landry and Moureaux, 1982). The nutritional quality of maize as a food is determined by
the amino acid make-up of its protein. In common maize, deficiencies in lysine and tryptophan
are evident as confirmed with Quality Protein Maize (QPM) (Punita, 2006). An additional
important feature of maize composition is the high leucine content in common maize and the
lower value of this amino acid in QPM (Zarkadaset al., 2000; Mertz et. al., 1975).
Oil and fatty acids: The oil content of the maize kernel comes mainly from the germ. Oil
content is also genetically controlled, with values ranging from 3 to 18% (Afoakwa, 2007).
Maize oil has a low level of saturated fatty acids, i.e. on average 11% palmitic and 2% stearic
acid. It also contains relatively high levels of polyunsaturated fatty acids, mainly linoleic acid
with an average value of about 24%. Maize oil is relatively stable since it contains only small
amounts of linolenic acid (0.7%) and high levels of natural antioxidants. Maize oil is highly
regarded because of its fatty acid distribution, mainly oleic and linoleic acids (Mosha and
Vincent, 2004; Bressani et. al., 1990).
Dietary fibre: Fibres are complex carbohydrate found in large amounts. Dietary fiber consists of
the remnants of the plant cells, polysaccharides, lignin and associated substances resistant to
digestion by the alimentary enzymes of humans (Prosky et al., 1992). There are basically two
types of dietary fibre in the food system: Insoluble (IDF) and soluble dietary fibre (SDF)
((Gupta, 2003; Burkitt et al., 1972). The most important forms of soluble dietary fibre include;
pectin, gums, guar and some hemicelluloses. Food sources rich in these types of fibre
components include legumes, vegetables, fruits, oat bran and seeds (Oluwatayo et al., 2008).
Research shows that decreased risk of coronary heart disease is correlated with increase
consumption of DF, typically SDF. Risk of coronary heart disease is also correlated with a
significant number of other risk factors which are reduced by SDF, such as diabetes, high serum
cholesterol, high levels of low-density lipoprotein (LDL) associated cholesterol, and low levels
of high-density lipoprotein (HDL) associated cholesterol, obesity, and possibly hyperinsulinemia
(Anon, 1996). The complex carbohydrate content of the maize kernel comes from the pericarp
and the tip cap, although it is also provided by the endosperm cell walls and to a smaller extent
the germ cell walls. Maize bran composed of 75% hemicellulose, 25% cellulose and 0.1% lignin
on a dry-weight basis (Gupta, 2003; Sandstead et al., 1978). Bauer and Turler-Inderbitzin (2008),
reported that the IDF content of highland maize is 10.94% and the SDF is 1.25% while the IDF
of lowland maize is 11.15% and the SDF is 1.64%.
Other carbohydrates: When mature, the maize kernel contains carbohydrates other than starch
in small amounts. Total sugars in the kernel range between 1% and 3%, with sucrose, the major
component, found mostly in the germ. Higher levels of monosaccharide and disaccharides are
present in maturing kernels (Afoakwa, 1996). At 12 days after pollination the sugar content is
relatively high, while starch is low. As the kernel matures, the sugars decline and starch increases
(FAO, 1992).
Minerals: The concentration of ash in the maize kernel is about 1.3%, only slightly lower than
the crude fibre content. Environmental factors probably influence the mineral content. The germ
is relatively rich in minerals, with an average value of 11% as compared with less than 1% in the
endosperm. The germ provides about 78% of the whole kernel minerals. The most abundant
mineral is phosphorus, found as phytate of potassium and magnesium. All of the phosphorus is
found in the embryo, with values in common maize of about 0.90% and about 0.92% in opaque-
2 maize (Okaka, 1997). Like most cereal grains, maize is low in calcium content and trace
minerals (Bauer and Turler-Inderbitzin, 2008).
Fat-soluble vitamin: The fat-soluble vitamin present in the maize grain are provitamin A, or
carotenoids, and vitamin E. Carotenoids are found mainly in yellow maize, in amounts that may
be genetically controlled, while white maize has little or no carotenoid content. Most of the
carotenoids are found in the hard endosperm of the kernel and only small amounts in the germ.
The β-carotene content is an important source of vitamin A, but unfortunately yellow maize is
not widely utilised in production of maize-based snack by humans as much as white maize.
Studies have shown that the conversion of β-carotene to vitamin A is increased by improving the
protein quality of maize (FAO, 1992). Vitamin E, which is subject to some genetic control, is
found mainly in the germ. The source of vitamin E is four tocopherols, of which α-tocopherol is
the most biologically active. γ-tocopherol is probably more active as an antioxidant than α-
tocopherol (FAO, 1992).
Water-soluble vitamin: Water-soluble vitamins are found mainly in the aleurone layer of the
maize kernel, followed by the germ and endosperm. Variable amounts of thiamine and riboflavin
have been reported and their content is affected by the environment and cultural practices rather
than by genetic make-up (Patterson et al., 1980). The water-soluble vitamin, nicotinic acid has
attracted much research because of its association with niacin deficiency or pellagra, which is
prevalent in populations consuming high amounts of maize (Zarkadas et al., 2000; Chistianson
et al., 1968). As with other vitamin, niacin content varies among varieties, with average values of
about 20 μg per gram. A feature peculiar to niacin is that it is bound and therefore not available
to the animal organism. Some processing techniques hydrolyse niacin, thereby making it
available. The association of maize intake and pellagra is a result of the low levels of niacin in
the grain, although experimental evidence has shown that amino acid imbalances, such as the
ratio of leucine to isoleucine, and the availability of tryptophan are also important (Patterson et
al., 1980). Maize has no vitamin B12, and the mature kernel contains only small amounts of
ascorbic acid, if any. Other vitamin such as choline, folic acid and pantothenic acid are found in
very low concentrations.
2.2.4 Approaches to improving the nutritive value of maize
Because of the great importance of maize as a basic staple food for large population groups,
particularly in developing countries, and its low nutritional value, mainly with respect to protein,
some approaches have been used to improve its nutritive value: genetic manipulation, processing
and fortification. Genetic approaches has been used to modify the carbohydrates content (Boyer
and Shannon, 1987), protein quality and quantity (Bressani et al., 1990), influence fatty acid
composition (Leibovits and Ruckenstein, 1983) as well as increase the quality and quantity of
other nutrients such as niacin in maize grain. Processing of foodstuffs stabilizes nutrients in the
food, but losses may take place when optimum conditions are exceeded. There are cases,
however, in which processing induces beneficial changes in the food; a classic case is the
elimination of anti-physiological factors in beans (FAO, 1992). Natural fermentation of cooked
maize, results in higher B-vitamin concentration and protein quality (Afoakwa, 2007; Wang and
Fields, 1978). Germination of maize grain has also been reported to improve the nutritional value
of maize by increasing lysine and to some extent tryptophan (Umerie et al., 2009; Tsai et al.,
1975). Another approach often used to improve the nutritive value of foods, mainly cereal grains,
is fortification. Because of the great nutritional limitations in maize, many efforts have been
made to improve its quality, and particularly that of its protein, through addition of amino acids
or protein sources rich in the limiting amino acids (Awoyale et al., 2011; FAO, 1992). These
include: Supplementation with protein sources: The results from animal and human studies in
which limiting amino acids have been added to lime-treated maize have served as the basis for
evaluating the ability of different types of protein supplements to improve its protein quality
(FAO, 1992). The improvement in quality of protein in tortilla flour is in most cases a synergistic
response to lysine and tryptophan enhancement and to a higher level of protein, both provided by
the supplement (soybean flour). Since soybean protein in different forms is the supplement to
tortilla flour most often tested by different investigators and because it is almost the only one
also tested in children, with results comparable to those in studies with animals (Oloyede and
Kolawole, 2004; Bressani and Marenco, 1963).
2.2.5 Processing and Utilization of Maize
Maize has a wide range of industrial applications ranging from food processing to manufacturing
of ethanol, apart from its use for feed. Maize could be processed into various forms namely:
roasted, boiled, fermented, toasted, toasted and milled, toasted, milled and mixed with palm oil
and pepper, depending on the region where it is produced. For instance, maize grains are
prepared by boiling (agbado) or roasting (elekute), or fermenting and boiling as paste (eko), in
Nigeria and kenkein Ghana, or as popcorn which is eaten all over West Africa (FAO,1992).
Grain is the major part of the maize crop that could be put into various uses as reported by
Abdulrahaman and Kolawole (2006) which include:

Pap: There are two popular paps in Nigeria; hot-pap and cold-pap. Pap is prepared by soaking
maize in water for 2 to 3 days to ferment. Then the grains are washed with clean water and
ground to paste. After the grinding of the grains, the ground paste is sieved using clean, white
cloth to get very smooth paste. The residue of sieving is used to feed animals. While, the
remaining fine paste after sieving is allowed to settle down at the bottom of the container. At this
stage, amount of paste desired may be taken, stirred and poured inside boiling water and stirred
until a semi-liquid porridge (hot pap) or a semi-solid porridge (cold pap) is obtained. The semi-
solid porridge is then put inside wrapping/banana leaves to give a characteristic domed shape.
Alternatively, it may be put inside polyethylene bags (nylon), the hot product is allowed to cool
down and solidified, and thus become thick porridge (cold pap).
Tuwo: To prepare tuwo, testa of the grains is removed by grinding gently inside mortar with
pestle. Small water is added to the grains to enhance testa removal. The grains are then ground
with local grinding stone or with grinding machine to obtain a smooth, whitish paste. The paste
is poured into hot water and stirred with a stirring-stick to make a thick porridge food (tuwo).
Tuwocan be eaten with bean soup or with vegetable soups like sesame (Sesamum indicumL.),
okra (Abelmoschus esculentus), celosia (Celosia argenteaL., Amaranthaceae), etc.
Donkunnu: This food is an exotic food to Nigeria because it was introduced from Ghana
probably by the emigrant Ghanaians or by Nigerians who lived in Ghana. Donkunnuis prepared
by soaking maize for about two days in cold water. It is then ground into wet paste and left in
this state for about two days to ferment (so as to bring out the characteristic sour taste of the
finished product). A desired quantity of fermented paste is put inside maize husk and cooked
until a thick, solid porridge (donkunnu) is obtained. Donkunnuis eaten with pepper stew and fried
fish.
Maasa: This is a thick fried porridge produced from fermented maize dough. It is prepared by
wet milling the fermented maize grains into coarse particle sizes, after which small piles of it are
put separately into frying-pan containing vegetable oil. It could be eaten by sprinkling sugar on
its surface.
Cous cous: This is prepared by milling the maize grain into flour after the removal of the grain
testa. This flour is then mixed with sliced tomato, pepper and onion, before been cooked into a
solidified mixture. Gwate: preparation of gwateis similar to cous cous. While cous cousis solid,
gwateis semi-solid porridge. Unlike cous cous, ingredients like pieces of soft bones, meat,
amaranth (Amaranthus spp. L., Amaranthaceae) or bitter leaf (Vernonia amygdalinaDel.
Asteraceae) and ‘efirin’ (Ocimum spp. L., Lamiaceae) are mixed with the flour and cooked to
make gwate.
Popcorn: This is made by putting maize grains inside a hot pan with oil, water and salt or sugar
(honey). The heat applied changed the colour of the whitish grains to brownish (guguru). Aadun:
Grains are roasted and then ground into coarse flour. This is mixed with palm oil which makes it
solidified, or clumps together.
Elekute: Dried maize grains are roasted with hot-charcoal and ground into fine particles. This
could be eaten with small amount of granulated sugar.
Kokoro: This is produced by milling the maize grains, pre-gelatinizing, spicing, kneading, and
frying (Adegoke and Adebayo, 1994).
Donkwais a corn and groundnut-based snack common among the Hausa of Nigeria. It a referred
to as ‘Tarifirin’ among the Yoruba. It has a sweet taste and pleasant aroma and it is often used as
light refreshment. It is made by pounding together individually roasted corn and groundnut with
other ingredients like dried pepper, local condiments, sugar, and salt before moulding.
Apart from food, maize could also be used as livestock feed, industrial uses for ethanol
production, High Fructose Corn Syrup (HFCS) which is a popular substitute for sucrose (found
in sugar) and used in soft drinks and other processed foods. It could also be processed into starch
for food and industrial use such as paper, textiles, adhesives, plastics, baked goods, condiments,
candies, soups and mixes. Other uses include: Distillers‟ grains, and maize products used in feed
rations; maize gluten meal, maize gluten feed, maize seed cake, maize germ meal, liquid feed
syrup (FAO, 2006).
2.3 World production of wheat
In terms of the world’s production, wheat is grown on more land area worldwide than any other
crop. It can also adapt well to adverse environmental conditions and is mostly grown on areas
that are too dry and too cold. Wheat is reported to have originated in South Western Asia. Some
of the earliest remains of the crop have been found in Syria, Jordan, and Turkey. Wheat was first
cultivated in the United States in 1602 on an island off the Massachusetts coast and since then,
man has depended upon wheat plant for thousands of years. A shortage of wheat in the world
would be a disaster for most nations in the world (Gibson et al., 2002).
According to Gibson et al., (2002) world’s wheat production was estimated to be 21 billion
bushels in 2000 on approximately 520 million acres. Asia only produced about 36 percent of the
world production, followed by 17 percent in European Union countries and 16 percent in North
America, China, India, United States, France and Russia. These countries are the world leading
wheat producer. About 70 % of the wheat planted in the United States is winter wheat. Five
major classes of wheat are grown in the United States, the two major wheat are hard- red spring
and hard- red winter and both are bread wheats. The United States exports approximately half of
its total wheat production annually. Out of the exported volume, more than one-third is the class
hard red winter and one-quarter is hard red spring. Soft red winter, soft white, durum and mixed
wheat make up the remainder (Gibson and Benson, 2002). The kind and quantity of wheat grown
varies widely from one region to another. These are;
Hard Red Winter: Hard red winter wheat is important versatile bread wheat with excellent
milling and baking characteristics. It has medium to high protein (10.0 to 13.0 percent), medium
hard endosperm, red bran, medium gluten content and mellow gluten. It is used in pan breads,
Asian noodles, hard rolls, flat breads and general-purpose flour (Anonymous, 2008).
Hard Red Spring: Hard red spring wheat is important bread wheat with excellent milling and
baking characteristics. It has high protein (12.0 to 15.0 percent), hard endosperm, red bran,
strong gluten and high-water absorption. It is used in pan breads, hearth breads, rolls, croissants,
bagels, hamburger buns, pizza crust, and for blending (Anonymous, 2008).
Soft Red Winter: Grown in the Eastern third of the United States and shipped via Gulf of
Mexico, Atlantic, and Great Lakes ports. It is high-yielding wheat with low protein (8.5 - 10.5
percent), soft endosperm, red bran, and weak gluten. It is used in pastries, cakes, cookies,
crackers, pretzels, flat breads and for blending flours (Anonymous, 2008).
Soft White: Grown primarily in the Pacific Northwest region of the United States and shipped
via Pacific ports. It has low protein (8.5 to 10.5 percent) and low moisture and provides excellent
milling results. It is used in flat breads, cakes, biscuits, pastries, crackers, Asian-style noodles
and snack foods (Anonymous, 2008).

Durum: It is grown primarily in the North Central and desert Southwest regions of the United
States and shipped via Gulf of Mexico, Great Lakes, and Pacific ports. Durum wheat is the
hardest of all wheat classes with high protein content (12.0 to 15.0 percent). It is used in pasta
and some Mediterranean breads (Anonymous, 2008).
Hard White: It is the newest class of U.S. wheat, grown in California, Colorado, Idaho, Kansas,
Montana, Nebraska, Oklahoma, and Washington, and exported via Pacific and Gulf of Mexico
ports. It has a hard endosperm, white bran, and a medium to high protein content (10.0 to 14.0
percent). It is used in Asian noodles, pan breads and flat breads and high extraction flour
applications, (Anonymous, 2008).
2.3.1 Economic importance of wheat
Wheat is the principal cereal widely used for making bread than any other cereal. The protein
called gluten makes bread dough stick together and gives it the ability to retain gas. Wheat has
several medicinal virtues; starch and gluten in wheat provide heat and energy; the inner bran
coats, phosphates and other mineral salts; the outer bran, the much-needed roughage the
indigestible portion that helps easy movement of bowels; the germ, vitamins B and E and protein
of wheat helps build and repair muscular tissue (Gibson and Benson, 2002). Wheat supplies
about 20 percent of the food calories for the world's people and is a national staple in many
countries. Wheat is the major ingredient in most breads, rolls, crackers, cookies, biscuits, cakes,
doughnuts, muffins, pancakes, waffles, noodles, pie crusts, ice cream cones, macaroni, spaghetti,
puddings, pizza, and many prepared hot and cold breakfast foods. It is also used in baby foods
and is a common thickener in soups, gravies, and sauces. Germ, bran, and malt are additional
types of wheat products. Much of the wheat used for livestock and poultry feed is a by- product
of the flour milling industry. The importance of wheat is mainly derived from the fact that seed
can be ground into flour. It also forms the basic ingredient of bread and other bakery products
and presents the main source of nutrient to most of the population (Sramkovaa et al., 2009).
2.3.2 Wheat Nutritional Composition
The nutritional importance of wheat should not be underestimated, particularly in less developed
countries where bread, noodles and other products may provide a substantial proportion of the
diet. According to Adams et al. (2002), wheat provides nearly 55% of carbohydrate and 20% of
the food calories. It contains 78.10% carbohydrate, 14.70% protein, 2.10% fat, 2.10% minerals
and considerable proportions of vitamins (thiamine and vitamin-B) and minerals (zinc, iron).
Wheat is also a good source of trace minerals like selenium and magnesium, nutrients essential
to good health (Adams et al., 2002). Among all the nutrients in whole wheat, the bran contains a
small amount of protein, larger quantities of the B-complex vitamins, trace minerals, and
indigestible cellulose material called dietary fibre. Wheat germ is the embryo of the wheat
kernel. The germ or embryo of the wheat is relatively rich in protein, fat and several of the B-
vitamins (Adams et al., 2002).The outer layers of the endosperm and the aleurone contain a
higher concentration of protein, vitamins and phytic acid than the inner endosperm. The inner
endosperm contains most of the starch and protein in the grain. Mepba et al., (2007) reported
0.46% ash content, crude protein, crude fat, moisture, fibre and total carbohydrate contents
values as 12.86%, 1.40%, 11.31%, 0.82% 73.15% of wheat flour in Nigeria. Shittu et al. (2012)
also reported on percentage proximate composition of wheat seeds as 72.503 % carbohydrate,
11.690 % fat, 7.756 % Moisture content, 1.340% fibre and 5.876% Protein. According to FAO
(1992), composition of wheat products per 100 g edible portions are, protein content 12g,
carbohydrate 68.5g, starch 66.8g, total sugar 1.7g, Vitamin E 0.6mg, thiamin 0.30 mg,
Riboflavin 0.07g, niacin 1.7mg and Folate 51μg.
2.4 Functional properties of composite flour
Functionality as applied to food ingredients is defined as any property apart from nutritional
attributes that influences the ingredient's usefulness in food (Crosbie, 2004). The use of any flour
as food ingredient is dependent on the water-flour interaction, which determines the rehydration
of flour (Nagao, 1996). It has been reported that cooking time shortened with increasing water
absorption, but with minimal effect on textural attributes of cooked alkaline noodles (Hatcher et
al., 1999).
2.4.1 Bulk Density
Bulk density is the ratio of weight of flour to flour volume in grammes per centimeter cube. Bulk
density is a function of particle size, particle size being inversely proportional to bulk density
(Appiah, 2011). The differences in the particle size may be the cause of variations in bulk density
of flours. Bulk density is an indication of the porosity of a product which influences package
design and could be used in determining the type of packaging material required, material
handling and application in wet processing in the food industry (Appiah, 2011). It gives a
measure of the mass relative to the space occupied by the food substance. A powder’s loose bulk
density is one of its most important characteristics. It determines the choice of the container size
and strength of the reconstituted food, if prepared from a given volume. The compressibility of
the powder determines the appearance of a container’s contents upon reaching the consumer, and
may serve as an index of cohesion. Higher bulk density is desirable in that it offers greater
packaging advantage as greater quantity of flour may be packed within a constant volume
(Ijarotimi and Ashipa, 2005).
2.4.2 Water Absorption Capacity
Water absorption capacity describes the ability of a matrix of molecules to entrap large amounts
of water in a manner such that exudation is prevented. Water absorption capacity represents the
ability of a product to associate with water under conditions where water is limited. The amount
of bound water associated with granules influences the swelling characteristics of the granules
(Singh, 2001). The amount of water absorbed depends primarily on the availability of two types
of hydrophilic groups, which are capable of binding water through hydrogen bond formation.
These are the polar chains and the carbonyl imido group of peptide bonds (Crosbie, 2004). The
water absorption capacity of flour is an indication of the amount of water available for
gelatinization (Edema et al., 2005). It is a useful indication of whether protein can be
incorporated with aqueous food formulations, especially those involving dough handling such as
processed cheese, sausages and bread dough (Osungbaro et al., 2010). High water absorption
capacity of flours suggests the possibility of presence of some hydrophilic proteins or polar
amino acid residue in the flour (Odoemelam, 2000). Similarly, Kaur and Singh (2005) indicated
that flours with high water absorption have more hydrophilic constituents, such as
polysaccharides. High water absorption may also be due to the nature of the starch and possible
contribution to water absorption by the cell wall materials (Sathe and Salunkhe, 1981). Sanni et
al. (2006) reported that high water absorption capacity is attributed to lose structure of the starch
polymers while low value indicates the compactness of the molecular structure.
2.4.3 Oil Absorption Capacity
Oil absorption capacity is defined as the difference in weight of flour before and after oil
absorption. Oil absorption capacity aids food formulations (Odoemelam, 2000) and gives an
indication of flavor-retaining capacity of flour (Narayana and Narasimga, 1982). Moreover, it is
useful in structure interaction in food including extension of shelf life particularly in bakery or
meat products (Adebowale and Lawal 2003a). Hydrophobic proteins show superior binding of
lipids, implying that non-polar amino acid side chains bind the paraffin chains of fats
(Adejuyitan et al., 2009; Kaur and Singh, 2004). The high oil absorption capacity also makes the
flours suitable in facilitating enhancement in flavor and mouth feel when used in food
preparations.
2.4.4 Swelling power
Swelling power is the ability of flours to increase in volume when foamed. Example, when
legume flour is mixed with water. The extent of swelling depends on the temperature,
availability of water, species of starch, extent of starch damage due to thermal and mechanical
processes and other carbohydrates and protein such as pectins, hemicelluloses and cellulose.
Higher protein content of the protein isolate may results in higher swelling power (Crosbie,
2004). As the temperature of the aqueous suspension of starch is increased above gelatinization
temperature, hydrogen bonds are disrupted; water then attaches to the hydroxyl groups that are
liberated with continued swelling of granules. The swelling behaviour of starch is dependent on
the strength and nature of the micellar network within the starch granules, which is
correspondingly dependent on the nature and strength of associative forces within the granules. It
gives an indication of the water absorption index of the granules during heating (Loos et al.,
1981).
2.4.5 Solubility
Solubility is probably the most critical because it affects other properties such as emulsification,
foaming, and gelation (Kinsella, 1979). According to Ikegwu and Ekumankana (2010),
Solubility is indicative of water penetration ability into starch granules of flours. Alteration of
starches could be important to absorption and retention of water to increase swelling powers of
starches required in the manufacture of confectionery goods (the increased leaching of
solubilized amylose molecules from swelled starch granules results in increased solubility
(Pomeranz, 1991). Swelling power and solubility of flour is an indication of the existence of
strong bonding forces probably due to high amount of protein and fat that might form inclusion
complexes with amylose (Pomeranz, 1991)
2.4.6 Foaming Capacity (FC) and Foam Stability (FS)
Foam capacity is the ability of substance in a solution to produce foam after shaking vigorously
whereas foam stability is the volume of foam that would remain one hour after shaking of a
solution, which is then expressed as a percentage of the initial foam volume (Narayana and
Narasimga, 1982). Proteins foam when whipped because they are surface active. According to
Adebowale and Lawal (2003b), increase in concentration of proteins enhances greater protein–
protein interaction, which increases viscosity and facilitates formation of a multilayer cohesive
protein film at the interface. Increase in concentration could again lead to formation of thicker
films, which limits the effect of drainage of protein from films. Foam stability is important since
the usefulness of whipping agents depends on their ability to maintain the whip foam as long as
possible (Lin et al., 1974). Foam stability is governed by the ability of the film formed around
the entrapped air bubbles to remain intact without draining, it follows that stable foams can only
be formed by highly surface-active solutes (Cherry, 1981). According to Nunoo (2009) increase
in foaming capacity (FC) may be due, in part, to higher diffusion of the unfolded and fragmented
proteins towards an air-water interface.
2.4.7 Least gelation concentration
Least gelation concentration is an indication of the levels of gelation in flours. Gels are
characterized by their viscosity, plasticity and elasticity (Circle et al., 1964). Low Least gelation
concentration is related to amylopectin and oxidized amylose. High gelation properties may be
due to the enhanced interaction that occurs among the binding forces as concentration increases
(Ikegwu et al., 2009). Visser and Thomas (1987) reported that rate of gelling and gel firmness
depends on temperature, time of heating and protein concentration. The least gelation
concentration of African star apple kernel was 10% (w/v) and that of wheat flour was 8% (w/v).
The least gelation concentration reported for orange seed flour (Akpata and Akubor, 1999) and
fluted pumpkin seed from (Fagbemi and Oshiodi, 1991) were 16 and 36% (w/v), respectively.
The least gelation concentration varies for different flours. Sathe et al., (1982) associated the
variations in the gelling properties of different flours to different ratios of protein, carbohydrate
and lipids that make up the flours. Interaction among these components play a significant role in
functional properties as it affects gelation. Flour with low value of least gelation concentration
could be a good thickening agent. The African star apple kernel would be useful in food systems
such as puddings and snacks which require thickening and gelling. The gel structure of such food
systems provides a matrix for retaining moisture, fat and other added ingredients.
2.5 Response surface methodology
One of the most popular methods used in food product and process optimisation in the last two
decades is Response Surface Methodology (RSM). It is a collection of statistical and
mathematical techniques useful for developing, improving and optimising process in which a
response of interest is influenced by several variables and the objective is to optimise the process
(Myers and Montgomery, 1995). RSM has important application in the design, development and
formulation of new products, as well as in the improvement of existing product design (Bas and
Boyaci, 2007). it has been very popular for optimisation studies in recent years in the area of
Food Science and Technology. These include the optimisation of roasting temperature and time
during oil extraction from orange (Akinosoet al., 2011); development of complementary foods
from extruded cowpea (Vigna unguiculata(L) and Acha (Digitariastapf) blends (Olapade, 2010);
optimisation of frying conditions during deep fat frying of yam slices (Sobukola et al., 2008);
optimisation of process variables for the preparation of expanded finger millet (Ushakumari et
al., 2007) and optimisation of vacuum drying conditions of carrot chips (Lui-ping et al., 2005)
CHAPTER THREE
3.0 MATERIALS AND METHODS
3.1 Source of raw materials
Corn cereals and wheat flour was procured from a reliable retailer in Osiele market, Abeokuta,
Ogun State, Nigeria. All the chemicals and the equipment used were of analytical grade and food
standard, and were obtained from the Department of Food Science and Technology, FUNAAB.
3.2 Production of maize flour
The dry yellow maize was cleaned and sorted to remove stones, dirt, and debris. It is then dried
at 60 °C for 20 hr. The dry maize grain was then winnowed to remove dust, dirt and foreign
matters.
Healthy Corn Grain
Winnowing
Conditioning
Drying
Milling
Sieving
Packaging
Maize Flour
Flow Chart for the Preparation of Maize Flour

3.5 Experimental design
Simplex lattice mixture designfor two-component mixtures expanded with internal points with
constraints was used to investigate the proximate, functional and colour attributes of flour
mixtures composed of maize and wheat flour as independent variable on some quality attributes
of the composite blends made from these mixtures as dependent variable. A total of eight
experimental run was generated as shown in Table 1.
3.6 Optimization procedure
Simplex lattice, a mixture design for two components and above, were used in this study to
optimize flour combination for maize flour (X1) and wheat flour(X2). The ingredient
combinations were optimized with respect to the responses of functional properties, proximate
composition and colour attributes A numerical optimization technique was used for simultaneous
optimization of the multiple responses. The desired goal for each processing parameter and
response was chosen. Contour plots and 3D graphs were generated so as to help in understanding
the effects of varying the ingredient combination and processing parameters on the responses
(which direction the response is increasing or decreasing).

Table 1: Composition of the different formulations based on experimental design (%)
Runs Maize flour (g) Wheat flour (g)

1 80.00 20.00
2 85.00 15.00
3 87.50 12.50
4 80.00 20.00
5 90.00 10.00
6 85.00 15.00
7 82.50 17.50
8 90.00 10.00
3.4 Determination of proximate composition

Proximate analysis of the flour blends were carried out according to the method described by
AOAC (2000).
3.4.1 Moisture content
Five grams of the flour sample were weighed into a dried and pre-weighed moisture can. The can
with its content were dried in an oven at 105oC for 3 hours. It wasremoved from the oven, cooled
in a desiccator, and weighed. It was returned into the oven for another hour; allowedto cooled
and weighed again until a constant weight is obtained for three consecutive times. The moisture
content was estimated as weight loss using the formula below:
W 1−W 2
Moisture (%) =
W
where: W1 = weight of pan + fresh sample
W2 = weight of pan + dry sample
W = weight of sample
3.4.2 Determination of ash content:
The ash content of the flour blends was determine using the method described by AOAC (2000).
A clean empty crucible was place in a muffle furnace at 600C for an hour, cooled in the
desiccator and the weight of the empty crucible was noted (W 1). One gram of the sample was
taken in the crucible as (W2). The sample was ignited over a burner with the help of a blowpipe,
until it is charred. Then, the crucible was placed in muffle furnace at 55 0C for 2 to 4 hours. The
appearance of the gray white ash indicated the complex oxidation of all organic matter in the
sample. After ashing, the furnace was switch off. The crucible was allowed cool and weighed as
(W3). The percentage ash was calculated as shown in equation 2
Difference∈weight of Ash
% Ash= x 100
Weight of sample
3.4.3 Protein determination
Protein in the sample were determine by Kjeldahl method as described by AOAC (2000). The
flour samples were digest by heating concentrated sulphuric acid (H 2SO4) in the presence of
digestion mixture. The mixture was made alkaline. Ammonium sulphate thus formed the
released ammonia which was collected in 2% boric acid solution and titrated against standard
HCl. Total protein was calculated by multiplying the amount of nitrogen with appropriate factor
(6.25), and the amount of protein was calculated as
% Crude protein=6.25¿ x %N
%N =( STR−BTR ) x N x 0.014 x DSD
Where, STR is Sample titration reading, BTR is blank titration reading and DSD is Dilution of
sample after digestion
Weight of sample where*= Correction factor
3.4.4 Crude fat determination
Crude fat of the flour blends were determined by ether extract method using Soxhlet apparatus
AOAC (2000). Approximately 1 gram of moisture free sample were wrapped in filter paper and
placed in fat free thimble and then introduced in the extraction tube. Weighed, cleaned and dried
receiving beaker was filed with petroleum ether and fitted into the apparatus. The water and the
heater was turned on to begin extraction. After 4 to 6 siphoning, the ether was allowed evaporate
and the beaker was disconnected before the last siphoning. The extract were transferred into a
clean glass dish with ether washing and the evaporated ether on water bath. The dish was then
placed in the oven at 1050C for 2 hours and allowed to get cooled in the desiccator, then the
amount of crude fat were calculated as
Weig h t of Et h er extract
% Crude fat= x 100 (6)
Weig h t of sample
3.4.5 Determination of crude fibre
Crude fibre were determine by the method described by AOAC (2000). Two grams of the sample
was hydrolyzed in beaker with 200 ml of 1.25% H2SO4 for 30 minutes. The mixture was filter
under function, washed with hot distilled water and then boiled again for another 20 minutes
with 200 ml of 1.25% NaOH. The digested sample was washed in 1% HCL to neutralize the
NaOH and washed several times with hot distilled water. The residue collected was put into a
weigh crucible and dry desiccators, weighed and ashed. The loss in weight after ignition was
record as crude fibreas :
W 1−W 2
% Crude fibre= x 100 % (7)
W0
where:
W0 = sample weight
W1= weight of the dried sample
W2= the re-weighed sample
3.4.6 Determination of total carbohydrate
Total carbohydrate was calculated by difference after analysis of all the other items in the
proximate analysis.
3.5 Functional properties of the flour blends
3.5.1 Bulk density of the blends
The bulk density of each of the flour samples were determined according to the method of
Nwosu et al. (2014). A weighed sample (10 g) was put in a calibrated 50 ml measuring cylinder.
Then the bottom of the cylinder was tapped repeatedly unto a firm pad on a laboratory bench
until a constant volume will be observed. The packed volume was recorded. The bulk density
was calculated as the ratio of the sample weight to the volume occupied by the sample after
tapping.
weight of sample (g)

Bulk Density (g/ml) =
volume of sample (ml)
3.5.2 Dispersibility of the blends
The method of Oluwole et al. (2016) was used. About 10 g of each flour sample was weighed
into a 100 ml-measuring cylinder. Distilled water was added up to 100 ml volume. The sample
was vigorously stirred and allowed to settle for 3 h. The volume of settled particles was recorded
and subtracted from 100 to give a difference that is taken as percentage dispersibility.
3.5.3 Water absorption capacity of the blends
Water absorption capacity were determined according to the methods of Onwuka (2005). One
gram of each sample were weighed into a clean conical graduated centrifuge tube and mixed
thoroughly with 10 ml distilled water using a platform tube rocker for 30 s. The sample was
allowed to stand for 30 min at room temperature, after which it was centrifuged at 3500 rpm for
30 min. After centrifugation, the volume of the free water (supernatant) was read directly from
the graduated centrifuge tube. The absorbed water was converted to weight (in grams) by
multiplying by the density of water (1 g/ml). The water absorption capacity was expressed in
grams of water absorbed per gram of flour sample.
Absorbed water = total water - free water.
3.5.6 Oil absorption capacity of the blends
This was determined by the method of Sosulki et al. (1962) as described by Nwosu et al. (2010).
About 1 g of the sample was measure and 10 ml refined corn oil was weighed into a dry, clean
centrifuge tube and both weight were noted. Approximately 10 ml of refined corn oil was poured
into the tube and properly mixed with the flour. The suspension was centrifuged at a speed of
3500 rpm for 15 min. The supernatant was thereafter discard and the tube content was re-
weighed. The gain in mass was recorded as the oil absorption capacity of the sample.
3.5.4 Swelling capacity of the blends
The swelling capacity was determined using the procedure described by Heny et al. (2015).
About 1 g of sample was weighed into a weighed centrifuge tube. Then 10 ml distilled water was
added and shaken properly and heated in a water bath at 60 oC for 30 min, with constant mixing
then it was allowed to cool. The sample were centrifuged at 3000 rpm for 15 min then the
supernatant decant and the sediment paste was weighed.
The swelling capacity was calculated by the formula:
Weight of sediment paste

% Swelling Capacity = ×100
Weight of the sample (dry basis)
3.6 Determination of colour parameters
The colour intensity of the flour blends were measured using a Konica Minolta Colour
Measuring System (Chroma meter CR-410, Minolta LTD, Japan) as described by Zahra et al.
(2014). The lightness (L*), redness (a*) and yellowness (b*) values were obtained after calibrating
the instrument using a white tile. Three replicate readings were taking for each flour blends and
the average value were reported. The results were expressed in accordance with the CIELAB
system where:
L* is known as the lightness [L =0 (black), L = 100 (white)],
a* (-a = greenness, + a = redness)
b* (-b values = blueness, + b* value = yellowness)
3.7 Optimization procedure
The ingredient combinations were optimized with respect to the responses of proximate
composition, functional properties and colour attributes. A numerical optimization technique was
used for simultaneous optimization of the multiple responses. The desired goal for each
processing parameter and response was chosen. All the processing parameters were kept within
the specified parameter ranges. Contour plot and 3D graphs help in understanding the effects of
varying the ingredient combination and processing parameters on the response, (which direction
the response is increasing or decreasing) as reported by Chakraborty et al. (2007).
3.8 Statistical Analysis
Data obtained for proximate composition, functional properties, and colour analyses was
statistically analyzed for significant effect of independent variable on the responses at 5% level
using analysis of variance (ANOVA). The effect of ingredient combination and optimization
procedure was investigated using Design expert version 6.0.8 based on simplex centroid design.
Models were generated and significance effect of the ingredient combination at 5% level was
determined.
CHAPTER FOUR
4.0 RESULT AND DISCUSSION
4.1 Functional properties of maize and wheat composite blends
Functionality of foods is the characteristics of food ingredient other than nutritional quality,
which has a great influence on its utilization (Mahajan and Dua, 2002). The functional properties
of maize- wheat composite flours are presented in Table 1.
4.1.1 Bulk density of maize-wheat composite blends
The bulk density ranged from 0.74 g/ml - 0.79 g/ml. From Figure 1, as maize flour inclusion
increased from 80 to 85 g a decreased in bulk density was observed, but as the inclusion
increased from 85 to 90 g, a progressive increase was also observed in the bulk density of the
blends. Also, as addition of wheat flour increased in the composite blends, bulk density was
observed to increased. The coefficient of determination (R2) of bulk density shown in Table 2
was 0.59. The values obtained for the bulk densities were within the range reported by Malomo
et al. (2012) in a study on yam-soy blend (0.71 -0.80 g/ml). Low bulk density isdesired in flour
blends as it’s contributes to lower dietary bulk, ease of packaging and transportation (Aluge et
al.,2016).According to Appiah (2011), bulk density is a function of particle size, particle size
being inversely proportional to bulk density. Particle size differences may be the cause of
variations in bulk density of the flours. The particle size also influences the package design and
could be used in determining the type of package material required. Higher bulk density is
desirable since it offers greater packaging advantage as greater quantity of flour can be packed
within a constant volume (Ijarotimi and Ashipa, 2005). The bulk density of the flours could be
used to determine their handling requirement, because it is the function of mass and volume
(Oladunmoye et al., 2010). Bulk density is also important in infant feeding where less bulk is
desirable (Mbata et al., 2009).

Table 1: Mean values of the functional properties of composite flour at different experimental runs (%)
Wheat (g) Maize (g) Water absorption Oil absorption Bulk density Swelling
capacity (%) capacity (%) (g/mol) capacity (%)

80.00 20.00 102.90 93.70 0.79 46.29
85.00 15.00 107.00 99.70 0.75 51.73
87.50 12.50 108.50 109.00 0.76 52.88
80.00 20.00 103.00 93.50 0.77 45.58
90.00 10.00 115.00 92.30 0.77 50.77
85.00 15.00 107.00 100.50 0.74 51.66
82.50 17.50 97.00 97.00 0.78 45.75
90.00 10.00 114.80 92.50 0.77 50.08
*Values are mean of duplicate measurements
Table 2: Regression models relating responses and independent variables for functional
properties.
Parameter Water absorption Oil absorption Bulk density Swelling
capacity (%) capacity (%) (g/ml) power (%)

A 115.14 94.17 0.77 50.85
B 101.97 92.57 0.78 45.27
AB -15.12 35.73 -0.09 11.71
R2 0.84 0.57 0.59 0.78
*significant at P<0.05
where A= Maize flour, B= wheat flour, AB= interaction of maize and wheat flour
R2 = Regression coefficient
Two Component Mix
0.79
0.7775
bulk density (g/ml)
0.765
0.7525
0.74
Actual maize f lour 80.00 82.50 85.00 87.50 90.00

Actual wheat f lour (g) 20.00 17.50 15.00 12.50 10.00
Figure 1: Plots showing the bulk density of maize-wheat composite blends at different
experimental condition
Since wheat flour was the least dense it would occupy greater space and therefore would require
more packaging material per unit weight and so could have high packaging cost (Oluwatooyin et
al., 2002) however, wheat flour would be easier to transport as it was lighter followed by maize.
The low bulk density would be an advantage in the use of the flour for preparation of
complementary foods (Akubor and Yusif, 2013). The low bulk density could be attributed to the
relatively lower protein content and moisture content (Oladunmoye et al., 2010).
4.1.2 Water absorption capacity of maize-wheat composite blends
The bulk density ranged from 97- 115. The coefficient of determination (R2) of water absorption
capacity shown in Table 2 was 0.84. From Figure 2, water absorption capacity increased with
increase in maize flour inclusion but decreased with increased in wheat flour.Water absorption
capacity represents the ability of the products to associate with water under conditions when
water is limiting such as doughs and pastes. The result of this study suggests that cowpea would
be useful in foods such as bakery products which require hydration to improve handling features
(Akubor and Yusif, 2013). The low water absorption capacity of the maize is as a result of its
high fat content and this assertion agrees with the findings of Nelson-Quartey et al. (2007); who
stated that the presence of fat in substantial amount reduces the water absorption capacity. The
increase in the water absorption capacity of the composite flours might be attributed to the
presence of hydrophobic amino acidswhich interferes with the ability of the maize starch to
absorb water (Kaur and Singh, 2005). This effect might be due to the loose association of
amylose and amylopectin in the native starch granules and the weak binding forces that
maintains the starch granules structure (Sanni et al., 2006) in maize flour.
Two Component Mix
115.143
water absorption capacity (%)
110.607
2
106.071
101.536
97

Figure 2: Plots showing the water absorption capacity of maize-wheat composite blends at
different experimental condition
4.1.3 Oil absorption capacity of maize-wheat composite blends

Oil absorption capacities of the blends ranging from 92.3 to 109 ml/g were recorded for maize-
wheat flour blends as shown in Table 1. The oil absorption capacity is the flavour retaining
capacity of flour which is very important in food formulations (Odoemelam, 2000). From figure
3, as maize flour inclusion increased from 80 g to 85 g an increased was observed, but as the
inclusion increased from 85 to 90 g, a decrease was also observed in the oil absorption capacity
of the blends. Also, as addition of wheat flour increased in the composite blends, oil absorption
capacity was observed to increased, and showed a decline in its value, respectively. Oil
absorption capacity is attributed mainly to the physical entrapment of oils. It is an indication of
the rate at which the protein binds to fat in food formulations (Onimawo and Akubor, 1999). The
lower oil absorption capacity of wheat could be due to low hydrophobic proteins which show
superior binding of lipids (Adejuyitan et al., 2009). The relatively high oil absorption capacity of
maize flour suggests that it could be useful in food formulation where oil holding capacity is
needed such as sausage and bakery products (Adejuyitan et al., 2009). This variation might be
due to effect of wheat flour which was part of the composite flours. Flours with lower oil
absorption capacity have higher flavour retention abilities (Oladele and Aina, 2007).
4.1.4 Swelling capacity of maize-wheat composite blends
Swelling power or capacity can be described as a hydration property of flour after dispersing it in
excess water for a specified period (Yagalema et al., 2013). Furthermore, it is used to measure
the ability of undisrupted granules to absorb water at high temperature. The swelling capacities
of the composite flour samples are presented in Table 2and were recorded to be in the range
45.58 % to 52.88 %.From Figure 4, swelling capacity increased with increase in maize flour
inclusion but decreased with increased in wheat flour.

Two Component Mix
109
oil absorption capacity (%)
104.825
100.65
96.475
92.3

Figure 3: Plots showing the oil absorption capacity of maize-wheat composite blends at
Two Component Mix
52.88
50.9786
swelling power (%)
49.0772
47.1759
45.2745

Figure 4: Plots showing the swelling power of maize-wheat composite blends at different
The gelatinization and swelling power test provided suitable predictive method for identifying
noodle-quality flours (Morris et al., 1997; McComick et al., 1991). According to Pomeranz
(1991), formation of protein-amylose complex in native starches and flours may be the cause of
decreased in swelling power. The extend of swelling depends on the temperature, availability of
water, species of starch and other carbohydrates and proteins (Ezema, 1989).
4.2 Proximate composition of maize and wheat composite blends
The chemical composition of maize -wheat composite flour are presented in Table 3. The data
provided in the table shows the moisture, ash, protein, fat, fibre and carbohydrate content for
composite flour sample. The moisture content of the flours (wheat and maize) on dry basis varied
between 8.27 % and 11.92 % as shown in Table 3. Moisture content was found to increased
alongside with increase in maize flour substitution, however as wheat flour inclusion increased, a
decreased was observed in moisture content. High moisture content favours the inhibition and
development of contaminating microorganisms, whose growth and activities cause spoilage in
foods (Okafor and Ugwu, 2014). The higher the moisture content of food materials the lower the
shelf stability (Aluge et al., 2016). Moisture content of foods is influenced by type, variety and
storage condition (Enwere, 1998). The moisture content of wheat and maize was within the
acceptable limit of not more than 10% for long term storage of flour (Onimawo and Akubor,
2012). The low moisture content of wheat and maize flour would enhance its storage stability by
avoiding mould growth and other biochemical reactions (Onimawo and Akubor, 2012).
Table 3: Mean values of the proximate composition of composite flour at different

experimental runs (%)
Runs Maize Wheat Moisture Ash Fat Fibre Protein Carbohydrate
(g) (g) content (%) content content content content content (%)
(%) (%) (%) (%)
1 80.00 20.00 9.87 2.13 13.01 3.87 15.85 41.10
2 85.00 15.00 10.05 1.91 10.13 3.22 12.41 38.14
3 87.50 12.50 8.27 3.57 12.80 4.03 18.50 38.55
4 80.00 20.00 9.53 2.71 10.95 3.14 15.03 41.24
5 90.00 10.00 11.92 4.69 13.74 5.02 19.12 38.81
6 85.00 15.00 10.75 1.84 10.21 3.35 12.44 38.04
7 82.50 17.50 11.03 1.76 11.23 3.22 12.15 30.57
8 90.00 10.00 11.87 5.29 13.08 5.47 19.14 38.14
*Values are means of duplicates
Table 4: Regression models relating responses and independent variables for proximate
composition.
Parameter Moisture Ash Fat Fiber Protein Carbohydrate
content content content content content content

A 11.40 5.07 13.60 5.24 19.76 38.16
B 10.06 2.39 11.98 3.52 15.07 40.86
AB -2.92 -6.80* -8.20* -4.25* -16.80* -13.15
R2 0.87 0.95 0.68 0.93 0.80 0.74
Two Component Mix
11.92
11.0075
moisture content (%)
10.095
9.1825
8.27

Figure 5: Plots showing the moisture content of maize-wheat composite blends at different
The ash content of the flours ranged between 1.76 and 5.29 % (Table 3). The ash content of a
food material could be used as an index of mineral constituents of the food because ash is the
inorganic residue remaining after the water and organic matter have been removed by heating in
the presence of an oxidizing agent (Sanni et al., 2008).From the response surface plots (Figure
6), it could be observed that as inclusion of maize flour increased, ash contents was observed to
increased rapidly. But wheat flour inclusion was found to reduce the ash content of the
composite flour. The regression model developed (R2) for ash content was able to predict 95%
indicating a predictive accuracy. Minerals play a role for the maintenance of the overall mental
physical wellbeing and the development and maintenance bones, tissues teeth, and muscles
(Ohzua et al., 2016). However, the bioavailability of the minerals in the flour samples may be
impeded by the fibre matrix which was found to be higher in the coconut flour samples (Barbara,
1989).Interaction effects of maize flour and wheat flour had a significant effect (P<0.05) on
moisture content. Diets with high fat content contribute significantly to the energy requirement
for humans. High fat flours are also good for flavour enhancers and useful in improving
palability of foods in which it is incorporated (Aiyesanmi and Oguntokun, 1996).The mean
values of the fat contents ranged between 10.13 and 13.74 % evident from Table 3.The
regression model developed (R2) for fat contents was able to predict 68 % indicating a predictive
accuracy. From the response surface plots (Figure 7), increased in fat contents was observed as
maize flour substitution increased. However, addition of wheat reduced the fat content. The
interaction effects of maize flour and wheat flour had a significant effect (P<0.05) on fat content
of the blends.Crude fibre helps in the prevention of heart diseases, colon cancer, diabetes etc. and
Figure 8 shows an overview of the response surface plots of fiber contents as flour substitution
changes. Fiber contents increased as maize flour addition increased but decreased as inclusion of
wheat flour increased.
Two Component Mix

5.29
4.4075
ash content (%)
3.525
2.6425
1.76

Figure 6: Plots showing the ash content of maize-wheat composite blends at different
Two Component Mix
13.74
12.8375
fat content (%)
11.935
11.0325
10.13

Figure 7: Plots showing the fat content of maize-wheat composite blends at different
The mean value of fiber contents ranged from 3.14 % – 5.47 %. The regression model developed
(R2) for fiber contents was able to predict 93 % indicating a predictive accuracy as shown in
Table 4.Crude fibre content of 2.85% and 3.70% were reported for chickpea and mung bean
composite flour respectively Aziah et al., (2012). Maize flour has higher content of dietary fibre
which explains the slight increases in these components with increased substitution. (Whistler et
al., 1984; Potter and Hotchkiss, 1985). Also, from the regression coefficient table, maize and
wheat flour at interaction level had a significant effect (P<0.05) on fiber content. The crude
protein content of the composite flour samples ranged between 12.15 and 19.14 % (Table 3).The
protein content of the wheat flour brings lower than that of maize resulted in a decrease in
protein content with increase in level of substitution as observed in Figure 9, and was
significantly affected by (P<0.05) the interaction of maize and wheat flour. The regression model
developed (R2) for protein contents was able to predict 80 % indicating a predictive accuracy as
shown in Table 4, respectively. The crude protein content differences can be attributed to the
level of wheat flour inclusion which was between 10 to 20 %, lower than the 80 % inclusion
level of maize flour. Proteins are increasingly being utilized to perform functional roles in food
formulations. Therefore, the protein content of the flours in this study suggests that they may be
useful in food formulation. Carbohydrate increased with increased in inclusion of maize flour but
decreased as inclusion of wheat flour increased. The maize flour samples exhibited a much
higher carbohydrate content than wheat samples. The significance of this is that the maize flours
will have a higher glycemic index in comparison to the wheat flour samples and glycemic index
is a measure of the rate of release of sugar by the food and absorption of sugar in the human
body.
Two Component Mix

5.47
4.8875
fibre content (%)
4.305
3.7225
3.14

Figure 8: Plots showing the fibre content of maize-wheat composite blends at different
Two Component Mix
19.7627
17.8595
protein content (%)
15.9564
14.0532
12.15

Figure 9: Plots showing the protein content of maize-wheat composite blends at different
Two Component Mix
41.4069
carbohydrate content (%)
38.6977
35.9884
33.2792
30.57

Figure 10: Plots showing the carbohydrate content of maize-wheat composite blends at
The high carbohydrate contents of these flour samples suggest that these flour samples could be
used in managing protein-energy malnutrition since there is enough quantity of carbohydrate to
derive energy from in order to spare protein so that protein can be used for its primary function
of building the body and repairing worn out tissues rather than as a source of energy.
Carbohydrates are good sources of energy and that a high concentration of it is desirable in
breakfast meals and weaning formulas. In this regard therefore, the high carbohydrates content of
the wheat and maize
flours would make them good sources of energy in breakfast formulations (Brown, 1991).
4.3 Colour attributes of maize and wheat flour composite blends
The mean colour values of composite blends parameters are shown in Table 5. The chromatic
parameters L* (whiteness or brightness darkness), a* (greenness-redness), and b* (blueness-
yellowness) have been widely used to describe colour changes during thermal processing of
agricultural products; they have been related to the types and quantities of some components
present in those products (Bahloul et al., 2009). The results in Table 5 showed the colour
attributes of the composite flour from maize and wheat flour, lightness, redness and yellowness
ranged from 77.14 to 83.61; 0.32 to 0.89 and 33.00 to 37.70.Result showed that the interactions
of maize flour and wheat flour, had a significant (P<0.05) effects on the lightness and
yellowness. Figure 11 showed that increase in maize flour resulted in a decrease in lightness, but
as inclusion of wheat flour increased, a higher value was observed. L-values indicate the
lightness/whiteness or darkness of the product. It is on a scale of 1 to 100; where 1-50 indicates
the darker region and 50-100 indicates the lighter or whiter region (Falade and Olugbuyi, 2010).
Figures 12 and 13 showed the redness and yellowness value of the composite blends showing
an increase as maize flour inclusion increased, but a decreased was observed as wheat flour was
included.
Table 5:Mean values of the colour attributes at different experimental runs
Runs Maize (g) Wheat(g) Lightness Redness Yellowness

1 80.00 20.00 83.02 0.48 33.37
2 85.00 15.00 77.35 0.60 33.00
3 87.50 12.50 83.61 0.46 35.67
4 80.00 20.00 83.07 0.50 33.22
5 90.00 10.00 80.78 0.82 37.40
6 85.00 15.00 77.14 0.64 33.47
7 82.50 17.50 82.26 0.32 33.40
8 90.00 10.00 80.85 0.89 37.70
*Values are mean of duplicates
Table 6: Regression models relating responses and independent variables for colour
attributes.
Parameter Lightness Redness Yellowness
A 81.17 0.83 37.62
B 83.40 0.48 33.34
AB -11.60 -0.59 -7.57*
R2 0.43 0.69 0.97
Two Component Mix
83.61
81.9925
ligthness
80.375
78.7575
77.14

Figure 11: Plots showing the lightness of maize-wheat composite blends at different
Two Component Mix
0.89
0.7475
redness
0.605
0.4625
0.32

Figure 12: Plots showing the redness content of maize-wheat composite blends at different
Two Component Mix
37.7
36.5207
yellowness
35.3414
34.1622
32.9829

Figure 13: Plots showing the yellowness content of maize-wheat composite blends at
4.4 Optimization of composite flour
Numerical optimization option was employed; the desirability function was generated after
limiting the preferred goal of blends variables and responses, such as minimizing moisture
content of the flour blends, fat content and redness, maximizing protein content, bulk density,
water absorption capacity etc. while the maizeand wheat flour were allowed to be in range as
shown in Table 7. According to the desirability function, the software generated two solutions of
process variables with the predicted values of responses.The predicted optimum condition at
maximum desirability index of 0.79 (79%) was obtained as 88 % of maize and 12 % wheat flour
as shown in Table 8.
Table 7: Constraints to optimization of the composite blends
Constraints Goal
Maize flour is in range
Wheat flour (g) is in range
Moisture content (%) minimize
Ash content (%) maximize
Fat content (%) minimize
Fibre content (%) maximize
Protein content (%) maximize
Carbohydrate content (%) maximize
Lightness maximize
Yellowness minimize
Water absorption capacity minimize
(%)
Oil absorption capacity (%) minimize
Bulk density (g/ml) maximize
Swelling power (%) maximize
Table 8: Solution to the optimization
MF WF MC AC FC FIC PC CC L* B* WAC OAC BD SP Desirability

88.0
1 12.02 10.75 3.64 12.15 4.34 16.57 41.40 80.07 35.81 110.73 98.98 0.76 51.56 0.79
80.0
2 20.05 9.99 2.20 11.67 3.40 14.50 37.96 82.48 33.19 101.91 94.36 0.78 46.11 0.71
where:
MF = Maize Flour L*= Lightness
WF= Wheat Flour B*= Yellowness
MC= Moisture Content WAC= Water Absorption Capacity
FC= Fat Content OAC= Oil Absorption Capacity
FIC= Fibre Content BD= Bulk Density
PC= Protein Content SP= Swelling Power
CC= Carbohydrate Content

CHAPTER FIVE
CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS
5.0 Conclusion
The study demonstrated the effect of maize flour substitution with wheat flour on some quality
attributes of their composite blends.
The functional properties of the flour blends were significantly not affected by (P>0.05) by
interaction and linear effects of the maize and wheat flour. Fat content, ash content, fiber content
as well as protein content was significantly affected (P<0.05) by the interaction of maize and
wheat flour and increased, respectively. The colour attributes (redness and lightness) were not
significantly affected (P>0.05) by the main or interaction effect of the flour blends, but
yellowness was significantly by the interaction of the flour blends.The optimized ingredient
combination level was the sample with 88 % of maize and 12 % wheat flour.
Composite flours from maize- wheat could beused in the achievement of
desired food security, indeveloping countries where they are abundant. In
this wayit will advance the promotion, utilization for improved industrial and
domestic use.
5.2 Recommendations
The optimized ingredient blend ratio obtained from this study should be used as a standard in
production of some food product
Mineral composition and antinutritional component of the composite blend should be
determined
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CHAPTER 1

plant. It also contains vitamin C, vitamin E, vitamin K, vitamin B1 (thiamine), vitamin B2

(niacin), vitamin B3 (riboflavin), vitamin B5 (pantothenic acid), vitamin B6 (pyridoxine), folic

acid, selenium, N-p-coumaryl tryptamine, and N-ferrulyl tryptamine. Potassium is a major

(Kumar and Jhariya, 1992).

(Jones et al., 2006).

1.2 Main Objective

composite flour of corn meal flour and wheat flour.

1.3 Specific Objective

These are to:

maize and wheat composite blend

2.0 LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1 Composite Flour Technology

without wheat flour.It is considered advantageous in developing countries as it decreased the

would be economically advantageous if the imports of wheat could be reduced or even

domestically grown products instead of wheat (Jisha et al., 2008).

because of the advantages of reproducibility, uniformity, and lack of defects (Gebhardt,1996).

Hence, an understanding of the functionality of the structure elements prior to or during

as with specific textures, flavours and colours.

2.2 Production and Classification of maize

ethanol (FAO, 2006).

African diet is 291.7g/person/day, including an average maize consumption of

Nigeria depending on locality like agbado, igbado or yangan(Yoruba); masara or

dawarmasara(Hausa); ogbado or oka(Ibo); apaapa(Ibira); oka(Bini and Isha); ibokpotor ibokpot

union (Efik) and igumapa(Yala) (FAO,1992).

2.2.1 Origin of maize

can vary depending on local supply and demand conditions.

2.2.2 Advances in global maize production

Republic of South Africa (FAO, 2006).

2.2.3 Chemical composition of maize

ppm selenium (Bressani, 1972).

in maize starch (Zarkadas et al., 2000; Boyer and Shannon, 1987).

Vincent, 2004; Bressani et. al., 1990).

of high-density lipoprotein (HDL) associated cholesterol, obesity, and possibly hyperinsulinemia

of lowland maize is 11.15% and the SDF is 1.64%.

minerals (Bauer and Turler-Inderbitzin, 2008).

tocopherol (FAO, 1992).

very low concentrations.

2.2.4 Approaches to improving the nutritive value of maize

elimination of anti-physiological factors in beans (FAO, 1992). Natural fermentation of cooked

Kolawole, 2004; Bressani and Marenco, 1963).

2.2.5 Processing and Utilization of Maize

Abdulrahaman and Kolawole (2006) which include:

okra (Abelmoschus esculentus), celosia (Celosia argenteaL., Amaranthaceae), etc.

amaranth (Amaranthus spp. L., Amaranthaceae) or bitter leaf (Vernonia amygdalinaDel.

solidified, or clumps together.

could be eaten with small amount of granulated sugar.

frying (Adegoke and Adebayo, 1994).

syrup (FAO, 2006).

2.3 World production of wheat

varies widely from one region to another. These are;

and snack foods (Anonymous, 2008).

and some Mediterranean breads (Anonymous, 2008).

applications, (Anonymous, 2008).

2.3.1 Economic importance of wheat

2.3.2 Wheat Nutritional Composition

also reported on percentage proximate composition of wheat seeds as 72.503 % carbohydrate,

Riboflavin 0.07g, niacin 1.7mg and Folate 51μg.

2.4 Functional properties of composite flour

2.4.1 Bulk Density

(Ijarotimi and Ashipa, 2005).

2.4.2 Water Absorption Capacity

gelatinization (Edema et al., 2005). It is a useful indication of whether protein can be