Korean literature

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Korean literature is the body of literature produced by Koreans, mostly in the Korean language
and sometimes in Classical Chinese. For much of Korea's 1,500 years of literary history, it was
written in Hanja. It is commonly divided into classical and modern periods, although this
distinction is sometimes unclear. Korea is home to the world's first metal and copper type,
world's earliest known printed document and the world's first featural script.

Contents
1 Classical poetry
o 1.1 Hyangga
o 1.2 Goryeo songs
o 1.3 Sijo and Gasa
2 Prose
o 2.1 Fiction
o 2.2 Oral literature
3 History
o 3.1 The early Joseon period
o 3.2 The late Joseon period
4 Modern literature
o 4.1 Korean Literature during Japanese rule
o 4.2 National division
5 Korean literature abroad
6 References
7 External links
 8 See also

Classical poetry
Classical Korean literature has its roots in traditional folk beliefs and folk tales of the Korean
peninsula. There are four major traditional poetic forms: hyangga ("native songs"); pyolgok
("special songs"), or changga ("long poems"); sijo ("current melodies"); and kasa ("verses").
Other poetic forms that flourished briefly include the kyonggi-style, in the 14th and 15th
centuries, and the akchang ("words for songs") in the 15th century. The most representative
akchang is Yongbi och'on ka (144547; Songs of Flying Dragons), a cycle compiled in praise of
the founding of the Yi dynasty. Korean poetry originally was meant to be sung, and its forms and
styles reflect its melodic origins. The basis of its prosody is a line of alternating groups of three
or four syllables, which is probably the most natural rhythm to the language.

One famous earliest poetry or lyric song was the Gonghuin (Konghu-in) by Yeo-ok during
Gojoseon.

Hyangga

See also: Hyangga

Hyangga (hangul: , hanja: ) was written in Korean using modified hanja in a system
that is called idu (hangul: , hanja: ), literally "clerk's writings." Specifically, the variety
of idu used to write hyangga was sometimes called "hyangchal". Idu was a system using hanja
characters to express Korean. The key to the system was to use some hanja characters for their
intended purpose, their meaning, and others for their pronunciation, ignoring their pictographic
meaning. On the surface, it appears to be a complicated, even incomprehensible system, but after
using the system one becomes comfortable with certain characters consistently standing for
Korean words.

Hyangga was the first uniquely Korean form of poetry. Only twenty five survive. The Samguk
Yusa contains 14 poems and the "Gyunyeojeon", a set of biographies of prominent monks,
contains eleven poems. Both these classic works were written much after the Unified Silla, in the
subsequent Goryeo dynasty, yet the poems in the Samguk Yusa appear to be based on no-longer-
extant records actually from the Silla period.

Hyangga are characterized by a number of formal rules. The poems may consist of four, eight or
ten lines. The ten-line poems are the most developed, structured into three sections with four,
four, and two lines respectively. Many of the ten-line poems were written by Buddhist monks.
And Buddhist themes predominate the poems. Another dominant theme was "death". Many of
the poems are eulogies to monks, to warriors, and to family members.

Goryeo songs
The Goryeo period was marked by a growing use of hanja characters. Hyangga largely
disappeared as a form of Korean literature, and "Goryeo gayo" (hangul: , literally
"Goryeo songs") became more popular. Most of the Goryeo songs were transmitted orally and
many survived into the Joseon period, when some of them were written down using hangul.

The poetic form of the Goryeo songs is known as pyolgok or changga (hangul: ). It
flourished during the middle and late Koryo dynasty. It is characterized by a refrain either in the
middle or at the end of each stanza. The refrain establishes a mood or tone that carries the
melody and spirit of the poem or links a poem composed of discrete parts with differing
contents. The theme of most of these anonymous poems is love, the joys and torments of which
are expressed in frank and powerful language. The poems were sung to musical accompaniments
chiefly by women entertainers, known as kisaeng.There are two distinct forms: dallyeonche
()and yeonjanche (). The former is a shorter form in which the entire poem was
put into a single stanza, whereas the latter is a more extended form in which the poem is put into
several stanzas. The Goryeo songs are characterized by their lack of clear form, and by their
increased length. Most are direct in their nature, and cover aspects of common life.

Sijo and Gasa

See also: Sijo and Gasa (poetry)

Sijo and gasa are closely linked to the development of hangul in the early Joseon period. As
hangul was created, akjang was developed as a way to note musical scores using the Korean
script. King Sejong himself is credited with a compilation of Buddhist songs.

Sijo (literally current tune) was common in the Joseon period. Although its poetic form was
established in the late Goryeo period, it did not become popular until the Joseon period. Many of
the sijo reflected Confucian thought; the theme of loyalty is common. Sijo are characterized by a
structure of three stanzas of four feet each. Each foot contains three to four syllables except on
the third stanza, where the 1st foot is supposed to have 3 syllables and the 2nd foot can have as
many as seven. Sijo are thought to have been popular with common people.

Gasa is a form of verse, although its content can include more than the expression of individual
sentiment, such as moral admonitions. Gasa is a simple form of verse, with twinned feet of three
or four syllables each. Some regard gasa a form of essay. Common themes in gasa were nature,
the virtues of gentlemen, or love between man and woman.

Prose
Main article: Chinese-language literature in Korea

Korean prose literature can be divided into narratives, fiction, and literary miscellany. Narratives
include myths, legends, and folktales found in the written records. The principal sources of these
narratives are the two great historical records compiled in Classical Chinese during the Koryo
era: Samguk sagi (1146; "Historical Record of the Three Kingdoms") and Samguk yusa (1285;
"Memorabilia of the Three Kingdoms"). The most important myths are those concerning the Sun
and the Moon, the founding of Korea by Tangun, and the lives of the ancient kings. The legends
touch on place and personal names and natural phenomena. The folktales include stories about
animals; ogres, goblins, and other supernatural beings; kindness rewarded and evil punished; and
cleverness and stupidity. Because the compiler of the Samguk yusa was a Zen master, his
collection includes the lives of Buddhist saints; the origin of monasteries, stupas, and bells;
accounts of miracles performed by Buddhas and bodhisattvas; and other tales rich in shamanist
and Buddhist elements. It also includes the 14 hyangga mentioned above. The compilations
made in the Koryo period preserved the stories of prehistoric times, of the Three Kingdoms, and
of the Silla dynasty and have remained the basic sources for such material. Later compilations
made during the Yi dynasty served as a major source of materials for later Yi dynasty fiction.

Fiction

Korean fiction can be classified in various ways. First, there is Korean fiction written in Chinese
and that written in Korean. Second, there are the short works of one volume, "medium" works of
about 10 volumes, and long works of more than 10 volumes. Third, there are works of yangban
writers and those of common writers. In respect to the last classification, however, there is also a
group of fictional works in which the viewpoints of the yangban and the commoner are
combined. Most of this fiction was based on the narratives mentioned above, the author adding
incidents and characters to the original story. It is not possible to assign definite dates or authors
to most of these works. The stories are generally didactic, emphasizing correct moral conduct,
and almost always have happy endings. Another general characteristic is that the narratives
written by yangban authors are set in China, whereas those written by commoners are set in
Korea.

The literary miscellany consists of random jottings by the yangban on four broad topics: history,
biography, autobiography, and poetic criticism. Like fiction, these jottings were considered to be
outside of the realm of officially sanctioned Chinese prose (e.g., memorials, eulogies, and
records), but they provided the yangban with an outlet for personal expression. Thus, their
portrayal of the customs, manners, and spirit of the times in which they were composed make
these writings an essential part of Korean prose.

The first known classical work of Korean fiction is Geumo Sinhwa ( New
stories from Mount Geumo) by Kim Si-seup (). It was written in Chinese characters.
From the 17th century onwards, fiction became increasingly popular and more readily available
through book rental schemes.

Pansori-based fiction was a particularly popular form of fiction, appearing in the late 17th and
early 18th century, based on the five orally transmitted pansori (Chunhyangga, Simcheongga,
Heungbuga, Jeokbyeokga and Sugungga). Although based on older traditional songs, it was
composed in its present form in the 1870s by the pansori writer, and characterized by human
stereotypes of ordinary people of the time.
In the mid-Joseon period, parable-like stories were published. By the end of the Joseon period,
many writers had started to deviate from the orthodox conventions of classical Chinese literature,
and literature about common people such as merchants, thieves, or gisaeng were commonplace.

Kim Manjung (16371692) wrote The Cloud Dream of the Nine ().
Tale of Hong Gildong ()
Chunhyangjeon is a kodae sosol ( ) novel based on the pansori Chunhyangga.
Several lives of the poet Choe Chiwon have come down: In hanmun the Choegounjeon
() Choemunhonjeon (), in hangul the Choechungjeon (,
), The Story of Faithful Choe.

Oral literature

Oral literature includes all texts that were orally transmitted from generation to generation until
the invention of Hangul (han'gul)--ballads, legends, mask plays, puppet-show texts, and p'ansori
("story singing") texts.

In spite of the highly developed literary activity from early in Korean history, song lyrics were
not recorded until the invention of Hangul (han'gul). These orally transmitted texts are
categorized as ballads and are classified according to singer (male or female), subject matter
(prayer, labour, leisure), and regional singing style (capital area, western, and southern). The
songs of many living performers, some of whom have been designated as "intangible national
treasures" by the South Korean government, are still being recorded.

Legends include all those folk stories handed down orally and not recorded in any of the written
records. These legends were for long the principal form of literary entertainment enjoyed by the
common people. They deal with personified animals, elaborate tricks, the participation of the
gods in human affairs, and the origin of the universe.

The mask plays are found in Hahoe, Chinju, T'ongyong, Kimhae, and Tongnae in North and
South Kyongsang provinces; Yangju in Kyonggi Province; Pongsan in Hwanghae Province; and
Pukch'ong in south Hamgyong Province. The most representative plays are the sandae kuk genre
of Yangju, the pyolsin kut of Hahoe, and the okwangdae nori (five-actor play) of Chinju.
Although the origin of these plays is uncertain, they are generally presumed to have developed
from primitive communal ceremonies. Gradually, the ceremonial aspect of the plays disappeared,
and their dramatic and comic possibilities were exploited. The dialogue was somewhat flexible,
the actors being free to improvise and satirize as the occasion demanded. The plays were not
performed on a stage, and there were no precise limits as to the space or time in which the
performances took place. The audience also traditionally responded vocally to the play as well as
passively watching it. The organization of the mask playsthrough repetition and variety
achieves a remarkable effect of dramatic unity. (see also dramatic literature)

Only two puppet-show texts are extant, Kkoktukaksi nori (also called Pak Ch'omjikuk; "Old
Pak's Play") and Mansok chung nori. Both titles are derived from names of characters in the
plays. No theory has been formulated as to the origin and development of these plays. The plots
of the puppet plays, like those of the mask plays, are full of satiric social criticism. The
charactersPak Ch'omji, governor of P'yongam, Kkoktukaksi, Buddhist monk, and Hong
Tongjidance and sing, enacting familiar tales that expose the malfeasance of the ruling classes.
(see also puppetry)

The final type of folk literature is found in the texts of p'ansori of the Yi dynasty. These texts
were first recorded in the 19th century as verse, but the written forms were later expanded into
p'ansori fiction, widely read among the common people. This transformation from poetry to
narrative fiction was easily accomplished, since p'ansori were always narrative. Originally the
entire p'ansori performance repertoire consisted of 12 madang ("titles"). Although all 12 remain
as narrative fiction, only five of them are sung today. The texts evolved gradually from the
legends, which provided their sources and were altered and expanded as they were passed from
one performer to another.

History
The early Joseon period

See also: Yongbi eocheonga

Yongbi eocheonga (hangul: , hanja: ) literally means "Songs of the

Dragons Flying to Heaven". It was compiled during the reign of Sejong the Great as an official
recognition of the Joseon dynasty and its ancestral heritage as the forerunners of Joseon, the
Golden Age of Korea. The Songs were composed through the efforts of a committee of
Confucian philologists and literati in the form of 125 cantos.

This compilation was the first piece of Korean text to depart from a long history reliant on
Chinese characters and be recorded in Hangul, the first and official alphabet of Korea. There are
several underlying themes in addition to the establishment of the Joseon Dynasty which are of
significant importance to understanding the events that provoked the creation of these poems:
linear events that took place in China, the apotheosis of virtuous Kings proceeding the fall of the
Goryeo Dynasty, and Confucian political and philosophical ideologies of the era in rejection to
Buddhism. Each of the poems included in the work convey deep-seated feelings of nationalism
and a proud proclamation of cultural independence from the Mongol empire.

The late Joseon period

Modern Korean literature developed against the background of the Joseon Dynasty's fall. This
first period of modern Korean literature is often called the "enlightenment". This period was to a
large extent influenced by the 1894 Gabo Reforms which introduced Western-style schools and
newspapers emerged. Many newspapers published sijo, gasa, or even serial novels and led to the
emergence of professional writers. Sinchesi (hangul: , literally "new poetry") was
established, and contributed to the formation of modern free verse poetry which is called Jayusi
(hangul: ). Sinchesi abandoned the fixed metaphor found in classical Korean poetry,
influenced by the French vers libre.

Many biographical works were published in the late Joseon period where the main character was
often depicted as a hero. These works cultivated patriotism and national consciousness.[1]

Modern literature
Modern Korean literature gradually developed under the influence of Western cultural contacts
based on trade and economic development.[2] The first printed work of fiction in Korean was
John Bunyan's Pilgrim's Progress (in Korean: Cheonno-yeokjeong), translated by
James Scarth Gale (1893).

Christian religion found its way into Korea, culminating in the first complete edition of the Bible
in Korean published in 1910. However, it was mostly Western aesthetic schools that influenced
Korean literature. Music and classical poetry, formerly considered one as part of changgok, were
increasingly perceived as old-fashioned and out of date.

Modern literature is often linked with the development of hangul, which helped increase working
class literacy rates. Hangul reached its peak of popularity in the second half of the 19th century,
resulting in a major renaissance. Sinsoseol, for instance, are novels written in hangul.

Korean Literature during Japanese rule

During the period of Japanese imperial rule (19101945), Japanese literature has deep
connections with the establishment of modern literature in Korea due to some of the founders of
modern literature in Korea having come from Korean students who had studied in Japan during
the Meiji period. Their representatives are Choe Nam-seon and Yi Kwang-su. Many expressions
of the late Joseon period, with their focus on self-reliance and independence, were no longer
possible. Ernest Bethell's Taehan Maeil Shinbo () provided for Korean writers a
brief opportunity of artistic expression free from censorship, from July 1904 till May 1909, but
after control of the paper was seized by the Government-General uncensored Korean publishing
became impossible.[citation needed] With the Samil Movement in 1919 came a new form of Korean
literature. Many writers exhibited a more positive attitude, trying to cope with the national
situation at the time. Literature focused on self-discovery, and increasingly on concrete reality.
Artistic endeavors were supported by new nationalist newspapers.

In 1919 Kim Tong-in and Kim Hyok founded a literary magazine, Changjo ( Creation)
marking the starting point of contemporary Korean literature. The magazine was followed in
1920 by Kaebyok (), and Pyeho ( The Ruins, Hwang Song-u and Yom Sang-sop);
in 1921 Changmichon (); in 1922 Paekcho ( White Tide, Yi Sang-hwa and Hyon
Chin-gon); and in 1923 Kumsong ( Gold Star, of Yi Chang-hui and Yang Chu-dong). The
literary magazines which appeared during the 1920s and 1930s laid the basis for the future
development of modern Korean literature. Almost all of these magazines were ordered to
discontinue publication in the 1940s as the Japanese tightened their grip with the spread of their
aggressive war to the Pacific and all of Southeast Asia. The important task of the 1920s was to
work out ways of introducing foreign elements into literary works dealing with the reality of
colonial rule in Korea.

Many novels of the 1920s centered on themes of the suffering of intellectuals. The lives of
farmers were often depicted as pathetic. As the Japanese government strengthened ideological
coercion during the 1930s, Korean literature was directly affected. Many novels of the time
experimented with new literary styles and techniques.

Kang Kyeong-ae (, ; 19071944): In'gan munje ( From Wonso

Pond)
Kim Tong-in (19001951): Pulgun San ( Red Mountain)
Shim Hun (19011936): Sangnoksu ( Evergreen Tree, 1943 posthumously)
Ri Ki-yong (,[3] ; 18951984): Kohyang (The Home Village, 1932), later a
North Korean author
Hong Myong-hui (18801968): Im Kkok-chong (Story of the bandit Im Kkok-chong)
Choi Seo-hae (, ; 19011932): Hongyom ()
Yom Sang-seop (, ; 18971963): Sam dae (Three Generations, 1932)
Mansejon ()
Chae Man-shik (19021950): Thaepyong Chunha ( Peaceful Spring on Earth,
1937) and Tagryu (Muddy Stream, 1941)

Poets included: Han Yong-un, Buddhist reformer and poet: Nimui chimmuk (The Silence of My
Beloved, 1925), Chang Man-yong, Chu Yo-han, Hwang Sok-woo (), Kim Myeong-sun,
Kim Sowol, Kim Yeong-nang, Pak Tu-jin, Yi Sang, Yi Sang-hwa (, ), Yu Chi-
hwan, Yun Dong-ju, and Yi Yuk-sa (, ; 19041944) tortured to death by the
Japanese military police.

National division

After 1945, Korea soon found itself divided into North and South. The Korean War led to the
development of literature centered on the wounds and chaos of war and tragedy.

North Korea (DPRK)

Main article: North Korean literature

South Korea (ROK)

Main article: South Korean literature

Much of the post-war literature in South Korea deals with the daily lives of ordinary people, and
their struggles with national pain. The collapse of the traditional Korean value system is another
common theme of the time. In the post-war period, a traditionalist movement emerged: going
back to the roots of traditional rhythms and folk sentiments. Other poets are linked to an
experimentalist movement, attempting to bring new experiences to Korean poetry.

In the 1960s many South Korean writers started to reject post-war literature as sentimental
escapism. While some South Korean authors reflected traditional humanism, writings by many
others reflect deep alienation and despair. They sought to engage the readers with the political
reality of the time. This led poetry and literature in general to become an important means of
political expression. Also remarkable for the development of literature in 1960s was the
influence of Western modernism. The 1970s saw the emergence of literature that was anti-
establishment and dealt with the concerns of rapid industrialization, such as the neglect of
farmers.

At the same time, literature concerned with the national division (bundan soseol) became more
popular. At the beginning of the twenty-first century, the national division is still a common
theme, but classic stories are also popular. Some North Korean writers are very highly
appreciated in the South and in 2005 writers from both Koreas held a joint literary congress.

Korean literature abroad

Until the 1980s Korean literature was largely unknown outside of the peninsula. The kind of
works translated has become increasingly diverse, and the quality of the translations has
improved.*[4] Flowers of Fire (1974)[5] was one of the first anthologies of Korean literature
published in English. In non-English-speaking countries there are fewer Korean works
translated, though LTI Korea has also promoted translations in German, Spanish, French and
Polish. The increased popularity of Korean film has increased interest in Korean mass market
literature, particularly in Japan and China.

References
1.

Montgomery, Charles (5 March 2016). "KOREAN LITERATURE CHAPTER SIX:

TRANSITION ENLIGHTENMENT FICTION AND THE 'NEW' NOVEL". www.ktlit.com.
KTLit. Retrieved 8 March 2016. Even biographical novels, typically about heroes, focused
tightly on the importance of nationalism and modern awareness.
The first western-influenced work was perhaps the 1885 manuscript of 60 Corean Tales
prepared by Kim Chae-guk() for diplomat William George Aston's language lessons in
1885.
 in North Korean orthography, Yi Kee-Yeoung, in South Korean
orthography
Korean Fiction in Translation, by Dr. Bruce Fulton pdf

5. Peter H. Lee (9780824810368)

Choe-Wall, Yang Hi (2003). Vision of a Phoenix: The Poems of H Nansrhn, Ithaca,

New York, Cornell University. ISBN 1-885445-42-3 hc.
Hyun, Theresa (2003). Writing Women in Korea: Translation and Feminism in the Early
Twentieth Century. Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press. ISBN 978-0-8248-2677-2
Lee, Peter H. (2013). The Story of Traditional Korean Literature. Amherst, New York:
Cambria Press. ISBN 978-1-60497-853-7
Lee, Peter H. (1990). Modern Korean Literature: An Anthology. Honolulu: University of
Hawaii Press. ISBN 978-0-8248-1321-5
Lee, Peter H. (1981). Anthology of Korean Literature: From Early Times to the
Nineteenth Century. Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press. ISBN 978-0-8248-0756-6
Lee, Peter H. (2003). A History of Korean Literature, Cambridge University Press
McCann, David R. (2000). Early Korean Literature: Selections and Introductions. New
York: Columbia University Press. ISBN 978-0-231-11947-4
Pihl, Marshall R (1994). The Korean Singer of Tales. Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard
University Press. ISBN 978-0-674-50564-3

External links

Wikimedia Commons has media related to Literature of Korea.

Asianifo
Kyujanggak Archive(big pdfs of many Korean classics)
KTLIT Korean Modern Literature

See also

Korea portal

Literature portal

Korean poetry
Culture of Korea
List of Korean language poets
List of Korea-related topics
List of Korean novelists
Korea Literature Translation Institute (LTI Korea)
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