COMPOUNDS

- A word composed of two or more separate words is a compound.

- Endocentric compounds are compounds that have head. The head gives the core meaning of the
compound and determines the compounds category (eg. goldfish, spoon-feed).

1. Co-ordinate both roots co-ordinate as head of a compound (eg. Boyfriend)

2. Sub-ordinate (eg. arm-chair)

- Exocentric compounds are compounds in which none of the elements gives the core meaning
(eg. pick-pocket, blue-nose).

- The word class of the compound is determined by the category of the last element.

Any root + Noun Noun Compound

Noun + Noun (modifier + head) eg. textbook
Verb + Noun (verb + object) eg. pick-pocket
Adjective + Noun (modifier + head) eg. blackbird
Adverb + Noun (not syntactic) eg. after-thought

Any root + Verb Verb Compound

Noun + Verb (object + verb) eg. brain-wash
Verb + Verb (co-ordinate) eg. drop-kick
Adjective + Verb (not syntactic) eg. dry-clean

Any root + Adjective Adjective Compound

Noun + Adjective (not syntactic) eg. earth-bound
Adjective + Adjective (co-ordinate) eg. blue-green
Adverb + Adjective (modifier + head) eg. near-sighted

Verb + Adverb Noun Compound

- There are two types syntactic relations of the roots in a compound:

1. Constituents are put together according to syntactic rules
2. Association of constituents violates syntactic rules

AFFIXATIONS

- Process of creating new words out of existing ones by adding affixes.

- According to where the affix is attached, there are three sub-processes: prefixation, infixation
and suffixation.

BLENDINGS

- Process of creating new words out of portmanteau or telescope words in such way that the
constituents are easily identifiable.
- Blendings are formed by combining parts from two or more words (eg. smog, branch, spork).

WORD COINAGE

1. Brand names are used for something that has been accustomed (eg. xerex, cleenex, frigdaire,
brillo, vaseline, paloma, nylon, kodac)
2. Conversion is a word belonging to one word class that is transferred to another word class
without any change of form either in pronunciation or spelling. It is a highly productive source
for the production of new words because there is no restriction of the form that can undergo
conversion in English.
Noun Verb eg. to bottle, to commission, to network, to download, to copy
Verb Noun eg. a call, a command, a guess, a spy
Adjective Verb eg. to better, to worse, to empty, to wrong
Adjective Noun eg. the poor, the rich, a daily, a double
3. Shortenings and clippings are type of word formation in which only part of the stem is retained
(eg. lab- laboratory, plane- airplane, phone- telephone)
4. Back formation is making new word from an older word which is mistakenly assumed to be its
derivative
5. Initialisms are an extreme kind of clippings as only the initials letter of words or initials symbols
are put together and are used as words
- Alphabetisms, where initials are pronounced with the names of the letters of the alphabet.
(eg. AI- Amnesty International, Artificial Intelligence, BP- British Petroleum, Beautiful People)
- Acronym is an initialism pronounced like individual lexical item (eg. LASER- Light wave
Application by Simulated Emission of Radiation, SCUBA Self Contained Under Water Breathing
Apparatus, NATO - North Atlantic Treaty Organization, UNESCO - United Nations Education
Scientific and Cultural Organization)
6. Aphetic form is a special form of shortening characterized by the omissions of the main syllable
(eg. fender-defender, fence- defense)
7. Abbreviation is a short form, clipping used as a whole word (eg. narc-narcotics, telly-television,
tec-detective, professor-prof, gymnasium-gym)
8. Words from Names (eg. sandwich fourth Earl of Sandwich, robot- mechanical creatures,
dumbo- big elephant, denim- material for overall carpeting )
 INFLECTIONAL LANGUAGES

- Languages that add inflectional morphemes to words are sometimes called inflectional
languages. Morphemes may be added in several different ways:
1. Affixation adding morphemes to the word, without changing the root. (eg. accuse-accused,
apply-applies)
In affixation we also have:
- Apophony - internal change (eg. foot-feet, see- saw)
- Suppletion a complete change in form (eg. go-went, is- was)
- Partial suppletion a partial change in form (eg. think-thought)
2. Reduplication - doubling all or part of a word to change its meaning (eg. rumah-house, rumah-
rumah houses)
3. Alternation - exchanging one sound for another in the root (eg. vowel sound, ablaut process
German, strong verbs, umlaut- nouns, verbs)
4. Suprasegmental variations - stress, pitch of tone, no sound are added or changed.

- An Inflectional affix is an affix that expresses a grammatical contrast that is obligatory for its
stem word class in some given grammatical context. It is typically located further from the root
than a derivational affix. Produces predictable non-idiosyncratic change of meaning.
- Agglutinative languages are languages in which the grammatical markers are directly added to
the word (eg. Latin, Irish, Latvian, Finnish, Lithuanian)
- Analytic languages are languages that do not have inflections. African languages are considered
like young languages and they are almost uninflected (eg. Slavic-> Macedonian, Serbian,
Bulgarian, Slavish, Belarus. Russian, Croatian, Polish)
- Middle and Modern English lost progressively more of the old English inflectional system.
Modern English is consider as weakly inflective language since its nouns have only vestiges of
inflection (plurals) and its regular verbs have only four forms:
1. An inflected form for the past indicative (mood) and subjunctive (if I were you...) Looked
2. An inflected form for the 3th person singular, present indicative Looks
3. An inflected form for the present participle- Looking
4. An uninflected form for the everything else - Look
- The English possessive indicator is a remain of the old English genitive case suffix it is consider a
clitic.

ALLOMORPHS AND MORPHEMES

- Sometimes one or two morphemes which have the same meaning are in a complementary
distribution. This means that the two can never occur in precisely the same environment or
context and between them they exhaust the possible context in which the morpheme can
 appear. There are two are two morphs in English which can be characterized as indefinite article
a and an.
- A morpheme like the lexeme and the phoneme is realized in a different way. Morphemes are
abstract units (like lexemes and phonemes). Morphs which realize a particular morpheme and
which are conditioned (whether phonetically, lexically or grammatically) are allomorphs of that
morpheme.
- Every allomorph is a morph. Allomorphs are more informative than morphs.

INFLECTION AND DERIVATION

- Criteria 1: New lexeme or a form of an old lexeme. This means this criterion is not enough to
make a distinction.
- Criteria 2: Derivation may cause a change of category.
- Generally, affixes can change category.
- Criteria 3: Inflectional affixes can have regular meaning. Not all derivational affixes do have.
Difficulty is that many derivational affixes have perfectly regular meaning productive suffixation
er and - able show regular meaning.
- The suffix ette brings three different meanings when attached to a word:
1. Small kitchenette
2. Feminisan brunette
3. Material beaverette

- Inflection is productive; Derivation is semi-productive.

NOUNS

- The part of speech that is used to name a person, place or thing is a noun.
- Nouns can be simple and compound.
- Compound nouns can be:
1. Closed -written together
2. Open consist of separate words
3. Hyphened - written with a hyphen

- Common nouns- general group

- Proper nouns - capitalize in writing refer to specific entity (items).
- Concrete nouns
- Abstract nouns
- Countable
- Uncountable
- Collective nouns

- Nouns form is characterized by 3 dimensions that represent its form: number, gender, case.
- Connection between nouns and inflections is possessive case.
 ADJECTIVES

- Adjectives are important class of word and serve as the descriptors of the language. They
provide information about nouns and pronouns. Very often adjective can be named modifiers or
adjectival modifiers. They are narrowing down the qualities and properties of the nouns or
pronouns to which they refer.
- Syntactically, adjective is a word whose main syntactic rule is to modify a noun or a pronoun
because an adjective gives more information about what the noun or pronoun refers to. In
English, adjective forms are an open class of words. Adjectives are the third largest group of
words.
- Qualitative or descriptive adjectives
- Classifying adjectives
- Connection between adjectives and inflection is comparative and superlative, and infinitive of
adjectives is called absolute form.
- The inflections identify two steps in the expression of the higher degree. First step adding -er to
create the comparative form. Second step is adding est that produces the superlative form.
There is no inflection way of expressing the same or lower degree in English. These notions are
express syntactically as..as, for the same degree..(X is a big as Y) and for the lower degree less or
least..(X is less interested than Y), (Z is the least interested of a U).
- A large number of adjectives can be recognized by the presence of a suffix. Several of the most
frequent adjectival suffixes are: ese- Chinese, Portuguese, an- Republican, Parisian, ist-Socialist,
loyalist, it-socialite.

VERBS

- A verb is a word belonging to the part of speech that usually denotes an action or a state of
being. A sentence may contain a single verb or it may use a cluster of verbs which work together
as a verb phrase.
- There can be up to four auxiliary verbs, all going in front of the main verb.
- Classes of verbs that occur within a verb phrase.
- Lexical verbs, they are also called full verbs, they are those which with meaning can be clearly
and independently identified-main verbs.
- Nine modal verbs: can, could, may, might, should, shall, will, would, must, ought to, need.
- Another class is the class of primary words. They can function either as main verbs or as
auxiliary verbs. There are three: HAVE, DO and BE.
- Depending on the kind of contrast in meaning verbs can express finiteness-finite forms, the verb
can be limited in some way and this is in fact what happens when different kinds of endings are
used. The finite forms are those which limit the verbs to a particular number, tense, person or
mood ex-inflectional s form is used when the verb is limited to the 3 rd person singular, like goes,
walks.
- The non finite forms do not limit the verbs in there forms. The -ing form is used to the verb and
it refers to any number, tense, person and mood.

ADVERBS

- Adverbs are easily recognizable. Adverbs like adjectives serve to modify elements in a sentence
and they are also considered modifiers.
- Adverbs modify verbs. They provide information about manner (well, quickly, particularly), place
(outside, near, here), time (once, before, immediately), degree (very, nearly, more), number
(first, secondly, seventh).