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Energy Procedia 18 (2012) 73 84

Impact of vegetation on thermal conditions outside,

Thermal modeling of urban microclimate,
Case study: the street of the republic, Biskra.
BOUKHABLA Moufidaa, ALKAMA Djamelba*
a
LACAMOFA Laboratory, Department of Architecture University Mohamed Khidder, Biskra 07000, Algeria.
b
LACAMOFA Laboratory, Department of Architecture University Mohamed Khidder, Biskra 07000, Algeria.

Abstract

Urbanization can only grow because of population growth and ongoing population movements. Expressing interest
in urban microclimate on the thermal conditions outside is very important in this period of warming climate began.
The presence of trees leads to cooler areas in the urban environment. The parks contribute significantly to the
reduction of air temperature. Three specific effects of vegetation shade, evapotranspiration and the effect of natural
ventilation. In contrast to mineral surfaces, green spaces only store little heat and humidify the atmosphere through
evaporation important, thus greatly reducing the air temperature. Evapotranspiration is defined by the loss of water to
the atmosphere by evaporation and transpiration. The urban development projects can significantly change the image
of a neighbourhood or town. In the city, the microclimatic component can unite several actors (architect, planner,
landscape, political, developer, engineering firm,) advocating an interest in energy savings for the adjustment of
thermal conditions of the urban space and the improvement of life. These components have largely been put forward
when we discussed the relationships between vegetation and the city. Nevertheless, as we shall try to demonstrate this
aspect in the plant site (garden 5 July - checker colonial) leads us to illustrate clearly the benefits of vegetation in
urban areas. The trees act as a mask to sun and wind and as a source of control the air temperature and the
temperature of the surrounding surfaces. The effectiveness of these spaces depends on their density, shape, size and
position. Mitigation of air temperature in the presence of tree can be explained by the decrease in surface temperature
that induces a lower air temperature [1].
To know the real impact of vegetation on air temperature, thermal modeling work was necessary, was carried out
on the street of the republic located in the checker colonial, flanked on one side by the garden 5 July, and another side
by buildings, located in the center city of Biskra (Algeria) and spread over a typical summer day with a three
dimensional numerical model called "ENVI-met".
Keywords: Urban microclimate, thermal conditions, vegetation, surface temperature, thermal modeling;

* Tel.: 00213559325704; fax: 0021333741363.

boukhabla_m@yahoo.fr.

1876-6102 2012 Published by Elsevier Ltd. Selection and/or peer review under responsibility of The TerraGreen Society.
Open access under CC BY-NC-ND license. doi:10.1016/j.egypro.2012.05.019
74 Boukhabla Moufida and Alkama Djamel / Energy Procedia 18 (2012) 73 84

1. Introduction

The cities will have to prepare for climate change: fabric dense urban vegetation will reduce the
harmful effects of air warming.
In terms of protection from nuisance, the interests of vegetation are numerous: Reducing air pollution
and improving air quality by attaching some dust, decrease the effect of runoff by intercepting rainfall,
protection against erosion due to wind and water.

2. Problem

In the various reports published on the Universal Exhibition in Seville [2], a reflection on the
possibility of acting on natural or passive climatic or microclimatic characteristics of a micro-region is
presented.
The authors start from the observation that the climatic conditions of a locality have consequences on
the behavior of its inhabitants. Paved surfaces such as asphalt are hot environments because the absence
of evaporative cooling causes an increase in surface temperature. These high temperatures induce high
radiative exchanges wavelength greater than in the case of a surface plant.
Asphalt, concrete and granite are inert coatings which accumulate solar day and restituting stored heat
at night. These dark materials are real heat sinks that feed the urban heat island. In our latitudes, the trees
and green areas participates to balance the outside temperature, plants absorb water through their roots
and reject it by the leaf canopy, 1 m of plant evaporated more than 0.5 l / day. In a 24 plant of sunflowers
removes water 17 times more than a man [3].
A park is an excellent equipment to mitigate the urban heat island and refresh the air. The choice of
species is important because the quality of the shade of a tree depends on its density. Thus the foliage of a
tree can filter 60 to 90% of solar radiation and crouching vegetation also reduces the solar radiation
reflected by the ground [4]. Vegetation should be integrated with built up areas to improve the immediate
environment of each construction. Because the two main effects of vegetation are the shading effect of
solar radiation (most deciduous trees have a low transmissivity with respect to the solar radiation, between
2 and 5%) and the conservation of canopy temperatures close to that of air, between 20C-35C below the
temperatures of the surfaces of common urban materials such as asphalt, concrete blocks, etc [5]. Leafs
absorb 90% of UV and much of the IR [> 2 microns] [6].
To limit the warming of the air in an urban environment, the massive introduction of green space and
trees must be a priority. Plans for greening, planting campaigns, assistance with the creation of parks and
squares are effective measures to cool urban heat islands [7]. Cities need to anticipate this new climate.

3. Objectives

Get really quantifiable improvements microclimatic characteristics of cities in warm climate

conditions by introduction of vegetation.
Determine the impact of vegetation on the urban microclimate by using a numerical modeling
technique.

4. Methodology

When we discussed the relationships between vegetation and the city, we shall try to analyse and
illustrate clearly the benefits of vegetation in urban areas.
 Boukhabla Moufida and Alkama Djamel / Energy Procedia 18 (2012) 73 84 75

The impact of vegetation can be quantified at different levels. Indeed, the consequences of this
presence in the plant reflect microclimatic scale in terms of quantity of transmitted radiation, temperature
of the air and plant leafs, humidity of the air and wind speed. To know the real impact of vegetation on air
temperature, thermal modeling work was necessary, was carried out on the street of the republic and
spread over a typical summer day July 27th, 2009 (day included in the zone of overheating in the city of
Biskra). The climatic conditions of the site considered are subject to the arid climate. In the context of
studying the impact of vegetation on the urban microclimate, it is interesting to see a reference situation
(the current situation of the garden with vegetation). Thus, we considered the case where the garden is
without any vegetation where trees are removed (the empty situation), so as to understand the
consequences due to vegetation on the current situation.
The investigation is based on a three-dimensional model ENVI-met which simulates the microclimate
conditions in an urban environment with high spatial resolution of 0.5 to 10 m and temporal 10sec. It is a
3D simulation model developed for numerical modeling of urban microclimate and again the majority of
atmospheric processes that affect the microclimate. To define the height and the shape of a plant, the
model uses standard normalized functions (Leaf area density profile LAD, Root area density profile RAD)
which can be applied for grassy surface as well as for huge trees. The gas and heat exchange between the
vegetation and the atmosphere is controlled by the local energy balance steering the leaf temperature and
by the stomata conductance controlling the gas exchange (vapor and CO2).
The actual stomata conductance of a plant is a complex function depending on external meteorological
conditions (air temperature, available solar radiation and many others) as well as on the plants
physiological processes (Photosynthesis rate, CO2 demand, CO2 fixation...). ENVI-met uses a
sophisticated model to simulate the stomata behavior of the vegetation.

5. Analysis of simulated site:

5.1. Presentation of the site which was simulated:

The city of Biskra is situated in the south-eastern Algeria, and from the classification given by
(Architectural Recommendations, 1993), and climatic zones in summer and winter climatic zones, the city
of Biskra is characterized by:
A hot and dry summer the diurnal temperature difference is important.
A very cold winter night compared with day with an important temperature difference between day
and night.
And according to the distribution of climatic zones in Algeria established by [8] Biskra belongs to the
zone D which shows the pre-Sahara and Sahara, as determined by the average maximum temperature
reaches 45C and between (20C - 30C) in winter seasonal variation of 20C. Under the effect of latitude
winters are becoming colder.
Field of study that we used is the street of the republic located in checker colonial Biskra (Algeria).
The simulated climatic conditions are chosen for this street which is shaped dihedral H = 0.5 W (where H:
height of the buildings defining the street, W: width of the street) [9]. Both sides of the street are different:
one side building 9m high and another side a band of dense trees 14m high, forming a public garden
surface is 37,772 m2 (3H 77Are 72Ca), street width is 8m. The orientation of the street is North West
South East. (Fig. 1).
76 Boukhabla Moufida and Alkama Djamel / Energy Procedia 18 (2012) 73 84

Fig. 1. (a) The Street of the republic oriented North West South East; (b) View of the street of the republic. Source:
Author.

5.2. Justification for the choice of case studies

This choice of case of study is due to the fact that space is characterized by the presence of vegetation
led to a garden occupy more and more important over the years. In addition, equipments located at the
ground floor, and the communication path (street of the republic) to the center of the city require a
crossing or stopping in this place where need a quality exterior space. Thus, it seemed interesting to
analyze the changes induced by the vegetation found in the garden in terms of urban microclimate.

5.3. The effects of vegetation

In analyzing the consequences of vegetation, shaded areas on the street are more numerous, the solar
therefore will be greatly reduced by this filter plant. Surface temperatures will also decrease leading to a
mitigation of air temperatures. Finally, the last point of particular interest concerns the thermal conditions
in urban areas resulting from changes in microclimate. Mature trees enhance the freshness of their ability
to evapotranspiration and the surface of shade created. Indeed, a mature tree can lose up to 450liters of
water per day through evapotranspiration, [10, 11]. Thus, Lablokoff said a fixed shaft 10 times more dust
than a lawn area projected along the ground and 30 to 60 times more than the same tarmac.
In the context of studying the impact of vegetation on the urban microclimate, it is interesting to see a
reference situation (the current state of the garden with vegetation) (Fig. 2). So to understand the
consequences due to vegetation on the current situation, we consider the empty situation (where the
garden is without any vegetation) (Fig. 3)
 Boukhabla Moufida and Alkama Djamel / Energy Procedia 18 (2012) 73 84 77

Fig. 2. Cross the street with these limits: the garden and buildings in the current situation. Source: Author.

Fig.3. Cross the street with these limits: the garden and buildings in the empty situation. Source: Author.

5.4. The characteristics of the climatic environment of the city When the simulation

Geographic information useful for simulations are the latitude is 34 48 ' North and longitude, which is
5 44' East. The altitude of 88meters above sea level May cloudy sky, the wind speed varies between
2.1m/s and 3m/s, the sunshine duration is about 7 h 18 min with an average evaporation of about 13.5mm
and average relative humidity reaches 24%. The climatic conditions of the site considered are subject to
the arid climate. The situations of interest correspond to the warm days under the conditions typical of
summer July 27th, 2009 (day included in the zone of overheating in the city of Biskra [12].

6. Results and Discussion, Impact of vegetation

The investigation is based on a three-dimensional model ENVI-met which simulates the microclimate
conditions in an urban environment. It is a 3D simulation model developed for numerical modeling of
urban microclimate and again the majority of atmospheric processes that affect the microclimate [13].
The impact of vegetation can be quantified at different levels. Indeed, the consequences of this presence in
the plant reflect microclimatic scale in terms of: quantity of transmitted radiation, air temperature, leaf
temperature, humidity of the air and wind speed.
78 Boukhabla Moufida and Alkama Djamel / Energy Procedia 18 (2012) 73 84

Fig. 4. 2D view of the street and these limits: garden and buildings. Current situation left, empty situation right,
Designed in a file.In. Source: ENVI-met3.

Figure 5: 3D view of the street and these limits: garden and buildings.
Current situation left, empty situation right,
Designed in a file.In. Source: Leonardo3.
 Boukhabla Moufida and Alkama Djamel / Energy Procedia 18 (2012) 73 84 79

6.1. The transmitted radiation

The calculation of direct and diffuse solar flux and global radiation in the empty situation (without
vegetation) and the current situation (with vegetation) in a condition of clear sky is possible for the period
of study (Fig. 6). The period between 9h: 00 and 18h: 00, indicates the hours with the highest direct and
diffuse solar flux throughout the simulation period.

1200
1200

1000
1000
Radiation (w/m2)

Radiation (w/m2)
800
800

600 600

400 400

200 200

0 0
5 9 14 18 22 5 9 14 18 22
direct ra dia tion di rect ra di a ti on
diffus e ra dia ti on Hour di ffus e ra di a ti on Hour
globa l ra di a tion gl oba l ra dia tion

Fig. 6. (a) Incident solar flux transmitted the empty situation; (b) Incident solar flux transmitted the current situation.
Source: ENVI-met3. Read by Leonardo3.

The global radiation values obtained by simulation we allow then to establish the following graph:

1200
R a dia tion (w /m 2)

1000

800

600

400

200

0
5 9 14 18 22
global radiation (empty)
Hour
global radiation (current)

Fig. 7. Incident solar flux transmitted, both empty and current situations. Source: ENVI-met3. Read by Leonardo3.

The densification of the vegetation causing profound changes regarding the incident solar radiation
transmitted to the street level and especially next to the garden. The differences in global radiation are
80 Boukhabla Moufida and Alkama Djamel / Energy Procedia 18 (2012) 73 84

high between the situation without vegetation and the current situation (with vegetation); the incident
solar flux transmitted into the empty situation is very high compared to the current situation. In the empty
situation the incident solar flux transmitted may exceed 800 W/m2 compared with the current situation (at
9h: 00). Direct action due to the shade of trees results in a decrease in surface temperature, an indirect
effect of district cooling can occur while increasing vegetation cover [14]. We can also see in both
situations, overall radiations are almost equals at 14h: 00 (1091.73 w/m 2) influenced by the sun azimuth
during the summer and the temperature of the warmest day so the whole street becomes sunny in the
empty situation (without vegetation) and in the current situation (with vegetation). The impact of trees on
the microclimate is one that causes the greatest impact on characterization of thermal conditions in outside
space. Indeed, and according to the simulation, the calculations show that: global radiation in the empty
situation is about 1000 W/m2 at 11h: 00. Global radiation in the current situation is about 600 W/m2 at
11h: 00. Similarly, the global radiation in the empty situation is much higher than that of the current
situation at 15h: 00 (900 W/m2 against 600 W/m2). The vegetation keeps soil cooler and avoids direct,
diffuse and reflected sunlight that may affect the cool buildings [15].

6.2. Air temperature

We traced the evolution of air temperature in the empty and the current situation and at the surface of
leafs throughout the period covered. Variations in air temperature between the empty situation (without
vegetation) and the current situation (with vegetation) indicate that there is a maximum deviation between
the two air temperatures equal to 6.57C (at 14h: 00) (Fig. 8). The average maximum temperature of air is
1.92C recorded at 5h: 00. The average minimum temperature of air is 5.04C recorded at 22h: 00. The
leaf temperature is lower than the air temperature; the difference between the two temperatures is high:
1.89C at 5h: 00 and 1.88C at 22h: 00.The temperature of the leafs in ENVI-met model is calculated by
solving the energy balance of the leaf surface with respect to the actual meteorological and plant
physiological conditions. Turbulent fluxes of heat and vapor are calculated from the given wind field and
the geometry of the plant. The calculation of radiative fluxes includes the shading, absorption and
shielding of radiation as well as the re-radiation from other plant layers.
A study was conducted in the city of Gothenburg from June to September 1997 [16], the difference in
temperature between the surroundings and the park reached a maximum of 4.7C, the average gap is about
3C. The tree representing a heat sink while maintaining a temperature which heats up very little
compared to other surfaces exposed to solar gain. According to [17], the contribution of vegetation in
urban environments low vegetated offers significant gains freshness. Also, a row of trees decreases the
temperature of the surrounding air by 1C.
The simulation shows that the air temperature at 11h: 00 is about 39C in the empty situation, 33C in
the current situation and 30C in the leaves of plants. Also, reading graphs shows that the air temperature
in the empty situation: 40C is significantly higher than the air temperature in the current situation:
33.5C, the leaf temperature is about 31.5C.
 Boukhabla Moufida and Alkama Djamel / Energy Procedia 18 (2012) 73 84 81

43
41
39

Tem perature (C)

37
35
33
31
29
27
25
5 9 14 18 22
air temperature (empty)
air temperature (current)
leafs temperature Hour

Fig. 8. Temperature of air, both empty and current situations. Source: ENVI-met3. Read by Leonardo3.

6.3. Humidity

The 5 July garden is dense space. Water in the soil and in the evaporation surface helps to fresh the air
[18]. Thus, vegetation, leaf transpiration, contributes to evapotranspiration and thus the refreshing air. The
evapotranspiration of a tree can reach up to 400liters per day, which represents a cooling effect equivalent
to 5 units for 20 hours means hot and dry climate [19].
In our study, the absolute humidity in the current situation is greater than the empty situation. (Fig. 9)
There is a difference of 0.4g/kg at 5h: 00 between the current situation and the empty situation while this
difference is 0.19g/kg at 14h: 00 and 0.29g/kg at 22h: 00. According to the graph, absolute humidity
varies between 1.19g/kg and 1.21g/kg with an average of 1.20g/kg in the empty situation, however, varies
between 1.59g/kg and 1.5g/kg with an average of 1.53g/ kg in the current situation. The graph shows that
the most important value was measured at 09h: 00 (1.75g/kg), which marks the peak of the curve due
mainly to the effect of evapotranspiration of vegetation; the air temperature at this time is equal to 30.2C.
The thermal environment expressed by the air temperature and absolute humidity, shows considerable
variability. The current situation presents values of absolute humidity very high compared to the empty
situation, the latter provides higher air temperatures. It may be noted an inverse correlation between the
values of absolute humidity and the values of air temperature which means that an increase in air
temperature causes a decrease of the absolute humidity and vice versa.
It should be noted that the absolute humidity remains constant: 1.2g/kg between 14h: 00 and 18h: 00 in
the empty situation, while the latter goes from 1.4g/kg at 14h: 00 to 1.45g/kg at 18h: 00 in the current
situation).
According to [20], it is recommended to minimize the surface soil mineralized by increasing vegetative
cover to minimize the reflectivity, which increases the ambient temperature, this increase the relative
humidity, which remains an important factor in the natural cooling of the urban environment.
82 Boukhabla Moufida and Alkama Djamel / Energy Procedia 18 (2012) 73 84

2,2

Humidity of the air (g/kg)

1,8

1,6

1,4

1,2

1
5 9 14 18 22
Humi di ty of the a i r (empty) Hour
Humi di ty of the a i r (current)

Fig. 9. The humidity of the air, both empty and current situations. Source: ENVI-met3. Read by Leonardo3.

6.4. The wind speed

The wind speed in the current situation is much lower than in the empty situation. It may be
noteworthy that in the current situation the wind speed reductions are observed when vegetation appears,
because the street is oriented north west - south east opposites the prevailing wind direction which comes
from the North West. Other factors may help the spread of freshness created by vegetation, including
wind: a large park located in an urban center upstream of the prevailing winds direction [21, 22].
In our study we recorded a value of 2.06m/s at 14h: 00 in the empty situation compared to the current
situation where there was a value of 1.3m/s. (Fig. 10).

2,2
2,1
2
1,9
wind speed (m /s)

1,8
1,7
1,6
1,5
1,4
1,3
1,2
5 9 14 18 22
wind speed (empty)
wind speed (current) Hour

Fig. 10. The wind speed, both empty and current situations. Source: ENVI-met3. Read by Leonardo3.
 Boukhabla Moufida and Alkama Djamel / Energy Procedia 18 (2012) 73 84 83

7. Conclusion

By altering the vegetation cover and climatic factors in modeling, simulations show us ways in which
the thermal conditions of cities can be improved. Seen from the results of this study, the air temperature in
the empty situation (without vegetation) changes significantly by contributing to the air temperature in the
current situation with a maximum deviation between two temperatures of air equal to 6.57C (at 14h: 00).
The existence of this result is followed by several parameters influencing directly the urban microclimate:
The wind speed in the current situation is less than that of the empty situation, there was a value of
2.06m/s in the empty situation compared with the current situation where there was a value of 1.3m/s at
14h: 00. The absolute humidity in the current situation is greater than the empty situation there is a
difference of 0.4g/kg at 5h: 00.
Trees exhibit large leaf transpiration and provide shade to protect from direct and diffuse sunlight. The
incident solar flux transmitted in the empty situation is very high compared to the current situation. In the
empty situation the solar flux transmitted may exceed 800 W/m2 compared with the current situation at
9h: 00.
Daytime urban parks are much cooler than the rest of the city. The vegetation is a key component of
the quality of outside spaces. Indeed, vegetation helps cool the air. With the few lakes in the city, green
spaces are the only evaporation surface in the city.

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