Forestry 1A

21/09/2019 Forestry 1A
SILVICULTURE
Silviculture Silvics
Branch of Forestry which deals with

establishment, development, care and Study of life history and general
reproduction of stands of timber. characteristics of forest trees and crops with
Science dealing with both theory and practice particular reference to environmental
Broader term factors as the basis for practice of
Deals with the procedure of obtaining NR silviculture
under various systems and methods of tending Basic theory upon which silviculture stands
of young crops Part of silviculture
Application of Silvics Deals with the study of trees and forests as
Silviculture has specific relation to other biological units, laws governing the growth
disciplines like forestry, forest management, and effect of environment on vegetation
forest protection, forest utilisation and forest Principle for silviculture
economics.
Objective of Silviculture
Production of higher volume per unit area

Production of superior quality timber
Production of economically valuable species
Educing the rotation of species
Afforestation (Planting trees on lands that were previously not forest) and Reforestation (planting trees
on lands that were previously forest)
Introduction of Exotics
What is a plant?
Plant is defined as any of the various photosynthetic, eukaryotic, multicellular organisms of the kingdom
Plantae. They characteristically possess Chloroplasts and lack the power of locomotion.
Herb: Stem is always green and tender and not more than 1m in height
Shrub: Persistent and Woody stem, Low stature, branching
Tree: Large, woody, perennial plant having a single well defined stem and more or less definite crown.
Climbers: Plants which had special structures to climb on supports. Includes both twiners and creepers
Twiners: Grow spirally around another plant and do not possess tendrils, rootlets, shoots or
thorn. e.g. Echites, Chonemorpha, Clerodendron
Creepers: Cannot grow vertically on their own. e.g. Morning Glory
Tree Development: Development of tree starts from germination of seeds upto harvest.
Seedling: Plant grown from seed till it reaches about 1m in height.

Sapling: Young tree from the time when the rate of height growth begins to slow down and crown
expansion becomes marked
Tree: Well defined single pole and is more than 6m in height
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Leaf Green, flattened, lateral structure attached to a stem

Principal organ of Photosynthesis and Transpiration in plants.
Leaf colour of plants varies with species and also under different conditions.
Autumn Tint: Colour change before leaf fall.
Evergreen plants: Perennial plants that are never entirely out of green foliage. Old
leaves persist till new leaves appear. e.g. Cedrus deodara, Hopea parviflora, Mallotus
phillipensis
Deciduous plants: Perennial plants with a distinct leafless period for some part of the
year. e.g. Bombax ceiba, Melia azadirachta
Principal axis of plant from which buds and shoots are developed.
Bole: Lower part of stem upto a point where the main branches are given off.
Taper: Stem diameter decreases from base to upwards. Stem with least taper and
Stem
almost cylindrical in shape is most desirable.
Fluting: Irregular swellings and involutions on the stem. Reduces utility and value of
timber.
Upper branchy part of the tree above the Bole.

Crown development refers to the expansion of the crown referred to as crown length
and crown width.
Crown of the tree is differentiated based on their shape and size.
Cylindrical crown: Cocus, Borrassus
Conical: Conifers
Spherical: Mango, Neem
Broad and Flat Topped: Albizzia stipulata
Based on crown, trees in forests are classified as
Dominant Trees: Trees of the upper most canopy. (Class I, abb-D)

Pre-Dominant Trees (abb D1): Tallest trees which are free from competition
Co-dominant Trees (abb D2): 5/6 of the height of pre-dominant trees.
Ia: Trees with normal crown development and good stem form
Crown Ib: Trees with defective stem or crown
Ic: Trees with very defective stem or crown
Id: Trees with very thin bole and very constricted crown
Dominated Trees: Trees with height 3/4 height of the tallest tree (Class II, abb-d)
Ia: Trees with normal crown development with good stem form
Ib: Trees with defective crown or stem with good stem form
Suppressed Trees (Class III, abb-s)
Trees with 1/2 to 5/8 of the height of the height of the tallest trees. The leading
shoots of these trees are over topped by their neighbours.
Dead and Moribund Trees (Class IV, abb-m)
Bent over or badly leaning trees.
Diseased Trees (Class V, abb-k)
Includes trees that are infected with parasites and hence, growth is seriously
affected.
Va: Dominant Trees
Vb: Dominated and Suppressed Trees
Branch
Secondary stem growing from the main stem of a tree or another plant.
Branching habits differ with species.
Whorl branching: Bombax ceiba
Acute angle with main stem: Populus nigra

Horizontal branching: Deodar
Downward dropping: Anogeissus pendula
Typically organ of the plant body that lies below the surface of the soil
Root system contains primary root, secondary root, lateral roots. Lateral roots are more
fibrous in nature and forms diffused branches in all direction
Types of Roots
Adventitious roots: Arise from stem, branches, leaves, old woody roots. e.g. Salix
Aerating roots: Roots raised above the ground, e.g. Avicennia, Sonneratia
Root Aerial roots: Found entirely above the ground. They function as prop roots or as the
trunk. e.g. Ficus
Haustorial roots: Roots of parasitic plants that can absorb water and nutrients from
another plant. e.g. Viscum album (Mistletoe)
Stilt Roots: Adventitious support roots that grow down from lateral branches. It is
common among mangrove species.
Storage Roots: Modified roots for storage of food or water, such as carrots and beets.
Include some taproots and tuberous roots.
Buttresses: Outgrowths formed usually vertically above the lateral growths
Outer most layer of stem and root of woody plants.

Consists of inner bark and outer bark.
Bark
Inner bark is a living tissue which includes the inner most area of the periderm
Outer bark refers to the dead tissues on the surface of the stems.
PLANT PROPAGATION
Sexual Propagation
Method of plant propagation in which plants are propagated by means of seed.
Advantages
Plants obtained from seeds are longer lived compared to asexually propagated plants.
Develop deep root systems, hence hardy in nature
Better than parent plants
In case of polyembryony, more than one seedling is obtained from a single seed
Hybrid vigour can be successfully utilised in many breeding programs.
Disadvantages
Plants obtained are not true to type plants. i.e. differ from the parent plants
Seedlings take long juvenile period
Establishment of plants takes longer time
Seeds lose viability in a short period
Aerial Seeding

Aerial seeding is the process of dispersing the seed aerially.

e.g. Prosopis juliflora, Dalbergia sisoo, Acacia nilotica
Sites for Aerial Seeding
Remote and inaccessible areas

Rugged areas
Regions of labour scarcity and sparse population
Deep ravines where afforestation is not possible in the manual mode
Financial constraints
Areas denuded by clear cutting or shifting cultivation
Areas devastated by pests and diseases, volcanos, earth quakes and landslides
Choice of species for aerial seeding
Smaller to medium sized seed

Seed should be available in large quantity
Frequent and prolific seed availability is essential
Seed should have the ability to germinate in rough soil surface
Rapid germination and fast seedling growth is desirable (as it reduces grazing injury)
Ability to withstand extreme temperature and prolonged dry periods
Seed should be hard enough to withstand the impact of falling from a height
Should be non palatable so that they are not eaten by birds, squirrels and insects (coated with chemicals
and treated with fungicides prior to Aerial seeding).
Tolerate a wide range of soil conditions
Seed handling must be possible with mechanical devices (Latex is used as a binder in coating of seeds.
Aluminium powder is used as a lubricant to prevent seed from sticking as they pass through the
machines)
Advantages Disadvantages
Needs large amount of seeds, as germination percentage is

low
Involves large wastage of seeds
Results are unpredictable
Less expensive than the manual
Establishment of plant population is uneven, which makes
seeding
further management a difficult task
Large area can be covered in a
Density and spacing of trees cannot be worked out in
short span of time
aerial seeding
Avoids raising of seedlings
Grassy sites are not suitable as it obstructs the seeds from
Distribution of seed is uniform
reaching ground
Most efficient methods to cover
Hard surface, presence of surface crust, stoniness and
inaccessible areas
weeds decreases establishment
Labour requirement is less
Where intensity of monsoons is high, seeds get washed
away
Predate upon by animals
Washing away of seeds by monsoon rainfall
Examples of Aerial Seeding
Chambal ravines in UP, Rajasthan, West Bengal, Western Ghats of MH

Survival: 97% for Prosopis juliflora and 3% for Acacia nilotica
25% of area did not respond to aerial seeding at all

Asexual Propagation
Refers to the multiplication or perpetuation of plants from any vegetative parts other than seed.
Only possibility when plants are not producing seeds

In some cases, certain root stocks have tolerance to salinity, pest and disease. This can be exploited
using asexual propagation
Short stature: facilitates pruning, spraying and harvesting operations
Plants obtained are true to type nature and hence, uniform.
Relatively easy and cheap
Propagation of plants by use of detained vegetative parts which grow when placed
under conditions favourable for rejuvenation.
Cutting is defined as any vegetative plant part when detained from the plant is
capable of regenerating the missing organs
Types of Cuttings
Root Cutting: Root cuttings of 10-15cm are taken from plant and planted
horizontally. This gives seedlings
Stem Cutting
Herbaceous Cutting: Plant parts of herbaceous succulent plants are sued as
cutting. Produces roots easily in quick and short times. e.g. Germanium,
Chrysanthemum, Coleus
Leaf Cutting: Mostly in herbaceous plants. e.g. Bryophyllum
Leaf Bud Cutting: Leaf blade, petioles, short piece of the auxiliary bud. e.g.
Rhododendron
Factors affecting cuttage
Cutting
Internal Factors
Food Supply: High carbohydrate and low nitrogen contents favours rooting.
Sex of Plant: Varies from species to species. e.g. in Maple, male cuttings
give better rooting
Age of Root Stock: Aged root stock reduces the possibility of rooting
Time of collection: Varies across species. e.g. in Evergreen species, cutting
taken in spring gives best rooting
Presence of leaves: enhances evaporation and water loss, and as the cutting
has no roots, it reduces success of rooting
Treatment of Cutting: With growth regulators, enhances rooting
Wounding of Cutting: Increases rooting in Magnolia and Rhododendron
External Factors
Moisture retention: Moisture retention is important especially for
herbaceous cuttings.
Humidity: Humidity reduces evapo-transpirational loss from cuttings and
keeps the cutting moist and avoids drying
Temperature: Ambient air temperature is 21-27°C. Higher temperature
leads to more moisture loss
Light: Optimum sunlight both in terms of duration and quality for sufficient
photosynthesis
Rooting Media: Soil, peat, vermiculite, sand etc.
Layering
Development of roots on stems while it is attached to the parent plant.

To develop roots from a living stem, girdling or a small incision is made on the
bark. This restricts downward flow of metabolites, carbohydrates and hormones at
this point. Hence, roots are encouraged to be formed at this point. Branches with
rooting are removed for eventual planting out
Limitations
Limited to certain plants only

Suitable to plants that produce low lying branches
Number of plants produced is less
After care of plants is crucial
Ground Layering
Simple Layering:
Stems are wounded and partly buried below the soil and top of the branches
should be in air.
One single plant is obtained from the single branch — limits large scale
plant propagation
Serpentine or Compound Layering:
Same branch is buried under different portions. e.g. Clematis
Multiple plants are obtained from a single branch
Trench Layering
Multiple new shoots from along the length of the buried branch
Also known as etiolation layering
When rooted, the shoots can be detached from the parent plant and planted out.
Tip Layering
Small hole several inches deep is dug out, and the current season’s shoot is
inserted.
The tip turns and grows upwards, while the bend of the stem that stays in the soil
will grow roots.
Mound Layering
Useful for heavy stemmed, closely branched shrubs and rootstocks of tree fruits.
Cut the plant back to 1 inch above the soil surface in the dormant season. Dormant
buds will produce new shoots in spring
Mound soil over the new shoots as they grow. Roots will develop at the bases of
the new shoots.
e.g. Apple, Magnolia
Air Layering

Also called Goottee or Marcottage

Roots are produced from aerial stem, where the stem has severed at an upward
angle.
2.5 to 3 cm of bark is girdled. The injured portion is covered with a moist rooting
medium like sphagnum moss or vermiculite.
Layered part is sprayed with water at sufficient intervals
After emergence of roots, below portion is girdled by a half cut. Improves the
seedling by encouraging more root development.

Grafting
Process of inserting a part of one plant in to another in such a way that an union
will take place and the combination will continue to grow as a single plant
Part of the graft which forms the upper portion is called the scion, lower portion is
called the stock
Most suitable for repairing damage to trees
Seedling Root Stock — root stock plants are developed from seed origin. As seeds
have different genetic constitution, it will produce irregular rootstocks. e.g. Plum,
Mango
Clonal Root Stock — Obtained from vegetative sources of single parent. e.g.
Citrus fruits, Mango
Factors for successful graft
Rootstock and scion should be closely related for better compatibility

Timing of grafting: Winter or early spring is most suitable. Fore evergreen species,
an active growth season is most suitable
Rootstock and scion should be of the same thickness. Scion and stock must be tied
well.
Age and genetic nature of root stock.

Temperature, wind, humidity
Approach Grafting (Inarching)
Scion is attached to mother tree itself. Side branches of similar thickness are
severed and joined together.
Tied, pasted with cow dung, growth hormones are applied, moisture spray
Half cut above and below the cut portion after 6-8 weeks as it improves hardening
of the plants.
Full cut after 10 days, and the plants are separated.
Side Grafting (Veneer Grafting)
Terminal shoot of past season growth is used as a scion. Lower leaves and petioles
are removed except for top 10cm.
Both scion and stock are cut above the grafting point after the scion reaches about
7 to 10 cm.
Whip or Splice grafting
Tongue shaped cut in both scion and rootstock.

Enhances grip between scion and stock.

Strong, healthy seedlings in short time. e.g. Apple
Cleft Grafting
Scion is made like a wedge and root stock is splitted to insert the scion.
Root stock is much thicker than scion
Budding
Inserting a bud on the rootstock in a manner that both will unite and continue to
grow as a single plant.
Parent tree from which bud is taken is called bud wood. Bud wood should be
mature
Parent tree should be defoliated 10-15 days in advance to activate the buds, which
gives better establishment.
Methods of Budding
Shield or T budding: T or inverted T incision is made on the rootstock. Scion of

similar shape is inserted by raising the bark of the root stock. e.g. Orange, Rose
Patch budding: Rectangular sized bark is removed and similar sized scion is
inserted. e.g. Citrus, Mango, Rubber

Flap or Forked Budding: Transverse incision is made in the rootstock and bark
peeled for 5cm sq. Scion is pushed under the flap. Flap is cut in half and brought to
cover the bud shield partially and then wrapped.
Ring Budding: Two circular cuts are made one above the other (3cm apart) and
one vertical cut is made connecting these two rings. The ring is removed and a
scion of corresponding size is placed. e.g. Chinchona
Rhizome: Specialised stem structure on which main axis of the plant grows
horizontally at or just below ground level. e.g Bamboo, Ginger
Offset: Lateral shoots or branch which develops from the main stem and is
characterised by shortened and thickened stem. e.g. Pineapple
Sucker: Shoots that arise from an adventitious bud or roots of a plant at below
ground. e.g. Dalbergia sisoo
Special Plant
Bulb: Specialised underground organ consisting of a short, fleshy vertical stem
Parts
axis bearing a growing point at its apex. e.g Onion
Corm: Swollen base of a stem axis, enclosed by dry, scale-like leaves. Solid stem
structure with distinct nodes and internodes. e.g. Gladiolus
Tuber: Modified stem which develops below ground. e.g. Potato
Runner: Specialised stem which develops from the axis of a leaf at the crown. e.g.
Mentha
Micro
Propagation Development of new plants from very small pieces of plants in an artificial
medium under aseptic conditions.
Procedure
Collection of Explants
Surface sterilisation of explants
Inoculation of explants in specific growth medium
Sub culturing the callus growth

Hardening
Applications
Rapid multiplication of plants

Production of disease free plants
Inoculation of mutants
Production of haploid plants
NURSERY
Nursery is defined as an area where plants are raised for eventual planting out
Nursery beds are classified into seedling beds and transplant beds
Need for nurseries
Meet afforestation needs for increasing forest and vegetative cover

Meet demands of reforestation works
Meet growing demands of industrial wood through captive plantations
Provide seedlings for avenue, railway and road side plantings
Meet farm and social forestry needs
Based on duration of Nursery — Temporary/Permanent Nursery (based on demand and supply of nursery
stock, cost, infrastructure and staff)
Based on availability of water source — Dry/Wet Nursery (Dry nursery depends on rainfall as a water source,
hence seedlings are largely produced during the monsoon)
Site Selection for Nursery
Central place with easy accessibility from forest

Free from permanent shade
Good drainage facilities
Gentle slope
Size should be according to seedling demands and needs
Well drained, sandy loam soil is preferable. Heavy soils are avoided
Nursery site should have a good source of water
Adequate labour should be available
Free from floods, frost and wind
0.25 ha area is considered wherein 1.25 lakh seedlings can be raised. The size may be increased as per
capacity and demand for planting material.
Seedlings are established in mother beds or containers like poly bags or pots
Seedlings can be established from seeds or vegetative means like cutting, grafting, budding, layering.
Pre treatment measures
Tough seed coat — soak in hot water, acid scarification using H2SO4
Fibrous or hard shell — Alternate water soaking or shade drying
Seeds with high lipids — Avoid delayed sowing

Inhibiting chemicals — Soaking in cold water and leaching
Immature embryo — Cold or hot stratification
Seeds are treated with pesticides to prevent eating of seeds by birds as well as rodents.
Seeds are hardened by treating with salt solutions of different concentrations.
Biofertiliser treatment enhances nutrient availability during growth
Sowing
After treatments, seeds are sown in the mother bed.

Appropriate time for sowing varies from species to species
Sowing is ideally done early in the morning or late in evening
Beds and containers should be water before sowing.
Seeds are sown shallow rather than deep
Methods of sowing
Broadcasting: Seeds are scattered uniformly all over the area. Suitable for small sized and light weight
seeds. e.g. Eucalyptus, Casuarina
Line Sowing: Seeds are sown within lines which are set out beforehand.
Strip Sowing: In narrow strips at definite intervals. Strips can vary in width. The portion of the strip is
worked well and exposed to the sun for a certain time.
Patch Sowing: Sowing a number of seeds in specially prepared patches, spaced at definite intervals
Dibbling:
Steps in maintaining a nursery
Fencing
Lay out
Pre-germination of seeds of species with slow or irregular germination
Sowing of seeds
Use of repellent and application of insecticides
Covering the seed beds
Weeding
Shading against sun, frost, rain, hail
Irrigation by atomiser, water can, percolation, flooding, sprinkler
Planting out
Media for propagation of nursery plants: soil, sand, vermiculite, peat and sphagnum moss.
Should be firm and dense

Must retina sufficient moisture
Sufficient porosity for root ration
Free from pathogens and weed seeds
Nursery Bed
Nursery bed is a specially prepared portion of land put aside for raising seedlings.
Temporary home for young plants until they are eventually planted out.
Standard size is 12m x 1.2m.
Sown on raised nursery bed or sunken beds: 10 cm layer of sandy loam, overlaid by a 3 cm thick layer
of saw dust.
Site chosen for the seed bed should be flat and near a permanent water source.
The beds should be protected from heavy rain and direct sunlight (heavy rain would churn up seed beds
and expose the seeds).
Hardening of Seedlings
Shade to seedlings is gradually removed.

Watering schedule is altered in such a manner that quantum of water is reduced sequentially
Hardens the young seedlings and improves its adaptability under drought conditions in the field
Importance of Nursery
Artificial regeneration of barren sites

Raise fast growing, short rotation crops
Some important species do not seed every year. Seeds are collected and sown in nurseries.
Slow growing species are raised in nurseries and planted out, because they might not survive if they are
directly planted
Best method for introduction of exotics
Replacement of casualties by nursery grown plants or stumps
Community nurseries are developed to preserve local flora, plant shelter belts and serve as a
community exercise to conserve biodiversity.
Patterns of Planting
Planting in straight lines.

Specific distance between the lines.
Line Planting
Planting in a square.
Distance between plants in a line = Distance between lines
Square Planting
Triangular

Plants on the corners of an equilateral triangle
Planting in a group of 5 points, 4 of which are corners of a square and

Quincunx
one at the centre.
Nurse Crop: Defined as a crop grown to foster the growth of important tree crop in its early stages. It
protects the seedlings and saplings from frost. In addition to that, it gives required shade in case of shade
loving plants.
Cover Crop: Subsidiary crop of low plants introduced in a plantation to provide soil cover between or below
the main crop. Reduces the soil erosion and conserves the soil from soil deterioration
Underplanting: Sowing or planting under an existing stand. Protects the soil against deterioration, helps
propagation of shade living species, increases number of valuable species in forests like Deciduous forests
FOREST CLASSIFICATION
Forest is defined as a plant community pre-dominantly of trees and other woody vegetation, usually with a
closed canopy.
Legally, it an an area protected by forest laws. Such areas are set aside for production of timber and forest
produce.
Types of tree species
Principal species: highest in volume/value

Accessory species: lesser in importance than principal species
Auxiliary species: species of lesser value.
Stand: Aggregation of trees occupying a specific area sufficiently uniform in composition, age, arrangement
and distinguishable from the adjoining forests. Hence, forest designates aggregation of different stands.
Physiognomy - General appearance of a forest community, rough differentiation into very broad classes
Dominant growth form - Tree, Shrub, Grasses

Seasonal Changes - Evergreen and Deciduous
Structure - Based on height and spacing
Function - Most common morphological character of the species. e.g buttress roots, stilt roots
Floristics
Why classify forests?

Study and characterise different forest types

Develop suitable silvicultural management techniques for different forests
Avoid wastage of resources and save money by avoiding failure.
System for Classification
Considers vegetation presence, structure, composition, dynamics

Botanical
Foseberg and Webb classification of forests
Based on temperature in association with or without other factors

Climatic
Schimper classification, Koppen, Paterson, Thornwaite
Climate and vegetation

Ecological Most widely accepted
Champion and Seth
Basis for Classification
Even aged forest or regular forest - difference upto 25% if rotation is more than
100 years
Age
Uneven aged forest or irregular forest - difference more than 25% in case of long
rotation and 20% in case of short rotation
Normal Forest - Normal age gradation, growing stock, increment. Sustained

yield and most ideal one. No virgin forests are normal forests
Growing Stock
Abnormal Forest - Do not have normal age gradation, growing stock, increment.
Irregular yield and not ideal.
High Forest - Regeneration from seeds

Regeneration
Coppice Forests - Regeneration from coppices
Pure Stands - Proportion of one single main species is over 80%

Species
Mixed Forest - 2 or more species in a story, atleast the canopy of one species
composition
must be more than 20%
Object of
management Production Forest - Managed primarily for its produce. Also called National
Forest - maintained and managed to meet the needs of defence, communication,
industry and other general purposes of public importance
Protection Forest - Area wholly or partly covered with woody growth managed
primarily to regulate stream flow, prevent erosion, hold shifting sand etc.
Fuel Forest - Raised on village wasteland to provide fuel, small time, folder etc
to the village communities living far away from government forest
Farm Forest - Raised on farms and its joining area, either as individual scattered
trees or collection of trees to meet the requirement of fuel and fodder of the
farmers and have a beneficial influence on agriculture

Recreational Forest - Only to meet recreational needs of urban and rural

population and provide eco-tourism
State Forest
Private Forest
Ownership
Community Forest
Panchayat Forest
Reserve Forest - So constituted under Indian Forest Act, 1927 or other law
Protected Forest - Subjected to limited degree of protection under Indian Forest
Legal Act, 1927
Village Forest - State forest assigned to a village community under Indian Forest
Act, 1927
Champion and Seth Classification

Tropical Wet Evergreen Forest
Dipterocarpus, Mesua,
27°C Maharashtra, Kerala,
Southern Tropical Hopea, Mangifera, Canes,
1A 200 to 300 Karnataka, Andamans
Wet Evergreen Bamboo, Orchids,
cm
Strobilanthes
Andaman and Western

1A/C1 Giant Evergreen
Ghats
Andaman Tropical
1A/C2
Evergreen
Southern Hilltop
1A/C3 Andaman and WG
Tropical Evergreen
West Coast
1A/C4 Tropical Western Ghats
Evergreen
22-26°C Dipterocarpus, Shorea,

Northern Tropical NE India, West Bengal,
1B 250 to 640 Bambusa, Vatica,
Wet Evergreen Assam
cm Garcinia, Mesua
Assam Valley
1B/C1 Naga and Patkai Hills
Tropical Evergreen
Upper Assam
1B/C2 Valley Tropical
Evergreen
Extreme east of north bank

1B/C2a Kayea Forest Kayea assamica
of Brahmaputra valley
1B/C2b Mesua Forest Mesua Foothills
Slopes of Cachar Hills,

Cachar Tropical
1B/C3 Khasi and Jaintia hills,
Evergreen
Surma Valley
Tropical Semi Evergreen Forests
26°C
Southern Tropical Kylia, Terminalia, Hopea,
2A 200-300
Semi Evergreen Dipterocarpus
cm
Andaman Semi
2A/C1 Dipterocarpus, Artocarpus
Evergreen
WG between Wet
West Coast Semi
2A/C2 Terminalia, Artocarpus Evergreen and Moist
Evergreen
Deciduous
Tiruneveli Semi Hopea, Pterospermum, Eastern slopes of Western

2A/C3
Evergreen Dalbergia latifolia Ghats
24°C Dipterocarpus,
Northern Tropical
2B 150-300 Cinnamomum, Assam, Bengal, Odisha
Semi Evergreen
cm Artocarpus, Sal
Assam Valley
2B/C1
Semi Evergreen
Assam alluvial
Castanopsis,
2B/C1a plains Semi
Cinnamomum, Amoora
Evergreen
Eastern Sub Hills in North Bengal,

2B/C1b Montane Semi Toona, Eugenia, Michelia adjoining parts of Assam
Evergreen and Bengal
Cachar Tropical Cachar Hills, Surma Valley,

2B/C2 Pterospermum
Semi Evergreen Manipur Hills, Lushai Hills
Odisha Tropical Mangifera, Saraca indica,

2B/C3 Odisha Hills
Semi Evergreen Artocarpus
Tropical Moist Deciduous Forests
Andamans Moist 26°C Pterocarpus, Terminalia,

3A Andamans
Deciduous 300 cm Dalbergiodes, Ixora,
South Indian 24-27°C Guj, Karnataka,

Teak, Grewia, Terminalia,
3B Tropical Moist 120-300 Maharashtra, TN, MP,
Dillenia
Deciduous cm Kerala
Moist Teak bearing Throughout Peninsula,

3B/C1
Forest except Carnatic Coast
3B/C1a Very moist Teak Grewia, Glycosmis
3B/C1b Moist teak Dalbergia, Terminalia
Slightly Moist
3B/C1c Dendrocalamus
Teak
Southern Moist
3B/C2 Bombax, Adina
Mixed Deciduous
3C North Indian 21-26°C Sal, Schima, Terminalia, UP, Bihar, Odisha, MP,
Tropical Moist 100-200 Dendrocalamus Bengal, Assam
Deciduous cm
Very Moist Sal

3C/C1
bearing
Eastern Hills Sal

3C/C1a
Forest
Littoral and Swamp Forest
26-29°C Casuarina, Manilkara,

4A Littoral Forest Coastal Regions
75-500 cm Calophyllum
Tidal Swamp Rhizophora, Avicennia,

4B Estuaries
Forest Ceriops, Xylocarpus,
Tropical Fresh
Himalayan sub montane
4C Water Swamp Myristica
forest, Kerala
Forests
Tropical Seasonal Along Ganga and

4D Barringtonia, Syzygium
Swamp Forests Brahmaputra rivers
Tropical Riparian Terminalia arjuna, Along streams in riparian

4E
Fringing Forests Lagerstromia speciosa areas
Tropical Dry Deciduous Forests
23-29°C
Southern Tropical Teak, Terminalia, MP, Guj, Maharashtra, AP,
5A 75-1900
Dry Deciduous Anogeissus latifolia Karnataka, TN
cm
24-27°C
Northern Tropical Anogeissus, Acacia HP, UP, Bihar, Odisha,
5B 75-1300
Dry Deciduous catechu, Adina WB,
cm
Tropical Thorn Forest
Southern Tropical 24-28°C

6A Acacia, Albizzia Peninsular India, MP
Thorn 46-95 cm
Northern Tropical 25-27°C Arid regions of Punjab,

6B Prosopis, Acacia
Thorn 75-125 cm Rajasthan, Gujarat, UP, MP
Tropical Dry Evergreen
Tropical Dry 28°C

7 Manilkara, Canthium Tiruneveli to Nellore
Evergreen 90-130 cm
Sub tropical broad leaved hill forest
Southern sub- 17-22°C

Canthium, Manilkara,
8A tropical broad 150-660 South Indian Hills
Wightiana
leaved hill forest cm
8B Northern sub- 210- Castanopis, Quercus Eastern Himalayas and

tropical broad 1140°C Khasi Hills
leaved hill forest 200-300

cm
Sub tropical pine forest
15-22 °C
Sub tropical Pine Chir, Deodar, Kail, Central Himalayas,
9 100-300
forest Quercus Manipur hills
cm
Subtropical Dry Evergreen
Sub tropical dry Olea cuspidata, Acacia

10 Himalayas
evergreen forest modesta
Montane Wet Temperate
Southern Montane 14-17 °C

Hills of Tamil Nadu and
11A Wet Temperate 130-600 Syzygium, Rhododendron
Kerala
Forest cm
12 °C
Northern Montane Magnolia, Quercus,
11B 190-400 Eastern Himalayas
Temperate Forest Michelia
cm
Himalayan Moist Temperate Forest
13-16 °C
Himalayan Moist
12 150-330 Quercus Himalayas
Temperate Forest
cm
Himalayan Dry Temperate Forest
Himalayan Dry 6-17 °C Kashmir, HP, UP, Sikkim,

13 Pinus, Quercus
Temperate Forest 8-80 cm Arunachal Pradesh
Sub Alpine Forest
2-6 °C
14 Sub Alpine Forest Juniperus, Spruce Himalayas
5 cm
Moist Alpine
15 Moist Alpine Rhododendron, Birch Above 3400m altitude
Dry Alpine Scrub
16 Dry Alpine Scrub Juniperus, Artimisia Xerophytic conditions
FACTORS INFLUENCING FOREST VEGETATION
Vegetation in every place is not similar because different biotic and abiotic factors interplay in different ways
at different sites. Further, every plant has its own unique niche of adaptation. Knowledge on the factors
establishing forest vegetation are essential for many forestry practices.
Climatic Factors
Light Light = insolation
Depends on latitude, altitude, season of the year, time of the day, cloud cover
Duration of Light (Photoperiod) — Long day, Short day, Day neutral plants
Quality of light — Wavelength of incoming light + Intensity of light — Green
Vegetation (Visible + IR), UV is harmful
Light affects - Chlorophyll formation, Stomata function, Photosynthesis, Growth,

form and quality of vegetation, species stratification
Light demander - Careya arborea

Shade bearer - Olea cuspidata
Shade demander - Initial stages, requires some degree of shade for initial
development - Pinus wallichiana
Relative hotness or coolness of an object

Temperature depends on altitude, latitude, distance from sea, wind, nearness of
mountain, Cloud cover
Affects plant metabolic activities - photosynthesis, respiration, transpiration

Increases microbial activity of soil and enhances degradation of organic
Temperature
wastes
Activates enzymes - extreme temperatures cause enzyme degradation
Important for germination
On the basis of temperature, forests are classified as - Tropical, Sub tropical,

Temperate, Alpine
Frost Frost occurs when a brief dip in temperatures to freezing or just below that
Hoarfrost - Frost with ice crystals
Black Frost - Dry freeze without ice crystals
Types of Frost
Radiation Frost - Occurs in clear sky due to loss of heat by radiation

Ground Frost - Freezing is confined to ground level
Advective Frost - Freezing due to cold air from elsewhere
Frost causes harmful injuries. Effects vary depending on species, location and other
factors
Kill young plants or parts of plants due to cell damage — killed due to
increased transpiration when their roots are unable to provide moisture
Frost heaving — lifting of young seedlings above soil — due to freezing of
soil water
Pole and saplings are injured
Frost crack — fissure in tree caused by frost which closes later and is covered
with callus growth
Crowns of trees get dried up
Formation of Cankers
Damages base of old trees

Internal Factors that determine frost resistance
Size of the cell - smaller cell size, larger resistance.

Water Content - larger water content, larger susceptibility
Osmotic Concentration - Higher osmotic concentration, higher resistance
Permeability to water - Higher permeability to water, higher resistance
Water holding colloids - Higher the water holding colloids, higher the
resistance
External Factors that determine frost resistance
Temperature - Lower air temperature increases frost susceptibility

Light - Poor light conditions enhances frost damage
Mineral Nutrition - Ca and K improves frost resistance
Based on Frost resistance
Frost hardy: Acacia, Dalbergia, Hardwickia, Pinus

Moderately frost hardy: Gmelina, Pongamia
Frost Tender: Acacia, Azadirachta indica, Tectona grandis
Precipitation Snow
Snow is precipitation in form of crystalline ice

Occurs when temperature is very low
Determines the distribution of species like Sal, Deodar, Spruce — heavy

snowfall is useful for regeneration of Deodar
Acts as a source of water
Bending of branches due to weight of snow
Increases soil erosion
Arrests plant growth due to low temperatures
Enhances fungal and microbial diseases
Acts as a blanket and protects seedlings
Moisture
Water forms 85% of plant cell volume

Maintains cell turgidity
Medium for absorption of plant nutrients
Raw material for photosynthesis
Translocation of manufactured food
Essential for respiration which cannot take place in absence of water
Essential for transpiration to dissipate excessive heat
Responsible for movements of plants
Germination and viability of seeds
Weathering of soil
Determines plant growth and distribution
Drought resistance in species
Drought hardy: Schleichera oleosa, Ziziphus jujuba

Moderately drought hardy: Acacia, Dalbergia, Gmelina

Drought sensitive: Anogeissus latifolia, Madhuca indica, Mangifera indica,
Shorea robusta, Tectona grandis
Die Back
Refers to progressive dying, usually backwards from tip of any portion of the
plant
Adaptive mechanisms to avoid adverse conditions
Roots remain alive, but the shoot dies out.
e.g. Sal, Pterocarpus, Terminalia
Causes: dense overhead canopy and inadequate light, dense weed growth,
drought, frost
Cold object with fairly low temperature comes in contact with air at temperature
higher than the dew point: air cools below dew point and causes condensation, settles
down on the object as dew.
Dew Moisture deposited as Dew is absorbed by leaves, translocated to roots, stored

in soil in immediate proximity, becomes available to plant in the morning
when photosynthesis occurs
Favourable effect on seedlings, particularly in dry areas
Reduces evaporation losses
Amount of water vapour in air
Humidity
Influences evaporation, transpiration and vegetation
Lower the RH, higher the evaporation loss, higher transpiration
Motion of air due to difference in air pressure
Positive Effects
Brings fresh supply of CO2 for plants

Pollinating agent
Dispersal of seeds
Negative Effects
Wind Bending and breakage of plant branches
Uprooting of trees
Short stature with tapering poles
Fast winds rupture timber and decrease its quality
Spreads forest fire and increases its intensity
Agent to spread diseases
Increased evaporation and transpiration
Enhances soil erosion
Branches on windward side get killed, affects the growth on one side
Salt deposits in coastal areas
Bioclimate: Modified climate conditions produced by vegetation which differs from the general climate is
called as bioclimate
Microclimate: Microclimate is defined as the climate of small areas which differ significantly from the
general climate of the area. e.g. climate under a plant or some vegetative cover which differs from climate
outside the cover.
Importance of Micro climate
Microclimate of different aspects of hills is different which decides regeneration of species. e.g. In
temperate Himalayas, fir and spruce regenerate well in northern aspect, while deodar prefers southern
aspect.
Helps regeneration planning
Helps planning appropriate sites for planting of different species. e.g. At higher altitudes of subtropical
zone, northern aspects become too cold for for chip, which is replaced by Kail.
In valleys, frost is more common and hence clear felling is avoided
Introduction of exotic species needs detailed study of microclimate
Physiographic Factors
Physical features of a place - altitude, slope, aspect, exposure
Configuration of land surface - Surface configuration or outer shape, which

determines microclimate such as shade, temperature and vegetation
Altitude - Elevation from mean sea level. Influences solar radiation,
temperature (Adiabatic Lapse Rate), air density and rainfall
Slope - influences drainage and runoff (steeper slope causes greater runoff),
soil erosion in absence of vegetation cover, influences depth of soil
Aspect - Direction towards which slope faces
Exposure - Relation of site to weather conditions (sun and wind). Determines
weathering of soil and soil moisture
Altitude
Altitude Zonation - Tropical (Sal), Sub Tropical (Pine), Temperate (Deodar),

Temperate Mixed Coniferous, Oak, Alpine
Topography Orographic rainfall - on windward side
Slope
Influences drainage and runoff (steeper slope causes greater runoff)

Soil erosion in absence of vegetation cover
Influences depth of soil
Higher slope, lesser humus content
Aspect
Direction towards which a slope faces

Determine insolation - southern aspect is warmer than northern aspect in
India, resulting in different vegetation
Evaporation is more on southern aspect
Microclimate Climate of small areas, which differ significantly from the general climate of the

area - particularly the climate under a plant or other cover
Forest cover
Reduces intensity of solar radiation

Prevents loss of heat by radiation in the night
Helps in survival of seedlings as the minimum temperature is not at ground
level
Buffers soil temperature
Increases rainfall
Reduce evaporation of moisture from forest floor
Reduces wind velocity
Edaphic Factors Ecological influences of soil, brought about by its physical and chemical properties
Surface Soil - Completely weathered, rich in soluble material, higher

proportion of organic matter, zone of aeration, intense root and microbial
activity
Sub soil - Incompletely weathered, less soluble ingredient and organic matter
Forest Soil - Sustenance of forest vegetation. Forest soils have higher organic
matter (through continuous addition of leaf litter), darker in colour, better in
aggregation.
Formation of Soil
Physical and chemical changes in rocks near earth surface by atmospheric agents,
which result in disintegration and decomposition
Physical, Chemical, Biological Weathering
Factors responsible for soil formation
Climate - Temperature and Precipitation, formation of clay minerals, upward

and downward movement of salts due to capillary action, Laterite in tropical
and Podzolisation in temperate
Organic Matter - Flora and fauna, roots of trees disintegrate soil, addition of
humus. CO2 produced by respiring roots, carbonic acid action in elluviation
and leaching, earthworms cultivate the soil, microbes help in decomposition
of litter, burrowing animals loosen soil
Relief - Steep slope leads to greater erosion, thin soil and shallow depth.
Zonal soils are formed in flat plains.
Parent Material - Physical and chemical properties of soil are largely governed
by parent rock. e.g. Granite leads to coarse textured soil while Basalt forms
dark, fine textured soil like Black Soil. Affects growth and distribution of tree
species e.g. Chir Pine occurs on Quartzite, Blue Pine occurs on Mica Schist
Time - Soil formation is a slow process. Immature or Mature depending on
stage
Physical factors
Soil Texture - relative proportion of sand, silt, clay. e.g. Sandy Soil
(Casuarina, Thespecia populnea), Clayey Soil (Prosopis juliflora, Acacia
nilotica)
Structure - Arrangement of soil particles which influences water retention, and
thus vegetation

Surface crusting and hardpan - Hard mass of soil formed on the surface of
soils having high silt and clay. Hardpan is the cemented high density soil layer
below the surface layer due to accumulation of clay. Surface crust reduces
germination whereas hardpan restricts root growth
Soil Depth and Stoniness
Soil Moisture - Humid soil for evergreen vegetation, dry soil for xerophytes
Chemical Properties
Soil reaction - Acidity or alkalinity of soil, determines plant nutrient

availability. e.g. Acidic soil (Dipterocarpus), Alkaline Soil (Tamarix
sp., Salvadora persica)
Electrical Conductivity - indicates soluble salts in the soil.
Calcareousness - determines electrical conductivity and availability of plant
nutrients
Examples
Chir Pine prefers quartzite rocks

Deodar prefers alluvial soils
Teak prefers lime rich soils, whereas sal avoids it
Red Sanders (Pterocarpus santalinus) occurs on quartzite
Prosopis juliflora, Acacia arabica and Tamarix aphylla tolerate saline
conditions
Geology and
Forest
Biotic Factors
Competition - Leads to survival of the fittest

Parasites - Decrease vigour of host plant. May kill the host (e.g.
Cuscuta reflexa)
Epiphytes - Live on other plants for shelter and not for food. Weakens but does
not kill the host (e.g Ficus benghalensis)
Plants
Climbers - Reduces diameter increment of growing trees
Weeds - Competes with main plants for light, water, space, nutrients (e.g.
Lantana camara)
Fungi - cause diseases, augment phosphorous nutrition through solubilisation
and mobilisation of soil phosphorous
Feed on plant parts such as leaf, fruit, seed, flower

Insects Defoliation may decrease photosynthesis
Feeding of flowers and seeds influences regeneration negatively
Herbivores feed on living plants for livelihood

Wild Animals Bears and deer expose bark of trees, increasing susceptibility to infection
Trample seedlings
Man
Food, fuel, wood, shelter, medicine
Animals owned by him cause damage
NATURAL REGENERATION
NR is the renewal of forest crop by self sown seed or coppice or root suckers

NR from Seed Seed is the matured ovule which acts as propagule for propagation of plants
NR from seed depends on seed production, dispersal, germination, establishment and
other factors
Seed Production
1. Species - Silvicultural and genetic characters influence seed production of a

species. e.g. Neem produces seeds every year while some other species produce
biannually or once in 3-5 years
2. Age - Young and Over matured trees yield poor quality seeds in less quantity.
3. Size of Crown - Bigger the crown, higher the possibility to get maximum seeds
from the trees
4. Climate - Favourable climate enhances plant establishment, flowering and seed
production. Heavy winds and drought decreases seed production.
Seed Dispersal
Movement of seeds from one place to another through various dispersing agents
1. Wind - Conifers, Acer, Betula

2. Water - Mangrove, Dalbergia, Teak
3. Gravity - Oak, Aesculus
4. Birds - Prunus, Mulberry, Trema
5. Animal - Acacia, Prosopis, Zizyphus
Seed Germination
Seed Germination — Growth process of mature seed, characterised by

emergence of stem and root from it is called germination. It is the process by
which seed sprouts and begins to grow.
Germinative Capacity — Percentage of seeds in a sample that actually
germinate, irrespective of time.
Germinative Energy — Percentage of seeds that have germinated up to the time
when the rate of germination reaches its peak.
Plant Percent — Percentage of seeds in a sample that develop into seedlings at
the end of first growing season.
Seedling Year — Year in which a given species produces abundant first year
seedling.
Internal factors affecting seed germination
Permeability to water: impermeability prevents seed germination

Permeability to Oxygen: impermeability prevents seed germination
Development of Embryo: Germination immediately after harvest is not common
due to immature embryo inside in some species
After ripening process: Seeds require after-ripening process for fullest
development. Germination is possible after completion of this period only.
Viability: Recalcitrant seeds have less viability whereas orthodox seeds have
longer seed viability
Size of seed: General thumb rule that bigger seeds give higher germination
percentage.
External factors affecting seed germination
Moisture: Initiate primary biochemical reaction necessary for seed germination.

Also required for softening the seed and leaching out of unwanted chemicals in it.
Excess moisture creates anaerobic conditions while dry condition causes
dessication of seeds.
Air: Soil air is essential for respiration
Temperature: Low temperature inactivates the living cells, while high
temperature destructs the enzymes and kills the plants.
Light: Germination is mostly independent of light, though species like
Albizzia procera require light for germination. But after germination, light is
essential for food generation through photosynthesis.
Seed Bed: For better germination, seed beds are prepared using well drained
loamy soil to provide optimum air, moisture and physical support.
Seedling Establishment
Refers to development of new crops naturally or assisted to a stage when the young
regeneration (natural or artificial) is considered safe from adverse influences such as
frost, drought or weeds and no longer needs special protection and tending operations,
other than cleaning, thinning and pruning.
Seedling establishment period is the period that elapses between initiation of NR and
the time it is considered safe from adverse influences such as frost, drought or weeds.

Soil Conditions: good drainage, moisture, aeration and nutrient status facilitates
better establishment of seedlings. Shallow depth, stoniness and erosion has
adverse effect on seedling establishment
Climatic factors: Optimum light condition and temperature, uniformly distributed
and sufficient rainfall
Weeds: Reduce availability of moisture, nutrients and space and prolong the
establishment period
Grazing and Browsing: Causes destruction to establish seedlings. Fencing is
recommended to reduce harmful effects
Burning: Forest fires destroy seedlings and cause seedling mortality
Drip: Uprooting of seedlings by rainfall drop from tree crown/leaves. Harmful for
establishment of seedlings
Competition of crop: Intense competition hampers establishment. e.g.
Clerodendron and Sal
Composition of crop: Mixed crop composition enhances better seedling
establishment than mono cropping
Development of roots: Higher development of roots facilitates establishment.
Depends on genetic factors
Coppice — Shoot arising from adventitious buds at the base of a woody plant that has
been cut near the ground
Seedling Coppice — Coppice shoots arising from the base of seedlings that have been
cut back or burnt back.
Stool Coppice — Coppice from living stump or stool. Each stump produces many
coppices
Factors affecting the regeneration of coppices
NR by Species: Coppicing ability vary according to genetic make up or inherent nature

Coppices Age of tree: Young trees and saplings produce good coppices than older trees,
due to smooth bark on the outside
Season of coppicing: Coppicing little before spring is better, and it provides
sufficient growing period for the coppice produced. The stored food anchors the
regeneration activities in the plant.
Height of stump: High stump can be damaged by wild animals, low stump is
susceptible to stump splitting, termite attack and rotting. Optimum stump height
of 15-25cm is ideal. Species of Casuarina produce good coppices when high
stump height is retained.
Secondary shoot rising from roots of a certain tree or shrub species that can grow
into a mature individual is called root sucker.
Trenches are dug continuously or discontinuously around the tree in such a way
NR by Root
that it causes severing of roots.
Suckers
The plants produced in this way are cared for well, to develop into a mature
plant.
These plants are poor in root growth and are liable to wind throw.
Portion of root, branch or stem is placed in the soil or other medium which
NR by cutting
develops into a plant
Layering Inducing development of roots on branches while they are still attached to the tree
Soil Layering
Air Layering
Portion called Scion of one plant is applied to Stock of another, securing vegetative
Grafting
union between the two
Bud with some portion of the bark of a genetically superior plant is grafted unto a
Budding
inferior plant.
Advantages of Vegetative Reproduction (Coppice, Root suckers, Root/stem/branch cutting)
One plant produces several plants

Possible when plant is not capable of producing seeds
Grow faster, cost less
Used for genetic improvement (Genetically superior trees are called 'Plus' trees)
Clear Felling is defined as the system in which mature crop is removed in one
operation. The area is regenerated either naturally or artificially.
NR depends on seeds from — adjacent standing mature forest, seed already lying
dormant in the clear felled area, ripe seed on the mature trees before they were clear
felled, advanced growth already present in the clear felled area.
1. NR from adjacent standing mature forest

2. NR from seed lying dormant
3. NR from ripe seed fallen during felling
4. NR from advanced growths
Clear Felling
System As the area has been clear felled, a lot of trees are lying around. It has to be
disposed off, shrubs cut and burnt down
If regeneration has to be obtained from 2,3 and 4, the disposal of the trees by
burning is ruled out, so that the seeds are not destroyed. The shrubs are
collected and burnt in an isolated place.
Strips should be of such width that seeds from adjacent area reaches the
whole strip for 1. Direction of the prevailing wind has to be kept in view.
Annual felling areas are so arranged that unfelled areas are followed by felled,
in the direction of the wind.
Regeneration reaches pole stage — thinning is required.
Weed control (weeds grow faster than the trees)
Instances of clear felling are not common — Dry teak forest and Singbhum
Sal Forest of Bihar
Shelterwood More complex under shelterwood system than in the clear felling system
Systems
Defined as a system in which the mature crop is removed in a series of operations,
the first of which is seedling felling and the last is final felling.
Types - Uniform, Group, Irregular
Seeding Felling — Opening the canopy of a mature stand, to provide conditions for
securing regeneration from the seed of the trees retained for the purpose.
Final Felling — Removal of the last sheltered tree after regeneration has been
effected.
Regeneration interval — Period between Seedling Felling and Final Felling.
Determines the uniformity of the resulting crop.

Seed for regeneration is obtained from trees retained in adjacent.

Light requirement and canopy manipulations: facilitate light penetration to the
ground layer where young regeneration is coming up
Undergrowth: Regular cutting back, controlled burning, uprooting of
unwanted plants, weed control, control of grass and bamboos
Soil Condition: Digging by strips or by tractor ploughing will encourage
brings favourable soil conditions for seed germination
Burning: Decreases weeds and other adverse plants. Seed may also require
heat for breaking dormancy. But burning after regeneration causes death of
young seedlings
Slash disposal: Cleans the local land and provides good physical surface for
regeneration
Weeding: reduces competition for light, moisture and nutrition
Cleaning: removes unwanted material from the surface and augments NR
Protection from damage by animals: save young seedlings from grazing and
browsing
In selection system, mature crop is removed either as single trees or in small groups
over the whole of the felling series and consequently the resultant crop is always
irregular.
Removal of exploitable timber: All woods above exploitable diameter are

removed to give better lighting environment for young regeneration.
Thinning below exploitable diameter: In case of trees having low exploitable
Selection Forest
diameter, thinning is carried out to manage the light conditions. Normally,
diseased and malformed trees are removed.
Cultural operations: Includes ground cleaning, weeding, burning and other
practices.
Selection system is not used anywhere in India. It is generally used in regions where
Shelterwood system cannot be applied, like hilly and rugged areas.
Regeneration Survey
Refers to the survey for the assessment of established and unestablished regeneration, generally by
sampling procedure.
Done at the time of revision of working plan
Objectives
Compare NR in any regeneration area

Evaluate effects of operation carried out during working plan period
Prepare stock map of any area
Operations for NR
Stem of a tree is cut off at a height beyond the reach of grazing animals, with the
object of producing a crown of new shoots from buds below the cut.
The flush of new shoots is cut down periodically, so that the Pollard may produce
Pollarding
fresh shoots again
E.g. Salix is pollarded in Kashmir for wicker work, Grewia is pollarded in Kumaon
and Garhwal for fibre and fodder

Loping and Loping — Cutting branches of a tree

Pruning Pruning — Cutting of branches from bole of tree for improvement of timber
Defined as operations undertaken to assist regeneration to promote the proper

development of the crop, or minimise after effects of felling damage.
Subsidiary felling
Weeding
Cleaning
Unremunerative improvement felling
Thinning in groups of advanced growth
Girdling
Poisoning of unwanted growth
Climber cutting
Cultural Controlled burning
Operations
Primarily in silvicultural systems relying on natural regeneration
Cultural operations consist of
Removal of trees badly damaged in felling

Cutting back malformed and ill developed advanced growth
Removal of inferior species
Removal of weed growth
Climber cutting
ARTIFICIAL REGENERATION
Defined as renewal of forest crop by sowing, planting or other artificial means. It is done for
reforestation and afforestation works.
Reforestation — Restocking of felled or cleared woodland by artificial means
Afforestation — Establishment of a forest by artificial means on an area from which forest vegetation
has always or long been absent
Why AR?
Supplement NR: NR is not successful in all times and at all places. Even within the same forest, some
places have good regeneration while others have poor regeneration.
Give up NR in favour of AR, when NR of the desired species is slow and uncertain and hence, not
economical.
Restock forests disturbed by fires and other biotic factors
To introduce exotics
When is artificial regeneration better than NR?
Yield: For better volume and financial yield

Crop Composition: When crop composition has to be changed to get a better return, AR is favourable.
Risk of damage by pests: insects, parasites, fungi
Risk of loss and deterioration of soil is likely to be more serious
Genetical considerations: If quality of trees in the forest is to be improved
When uniform stocking is desirable.
When time is a constraint, AR is favourable.
AR increases employment potential
AR is preferable when the crop is required to be close to an industry. For e.g. paper and pulp
AR is preferred over NR for beautification and aesthetic purposes

AR is much more complex, and if seed is not available or monsoons are delayed, there is a lot of
wastage. In NR, very little work needs to be done and there isn’t much wastage in case of unforeseen
situations.
NR should be preferable over AR in consideration with cost
Tree species are selected according to human needs such as protection,

production and aesthetics
Species should have good timber, economic and other useful values
Should be adjusted to prevailing climate conditions
Should have appropriate growth rate, as per expected demand and supply
Soil is considered while selecting a species for regeneration
Species should improve the soil fertility and reduce soil erosion
Choice of
Should be resistant to pest, disease and other adverse factors
Species
Should be easily established with least cost
Should be fast growing
Should consider the prevailing succession stages
Should not produce any allelopathic effect on other plants
Species should not alter floristic composition
Should not become weed in future
Should be according to the objective of plantation/consumer requirement
Species environmental requirement should be matched to the site wrt climatic,

edaphic and local conditions
Choice of Site Consideration of local floral composition gives a good idea about the site
condition
Approachability of the site, topographical conditions, wildlife considerations
Choice of
method AR can be done through sowing or planting.
Choice of these methods depends on species to be raised, conditions of the site,
availability of seed, cost etc.
Sowing
Sowing is the process of planting seeds, i.e. scattering or impregnating the seed
over the ground for growing plants. Good quality seeds should be selected to
produce a high yield.
Timing of sowing determines successful germination and seedling
establishment
Optimum depth is needed. Deep sowing prevents emergence of cotyledons from
subsurface to surface. In shallow sowing, seeds may be eroded during rainfall or
be eaten by animals. Should be sown at a depth 2-3 times the size of seed
Advantages of sowing
Consumes less time and costs

Roots grow well without any constraints
Disadvantages of sowing

Needs huge quantity of seed

Birds and animals eat the seeds sown on the surface
Seedling mortality is higher than direct planting
Weed problem is higher
Rate of growth of seedlings is very slow and seedling establishment period is
larger
Opening of forest to grazing takes longer time, which creates complications
with local residents
Plantation
Process of operation of setting the seedlings in the ground for propagation of

plants.
Advantages of planting
Seedling establishment and success is higher

Seed requirement is less
Seedling establishment period is shorter
Forest area can be opened for grazing sooner
Weed problem is lesser
Damage to seeds and seedlings is lesser
Disadvantages of planting
Cost of planting is higher

Requires more labour and management
Requires more knowledge and skill
Planting time
Newly planted trees do best when exposed to moderate temperature and rainfall.
Seedlings need time to root and acclimatise before the onset of intense heat and
dryness of summer or the freezing temperatures of winter. Early spring or onset
of monsoon is the best time for planting
Planting Methods
Hole for planting should be of optimum depth — in deep pits, roots don’t have
access to oxygen, and in narrow pits roots cannot expand sufficiently to nourish
and properly anchor the tree.
Planting an entire plant — Whole plant is lifted from the nursery bed and planted in
the field for further growing.
Planting naked root seedlings — Seedling is removed from the nursery bed and
soil around the root is removed. Roots are treated with biofertilisers or
fungicides before going for planting. While planting, roots of seedlings are
spread out and soil is compacted.
Planting seedlings with a ball of earth — Planting of seedlings with a ball of
earth containing roots without any disturbance to roots.

Planting seedlings in containers — Safest method of planting among all kinds of

planting. Plant containers are removed before planting in the pits without
disturbing the roots.
Stump Planting — Stump is a specially prepared seedling in which shoots are cut
above the collar region and roots are pruned leaving primary roots at defined length.
Seedlings should have only one tap root system. Lateral and secondary roots are
removed. Stumps can be treated with biofertilisers and pesticides for better protection
Advantages of stump planting
Easier and cheaper

Transport of planting stock is simple
Requires less labour
Soil preparation in the field is easier
Seedling establishment and growth is faster
Root development is good and deep
Choice between sowing and planting is based on
Species to be raised: Sal, Khair, Chir are raised by sowing as their planting is
considered difficult. As a general rule, slow growing species and species with
hard coated seeds are grown by planting
Condition of the site: In poor and difficult sites (infertile, barren soils, weed
infested), planting is more successful
Availability of seed: Planting is preferred for species which do not produce large
amount of seeds
Cost: Sowing is preferable when there are cost constraints
Spacing
Spacing is the distance between plants put out in a plantation or standing crop.
Factors influencing spacing
Rate of growth of species - Fast growing species need close spacing

Habit of branching - Large spacing for species with large branches and crown.
Conifers need close spacing
Number of annual rings per cm - Closer spacing for species with more rings/cm
Height of planting material - Wider spacing if seedling height is high
Site Factor - in better site conditions, close spacing is adopted, as the site can
support more trees per unit area
Inter cultivation - spacing should be higher than normal. For e.g. Taungya
cultivation
Market for small sized timber - small spacing is preferable
Objectives of production - Wide spacing for timber, close spacing for fuel wood
Cost - Closer spacing requires more cost for seedling requirement
Advantages of wide spacing — saves seeds, reduced cost, less labour

Disadvantages of wide spacing — Danger of soil deterioration as canopy takes
longer time to close, trees become branchy and produce knotty timber, wood
strength is poor, higher weed growth
Advantages of close spacing — checks weed growth, reduces deterioration of
soil, thinning is easier, boles of trees are cleaner due to natural pruning
Disadvantages of close spacing — Requires large amount of seeds, increases

cost and labour requirements
Indigenous and Exotic Species

Indigenous Species Exotic Species
Grow naturally in the country or in the region where

the conditions are favourable for their growth Grown outside the limits of its natural zone
of distribution. e.g. Eucalyptus, Salix,
Advantages Poplar
Exotics are generally used when indigenous
Growth of species is well known which species fail to produce the desired quality
facilitates forecasting of timber and firewood and quantity of forest produce.
production
Less susceptible to pests and diseases
Does not harm local flora and fauna, and Advantages
hence are useful form conservation point of
view Wood of uniform quality
Wild animals are well adapted to this Short rotation period
vegetation Many exotics grow fast
Have well established markets Higher yield and augments improved return
Seed collection, storage and treatment has no Silviculture and biology of tree is known
problems Suitable for intensive management
Essential when indigenous species are not
available
Disadvantages of exotics
Possibility of immediate failure of plantation Before taking up plantation of exotics

after introduction and delayed failure in some
cases, which affects afforestation programs Edaphic, climatic and biological factors
Pest and disease attacks may be more in should be studied well, with respect to
introduced place requirements of the exotic species
In some cases, introduced species performs at Temperature variation of each month,
a substandard level maximum and minimum temperature,
Growth may be unsatisfactory number of days of extreme weather should
Exotics are ecologically less valuable be known
May bring new diseases to the region. e.g. Number of frost days, mean annual
Eucalyptus grandis precipitation, number of rainy days, number
Experimentation with exotics may be time of dry days
consuming and hence, not suitable for Soil type, altitude and natural regeneration is
immediate needs also considered
May have physiological disturbances and
problem of seed production.
Australia: Eucalyptus tereticornis, E.
citriodora, E. globulus, E. grands, E. grandi,
E. deglupa, E. camaldulensis, E.
microcarpa, E. robusta, E. auriculiformis, E.
decurrens, E. albida, E. mearnsii, E.
mangium, E. tortilis
Central America: Populus deltoides, P.
euramericana, P. yunnanensis
Bahama: Pinus caribaea, Pinus keysia,
Pinus elliotii
Seed collection and storing
Seeds of superior quality are collected from genetically superior trees (tree form,
size, height, diameter, pest and disease resistance)
Seeds are collected from vigorously growing middle aged to mature trees.
Best time for seed collection is after ripening but before dispersal
Methods of collection
Collection from the ground after naturally falling

Collection from the ground after shaking the tree
Seed Collection Collection by lopping branches - seed or fruit is either too small to be
economically picked after falling, or likely to be widely dispersed by wind
(Dalbergia). Easiest method is to collect seeds from branches of the freshly
felled trees. Should be confined to smaller twigs and thin branches to minimise
damage to the trees.
Collection from standing trees - If seeds are likely to get damaged in falling with
branches or dispersed.
Collection from ground — freshly fallen seeds, ripe and not insect attacked, large seeds
or fruits which fall unbroken are suitable (sal, teak, oak)
Involves seed extraction, drying, cleaning and grading
Seed extraction
Pulp is removed in fleshy seeds

Seed coat is broken in case of hard seeds
Light feathery seeds are subjected to simple threshing of seeds
Drying - Can be done is sun or shade.

Cleaning - Removing all other material from the seed lot. Cleaning by hand
picking, separation by water (good seeds sink to bottom), winnowing, sieving
Seed Processing Grading - Cleaned seeds are graded according to weight, colour, size and other
desirable characters
Seed Fortification: Seeds are soaked in bio-active chemical solutions like growth
regulators, micronutrients in required concentrations for specific durations.
Enhances better germination and establishment of seedlings
Seed Pelleting: Seeds are coated with adhesives and filled with filler material to
increase size. Ensures singling of seeds while sowing.
Seed priming/hardening: Treatment to withstand moisture stress. Seeds are
soaked and then dried to original moisture content. Useful in arid regions and
rained farms
Seed protectants: Chemicals that protect the seed from adverse agents like
pathogens, birds etc. Seeds are usually treated with fungicide and insecticide
Seed Coating: Seeds are coated with poly gel like polymer diluted with water.
Seed storage
Seeds have to be stored till the time of sowing
Most species do not seed every year — necessary to collect and store in good
seed years, without impairing their quality.
Respiration and transpiration is reduced to a minimum
Essential to protect from insect attacks, by use of insecticides like DDT.
Method of storage varies with species
Species with seed of transient viability: Sown immediately after collection. If

they are to be stored, they are spread in shade on hard floor to prevent
dessication and water is sprinkled from time to time. e.g. Sal, Dipterocarps
Species whose seeds ripen in autumn and germinate in spring: Species of
temperate region, lying under snow throughout winter, germinate in spring when
snow melts. Species should be stored in cold storage. e.g. Pines, Conifers and
other broad leaved species. Cold storage may be dry (conifers) or wet (broad
leaved).
Species whose seeds ripen in summer or winter and germinate in rainy season:
Stored in dry conditions. Seed stores are made, wherein seeds are stored in
heaps, gunny bags, sealed tins.
Evaluation of seed for its quality characters - determine genuineness, purity and seed
viability
Seed Sampling: Main objective of sampling is to obtain a true representative sample of

size suitable for carrying out other tests.
Seed lot: specified quantity of seed, physically identifiable, in respect of which an
International Analysis Certificate may be issued
Physical Purity Analysis
Purity of seed is determined by cleaning a weighted sample of seed and

weighing cleaned seed, and then expressing it as a percentage of the former.
Seed Viability Testing

Seed testing
Viable Seed - Seed that is capable of producing seedlings in a germination test
are known as viable seeds.
Viability can be ascertained by direct inspection, physical test, chemical test,
germination test and X ray technique
Tetrasolium chemical test
Seeds are soaked in solution of 2,3,5 triphenyl tetrazolium chloride or bromide.

The chemical is reduced when it accepts hydrogen released by action of
dehydrogenase enzymes from living cell.
Reduced to stable and non-diffusible tri-phenyl formazan - causes red staining of
seeds
Dead seeds do not reduce the solution and remain colourless
Seed Treatment Seed treatment enhances germination of seeds and is applied prior to sowing
Mechanical Treatment: Hard, impervious coat of seeds is cut, so that moisture

may reach inside
Chemical Treatment: Soaking in various chemical solutions softens the hard coat
and renders them permeable to water and air. e.g. Acacia nilotica is soaked in
sulphuric acid and washed in water prior to sowing

Water treatment: Hot or cold water can both be used for seed treatment. If cold
water is used, seeds are soaked for 24-48h (e.g. Chir Pine). In case of hot water,
seeds are soaked in boiled water (e.g. Oak, Chestnut). Alternate wetting and
drying is applied to Teak.
Weathering: Exposure of seeds to sun, wind and rain which causes cracking of
hard seed coat
Passage through animal body: Acacia nilotica and Prosopis juliflora germinate
better if they pass through digestive enzymes of animals.
Fire treatment: Fire through teak forests stimulates germination. Not used now,
as the fires may be difficult to control
Stratification: Seed is spread in layers 1-2cm deep alternating with layers of
sand, peat and charcoal.
Fermentation: Seed is spread on ground and covered with grass. Fermentation is
induced by adding inoculum from cattle shed
Seed Dormancy
Seed Dormancy is a state in which seeds are prevented from germinating even
under environmentally favourable conditions for germination
Conditions could be water, light, temperature, gases, mechanical restrictions,
seed coats, hormone structures, genetic constitution
Dormant seeds are viable even though they are metabolically inactive
Causes of Dormancy
Physical Dormancy: Due to hard seed coat impermeable to water and oxygen.
e.g. Acacia, Prosopis — Cold Water soaking, Cutting, puncturing
Mechanical Dormancy: Occurs when seed coats are too hard to allow the
embryo to expand during germination. e.g. Elaeagnus augustifolia, Fraxinus
rhynuchophylla — cutting or breaking seed coat, light burning in teak, alternate
wetting and drying
Chemical Dormancy: Arises due to presence of growth inhibiting substances
around embryo — Pre washing, Removal of structures around the seed
Physiological Dormancy: Presence of growth inhibitor substance or lack of
growth regulator substance — Soaking in growth stimulants, soaking in growth
regulators
Morphological Dormancy: Embryos are immature — Scarification at low
temperature, pre-chilling, pre-heating
Photo Dormancy: Require specific photoperiod to overcome the dormancy
Thermo Dormancy: Temperature is not suitable for germination
Secondary Dormancy: Induced by unfavourable environmental conditions that
restrict normal germination and growth processes.
Methods of breaking dormancy
Dry Treatments — Mechanical scarification, Dry Storage

Wet Treatment — Water soaking, Acid scarification, Exposure to light, Alcohol
treatment, Mild Acid
Seed Fortification — Seeds are soaked in bioactive chemical solution like
growth regulators, micronutrients and other substances in specific volume of
required concentrations for varying durations
Seed Pelleting — Seeds are coated with adhesives and filled with filler material
to increase size. Useful for non-free flowing small seeds
Seed hardening/priming — Treatment given to withstand moisture stress. Seeds
are soaked prior to radicle formation, and then dried back to original moisture
content. Suitable for rained farming and planting in arid regions

Seed Protectants — Chemicals which protect seeds from adverse agents such as
pathogens, birds etc. Seeds are usually treated with fungicide and insecticide.
Seed Coating — Seeds are coated with gel like polymer diluted with water
Plant Hormones
Planting Planting involves
Boundary demarcation - select the site and demarcate the boundary keeping the
plot rectangular in shape
Marking and felling - Stock map of the area is made and all trees leaving a few
standards are marked for felling
Soil and planting map preparation - Soil map is prepared and method of soil
marking is also decided
Fencing - Fencing based on surrounding environment
Soil preparation - Planting site is tractor ploughed, and then soil preparation is
done in form of pits or trenches
Sowing and planting - Sowing should not be very thick or very thin. Nursery
stock may be planted in proper season.
Inspection Path
Staking Out - Before soil preparation is begun, positions of lines and pits are
marked out on ground by fixing wooden or bamboo pegs.
Maintenance of Plantation
Weeding
Underplanting - protection of soil
Irrigation
Fire Protect
Application of fertiliser and pesticides
Fencing to protect from crop riding by wild animals and domestic livestock
Beating up — Restocking blanks in AR area with fresh sowing or plating
Weather protection — grow shelter belts, plant in sheltered regions
Nurse Crop — Crop of trees or shrubs grown to foster the growth of another and
more important tree crop in its early stages. Mostly to protect against frost
Cover Crop — Subsidiary crop of low plants introduced in a plantation to afford
soil cover between or below the main crop
After Care
Beating Up: Sowing and plantings are never 100% successful, so failed places
have to be beaten up (resown or replanted with new planting materials). Weeds
have to be removed
After weeding, plantations require protection against grazing and fire.
Reasons for Plantation failure
Wrong selection of species

Poor quality seeds and planting material
Incidence of pest
Incidence of diseases
Planting in non-season/summer period
Natural calamities like excessive drought, cyclone, etc.
Within the species, strain has not been selected according to salinity, soil type
and others

Hormones
Auxin: Cell elongation, fruit development, induces adventitious roots on cuttings, regulates protein
synthesis in seeds
Cytokinin: Stimulates cell division, reverse apical dominance, involved in shoot growth, delay leaf
senescence, mediate auxin transport
Gibberellin: Shoot elongation, stimulates bolting and flowering in biennials, hydrolytic enzymes in
grains
Ethylene: Fruit ripening, leaf and flower senescence
Abscisic Acid: Stomatal closure, abscission of matured leaves
Brassinosteroids: Cell elongation and division, gravitropism, inhibits root growth and leaf abscission
Jasmonates: Production of defence proteins, seed germination, seed storage
Karrikins: Stimulate germination of seeds
Polyamines: Cell signalling, Pollen self incompatibility
Salicylic Acid: Gene activator
NO: Signal in hormone and defence responses
Applications
Improve success of grafting and other micro-propagation methods

Break seed dormancy
Used in cell differentiation and growth improvement in tissue culture works
Enhance root initiation from cuttings
Improves fruit ripening
Increases growth rate of seedlings
Reduces pathogen attack
Enhances flowering
Improves seed resistance to extremities
TENDING
Covers operations through which competition among plants is managed in order to obtain maximum
yield, by reducing the number of stems per unit area with progress of age.
Broadly, it is an operation carried out for the benefit of a forest crop at any stage of its life between the
seedling and mature stages.
Tending does not include regeneration felling, soil working, drainage, irrigation and controlled burning.
Helps to produce higher quality timber and thus, maximises income.
Tending Cultural Operations
Assist regeneration, promote development

Carried out for benefit of forest crop and decrease felling damage
Does not aim at NR Aims at NR
Includes pruning but not controlled burning Includes controlled burning but not pruning
Carried out from seedling stage Carried out after felling
In both AR and NR Carried out primarily in silvicultural systems
relying on NR
Limitations of Tending
Has to be done several times from seedling to maturity

Requires considerable funds and staff
Tending done in seedlings stage in nursery or in a forest crop that involves the
removal or cutting back of all weeds
Objectives
Reduce root competition for nutrients

Reduce transpirational water loss
Facilitate cultural operations
Improve light conditions to the main crop
Weeding
Weeding Process
Weeding must be done in plantations during the rains and stopped by the end
of September
It should be done before the suppression of seedlings by the weeds
Carried out for 3 years from planting
Fast growth species requires less weeding than slow growing species
Tending operation done in a sapling crop which involves removal of inferior growth
which may interfere with the main crop (including individuals of favoured species)
Objectives
Improve light conditions

Reduce root competition
Reduce transpirational water loss
Cleaning
Operations
Clearing of shrubs and herbaceous growth

Removal of individuals of inferior species
Cutting back diseased or malformed individuals of the desired species
Cutting and removal of climbers
Singling of coppice shoots of the favoured species
Thinning Thinning is a felling made in an immature stand for the purpose of improving
growth and form of the trees.
Thinning Cycle — Planned interval which elapses between successive

thinning in the same area. Thinning cycle is shorter during earlier stages or
periods of rapid growth.
Thinning Intensity — Extent to which the crop is thinned or removed.
Thinning Regime — Whole set of thinning carried out in a crop from earliest
stage to its maturity
Basis of Thinning
Leading trees in the area

Productive capacity of the site
Optimum number of trees to be retained after thinning
Factors affecting thinning

If there is a market for small timber

Quality and strength of timber needed
Rotation period of species
Disease prevalence in the site
Financial constraints to spend on weeding and other operations
Soil quality
Decomposition of humus
Objectives
Distribute growth potential of a site uniformly all over the area

Increase the net yield from a unit area
Obtain earlier returns through utilisation of thinned material
Reduce rotation of the species by enhancing the growth
Produce different sized timber to meet different requirements
Maintain hygienic conditions in the stand by removing diseased trees
Obtain a timber of desired quality and strength
Ensure decomposition of raw humus in temperate forests by increasing light
and temperature on forest floor
Removal of less valuable trees in a crop in the interest of valuable individuals

Applicable to mixed and irregular crops
Removal of dead, dying and diseased individuals

Improvement Felling of saleable, unsound and over mature trees
Felling Felling of badly shaped mature trees
Thinning of congested groups of poles
Cutting back damaged seedlings and saplings
Remove undesirable undergrowth
Climber cutting
Cutting through bark and living layers of wood in a continuous incision all
around the pole of a tree
Economical method of killing inferior trees
Restricts flow of photosynthates from leaves to roots and causes death of
Girdling roots by starvation
May enhance fire hazards
Some species cannot be removed by girdling, due to presence of special
conducting tissues in interior of stems.
Effective in trees with thin bark
Pruning
Removal of live or dead branches or multiple leaders from standing trees for
improvement of the trees or its timber
Dry pruning or Green pruning, depending if live or dead branches are pruned.
Natural or Self pruning - natural death and fall of branches (by wind, drought,
snow etc.)
Bud Pruning - Rubbing off the lateral buds to prevent development of
branches as a measure to obtain knot-free timber. Reduces need for pruning at
later stages. e.g. Salix alba, Poplar
Presence of branches makes the timber knotty and reduces height increment.
Pruning should be done on the best stem.
Height of pruning should be as low as possible.
Pruning should be done without leaving splinters and without damaging the
bark.
Thin climbers need complete uprooting

Cut near the base and another about a meter above the base.
Cutting is effective for thick climbers, uprooting is more suitable for thin
climbers.
Removed and burned
Climber Control
Effect of climbers
Climbers may completely cover young regeneration

Climbers may make a groove around the stem of the young plant.
Thick climbers can bend the tree and cut out light
e.g. Mukuna, Ichnocarpus, Ipomaea

TYPES OF THINNING
Regular crops
Kind of thinning in which the trees to be cut is selected by some common

thumb rule
e.g. Trees in alternate rows, alternate trees etc.
There is no consideration of growth potentialities and site characteristics
Trees are retained according to pre-determined spacing
Stick Thinning - Special kind of mechanical thinning in which a stick having a
length of desired spacing is used for marking trees that are to be cut.
Applicable in early stages of crop when there is no differentiation of crown
Can be carried out only in those plantation or NR areas, where the plants are
uniformly spaced and have nearly uniform growth
Diseased, damaged and badly shaped trees are always removed.
Mechanical
Thinning Mechanical thinning in Teak
Initial spacing is 1.8 x 1.8 m.

First mechanical thinning when Teak attains a height of 7.5 to 9m
Alternate plants are removed and the total plant population is reduced to 50%
of the original, resulting in spacing of 2.5 x 2.5m.
After 5 years, again alternate plants are removed, spacing is 3.6 x 3.6m
Sal: Warren’s Formula

Deodar: Spacing in feet = Diameter in inches. Glover’s formula
Teak: Sagreiya’s Formula
Dalbergia: Howard’s Formula
Ordinary
Thinning Inferior individuals of a crop, starting from suppressed classes are removed
followed by some dominated and some dominant trees.
Retains only the fittest.
Done after the crops attain canopy differentiation
German Weak suppressed trees are removed, which were more liable to be infected by
Thinning diseases and pest.
Thinning from Too many inferior species increases risk of fire hazards and damage by
below climbers.
Remove the inferior trees, and possibly utilise them before they perish
Application
Applicable for light demanding species

Applicable in areas where small sized timber is marketable
Applicable to areas infested with climbers
Applicable to areas where there is no danger of soil of soil degradation
Advantages
Simple and easy to execute

Useful in areas where small sized timber is needed
Disadvantages
Small woods obtained from ordinary thinning are not saleable in many cases
Fire hazard danger is higher if smaller trees are lying around
Possibility for soil deterioration
In case of Teak, thinning of dominants is not appreciable
Dominant trees suffer due to competition because of delayed thinning
Grades of thinning
Light Thinning (A): Dead, dying, diseased, suppressed trees

Moderate Thinning (B): Dead, dying, diseased, suppressed trees + defective
dominated trees
Heavy Thinning (C): Dead, dying, diseased, suppressed trees + defective
dominated + defective co-dominant
Very heavy Thinning (D): C + good dominants to create gap
Very heavy thinning (E): C + more good dominants, mostly for research
Crown Thinning
Thinning is carried out mainly on dominant trees (diseased, malformed, less
French Thinning promising).
Thinning from Dominated and suppressed stems are retained because they have potential of
above further growth (unless they are dead, dying or diseased)
Application
Applicable to moderately shade tolerant species like deodar and sal

Applicable to dry regions
Applicable to areas liable to soil deterioration due to exposure
Applicable to areas where relatively large sized timber is needed
Applicable to areas which are prone to frost, snow, drought and wind damage
Advantages

Growth of retained dominant trees is faster

Production of large sized timber
Thinning will protect the soil from deterioration
Weed and Shrub growth under control
Disadvantages
Cumbersome process
Suppressed and dominated trees compete with dominant trees and affect it
Suppressed and Dominated trees present an obstacle in felling
Grades of crown thinning
Light Crown thinning - Dead, dying, diseased and few defective dominant trees
are removed. But dominated and suppressed trees are retained.
Heavy Crown thinning - Except dominated and suppressed trees, all the
remaining trees are removed.
Trees retained for the future will be selected from the beginning onwards
Attention is on evenly spaced elite stems
Thinning is done around elite or alpha trees to reduce competition
Technique of elite thinning for Teak in Tamil Nadu - 2.5 x 2.5 m distance, quadrat of
10 x 10 m, one elite from each quadrat under the condition they are spaced between
7.25 to 10.5 m from each other. 100 elites are selected per hectare (or 40 per acre). In
conservative thinning, all 4 stems around each elite are felled.
Free Thinning Advantages
Produces very rapid increment in the selected trees

Simple process
Disadvantages
Difficult to select elite trees at an early stage

Bad trees may be selected sometimes
Elite may be damaged by wind or animal, which will impact the plantation
program further
Subsequent thinning is more time consuming and cost consuming.
Heaviest form of thinning. More stems are removed retaining less number of
individuals from the earlier stage itself. Practically no trees other than the
elites.
Maximum
Ensures maximum utilisation of site by trees retained
Thinning
More exposure of land leads to deterioration of soil
Wider spacing leads to knotty timber, poor in strength
Wider spacing facilitates weed growth
Advance

Thinning Thinning done in a regular crop in anticipation of suppression

Craib Thinning Trees are to be thinned before the actual competition takes place and reduces
the growth of desired one.
Not suitable under tropical conditions and for light demanding species
Irregular Crops
Trees in irregular crop are classified mainly on basis of crown form and height
Three classes based on crown position — Dominant, Dominated, Suppressed

Three classes based on crown form — Good, medium, small
Based on Freedom of crown
Free Crown — Free to grow at the top and not pressed by its neighbours
Confined Crown — Refers to the crown which is not free to grow at the top or shaded by other crowns
on the sides
Restricted Crown — Between the two categories
Selection Thinning
Obtain or maintain selected composition in a crop, with all diameter classes equally represented.
Sequence: Dead dying and diseased trees > inferior trees > Less valuable > no special importance
Selection Thinning Crown Thinning
Applied to uneven aged or irregular crops

Applied to even aged or regular crops
Carried out in all canopy classes
Carried out in dominant trees alone
All diameter classes are adequately
Attention is not given to trees of the lower
represented
canopies
Attention is given to trees of lower canopies
Mixed Crops
Cumbersome because it contains different species of different ages

Crown thinning first, then considers economic importance of species, finally decide what species to be
retained at what proportion
Instructions covering the whole life of the crop should be put down to decide which species to be kept,
at what proportion at what age.
Coppice Crops
Aimed at fuel or small wood production mainly, hence does not need thinning.
But for timber, only one coppice is allowed and others are removed (2 per stool in first thinning, 1 in
second thinning)
When coppice crops are mixed, rate of growth and relative value of species have to be taken into
consideration.
WASTELAND DEVELOPMENT

Wasteland is land which is lying un-utilised or which is not being used to its optimum potential due to
some constraints. They are not used for either agriculture, pasture or forestry.
They are economically unproductive and ecologically unsustainable
Cover 20% if India’s land area
Remain barren for a long time as it is less productive, and hence utilisation requires more capital
Wastelands are increasing in a rapid manner due to increasing pollution, changing climate, increasing
population pressure and faulty land use systems
Cultivable Wastelands: Gullied and Ravine, Waterlogged land, Salt affected land, Shifting cultivation
area, degraded forests, Strip land, Sand Dunes, Mining
Uncultivable Wastelands: Cannot be used for vegetation establishment. Steep slope areas, barren rocky
or stony strips, snow covered and glaciers
Causes for Wasteland Formation Need for Wasteland Management
Neglected tillage practices

Extensive deforestation of forests without
Create suitable or favourable environmental
afforestation
condition for vegetation development
Inadequate protection of field bunds, drains,
Reduce soil erosion
gullies
Reduce diurnal variation of temperature
Intensive farming
Increase relative humidity in the region
Shifting cultivation
Carbon Sequestration
Lack of soil conservation measures
Reduce pollution hazards in environment
Mining and industrial waste disposal
Increased productivity of the land
Faulty irrigation
Reduce noise level
Salinity or pH disturbance in soils
Soil Erosion
Approaches for Wasteland Management

Tree species for wasteland afforestation
Management Practices
Adaptable to local condition
Re-establishment of vegetation
Fast growing
Soil and Water conservation measures
Short gestation period
Reclamation of problematic soils
Good coppicing ability
Prevent over grazing and illegal theft
Multiple uses
Energy efficient systems, Renewable energy
Higher demand and commercial value
Sustainable financing mechanisms
Low cost of initial establishment
Social Forestry/JFM for reclamation of land
Nitrogen fixer
Marshy Areas: Acacia, Terminalia Arjuna, Bambusa

Sandy Areas: Acacia, Dalbergia, Melia
Acidic Soils: Albizia, Gmelina
Alkaline Soils: Acacia, Terminalia arjuna, Prosopis juliflora, Tamarindus indica
Saline Soils: Acacia, Terminalia arjuna, Tamarindus indica, Prosopis juliflora
Dry Clay Soils: Acacia
High altitude areas: Acacia
Dry areas: Acacia, Prosopis
Wasteland Afforestation
Increase the forests and vegetative cover of the nation

Increase industrial wood production
Meet the needs of increasing human needs
Improve the general environment

Protect the agro ecosystems
Protect catchments area and conservation of soils
Reduce pollution
Increase aesthetic and recreational value of landscapes
Distributed in Rajasthan, Gujarat, Haryana, Punjab

Low fertility due to poor structure, low clay content, low biological activity, poor
organic matter content, moisture
Afforestation measures: Sand dune fixation, stabilisation through micro wind
Shifting sand breaks, shelter belts, fuel and fodder blocks
dunes Species chosen must be drought resistant with well developed root system,
should be able to penetrate deep into the soil for moisture and nutrient uptake.
The root system should be multi-layered. Should be able to withstand high
temperature and severe frost.
e.g. Prosopis juliflora, Acacia, Azadirachta indica
Contain an excess of soluble salt like chlorides and sulphate that affect plant
growth
Classified into Saline, Alkaline and Saline Alkaline soils
Soil amendments like Gypsum, manure and straw are added to improve the
physical and chemical properties.
Regular irrigation with good quality water especially in initial period of
establishment of is needed for saline soils.
Species used for afforestation should be able to tolerate high salt content in the
soil. It must have the ability to extract salts from the soil, so it may remedy the
Salt affected salinity in the long term.
soil e.g. Butea monosperma, Acacia, Azadirachta indica
Afforestation techniques
Ridge Trench Method: Trees are planted on 50-100 cm high ridges and trenches
between the ridges are used to drain excess water. Suitable for coastal areas
Sub surface planting in auger holes: Planting is done at sub-surface levels that
contain low salts.
Planting in furrow cum irrigation channel: Saplings are planted at 30 cm deep
trenches or furrows
Occurs mostly in high rainfall areas due to leaching of bases from soil
Also occurs due to high presence of organic matter
Acidic soils have high amount of aluminium, manganese and iron, which causes
toxicity to plant growth
Acid Soil
Poor in phosphorous
pH can be corrected by adding lime, basic slag, paper mill sludge
Rock phosphate can be added to augment phosphorous
e.g. Gmelina, Albizzia
Laterite Lands
Acidic soils that occur mostly in regions of high rainfall and situated on upper
ridges

Silicon is leached away from the upper layer. Accumulate high amount of Iron
and Aluminium Sesquioxides
Lacks humus and organic matter resulting in poor soil fertility. Addition of
fertilisers like Urea and super phosphate is essential
e.g. Shorea robusta, Tectona grandis, Santalum album, Anogeissus latifolia
Little cover of vegetation; most of the vegetation is heavily grazed; vegetation is

mostly bushes, herbs, climbers, grasses; Soil is shallow, stony, poor moisture
content and low in nutrient status; Excessive run off leading to severe erosion;
Grazing is high
Denuded and
Afforestation and soil conservation measures must be carried out simultaneously.
Eroded Hill
Rejuvenation of denuded hills with shallow soil and low moisture is essential for
slopes
seedling establishment, survival, ground water recharge
Planting in staggered contour trenches. Should be properly fenced and closed for
grazing.
e.g. Pinus, Cedrus, Manilkara hexandra, Acacia, Gmelina
Issues faced in afforestation of mined areas
Salinity and acidity

Inadequate supply of nutrients
Severe soil erosion
Bulk density is less than original soils
Mined out Low infiltration, water holding capacity and porosity
areas
Afforestation
Pits are dug in trenches and filled with good soil

Watering, weeding and initial care is needed for 2-3 years till establishment
e.g. Pinus, Acacia, Dalbergia, Grevillea
Water logging might happen due to high rainfall, poor drainage, high clay content
in soil, sub soil compaction, nearby rivers and canals
Priority is removal of excess water by specific drainage
For sub surface compaction and impervious layers, deep tillage is required
Canals must be suitably designed to avoid drainage problems
After drainage is addressed, salinity needs to be corrected.
Water logged Planting is done in mounds or ridges, to avoid submergence of plants.
lands e.g. Terminalia arjuna, Pongmia pinnata, Eucalyptus
Canal Banks
Cross diverse landforms and soil, being an artificial waterway.

Land strips on either sides of the canal have issues of water logging and salinity.
Gullies and
Ravines Severely eroded by water
Soil depth and organic matter is poor
Afforestation approach

Catchment areas of these ravines and gullies need to be addressed suitably.

Contour bunds are constructed at suitable intervals
Wastelands near the ravines are afforested
Gully plugging is carried out wherever necessary
SILVICULTURAL SYSTEMS
Silvicultural System
Silvicultural system is defined as the set of silvicultural procedure worked out in accordance with accepted
set of silvicultural principles by which crop constituting forest are tended, harvested and replaced by new
crops of distinctive form.
Scope
Pattern of felling to be adopted for harvesting

Method of regeneration to be adopted
Tending of new crop
Form or character of the crop to be produced
Need for classification of Silvicultural systems
Systemises knowledge on regeneration and felling under various forest conditions

Precautions against wrong use
Directs planned treatment of crops to get maximum yield in a sustained manner
Standardisation is needed because: uniform name across the world, avoid confusion if large number of
systems are available in different regions, give proper worldwide understanding about different systems
to foresters
High Forest System: Silvicultural systems in which regeneration is of seedling origin, either natural or
artificial and where the rotation is generally long.
Systems of concentrated regeneration: Silvicultural systems in which the regeneration fellings are
concentrated on a part of the forest at a time
Systems of diffused regeneration: Regeneration fellings are distributed over the whole forest
resulting in production of irregular forests
Accessory Systems: Originate from other even aged systems through slight modifications, resulting in
an irregular or two storied high forests.
Coppice Forest System: Silvicultural system in which regeneration is of Coppice origin and the rotation of
coppice is short.
Coppice Forest
High Forest System
System
Diffused
System of Concentrated Regeneration Accessory System
Regeneration
Clear Felling
Shelterwood System Simple
System
coppice
system
Clear Uniform Selection Two storied Coppice

Felling System System with high with two
System Group System Group forest system rotation
Clear Strip Shelterwood selection High forest system
System Strip System system with reserve Coppice
Alternate Wagner’s system with
Strip Blender Improvement standard
System Saumschlag felling system
Eberhard’s Coppice
Wedge with
System reserve
Strip and system
Group system Coppice
Irregular selection
shelterwood system
system Pollard
Indian system
irregular Shelter
shelterwood wood
coppice
system
Clear Felling System
Clear Felling is the removal of all trees from an area chosen for harvesting
Clear Felling
Equal or equiprodgctive areas of mature crops are successively clear felled in a
single operation
Regenerated by natural or artificial means
Total area to be felled for each year is A/r
In case of site variation, area to be harvested varies according to a fertility gradient
(Area felled in good quality lands is less, and that in poor quality lands is more to
equalise harvest across different felling)
Felling Pattern
Retention of some mature trees for frost protection to seedlings

Retain promising saplings and avoid sacrifice of immature desirable crops
Protection against failure of crop
Augments wildlife inside the forest
Satisfy local needs like local cottage industries and domestic uses
Artificial Regeneration is mostly used over natural regeneration in clear felling because
Surest and quickest way of regeneration

Introduction of exotics and fast growing species is possible with this method
Gives better financial returns from the investments
As seedlings establish quicker, area is to be opened for grazing sooner
Artificial Regeneration
Departmental Plantations: Demarcation, marking, felling, planting, inspection and

care are carried out by FD
Taungya: Forest plantations in combination with field crops

Natural Regeneration
Natural regeneration from seeds stored: Seeds stored in the area give profuse
seedlings. Felling is done after seed ripening so that regeneration is possible.
Seeds received from outside the forest: Regeneration from seeds received from
outside the felling area. Seed dispersal may be by flood water, irrigation water,
birds, etc.
Natural regeneration from advanced growth: Felling area having many advanced
growth of desired species, it may be retained for the next generation. Avoids
sacrifice of immature growth
Advantages
Simplest method
Regeneration is assured
Establishment period is shorter than other methods
Facilitates opening of forest for grazing sooner
Rate of growth is faster
Yield obtained is higher
Disadvantages
NR is difficult, mostly requires AR

Costlier due to artificial methods
Protection of regeneration is difficult and costly
Fire from unfelled strips may cause damage to establishing regeneration
Protection against grazing is difficult
Weed problem is higher as soil is exposed
Soil deterioration is higher due to more exposure
Felling is done in the form of strips which progress successively in one direction
across the area, usually against the direction of wind
Felling strips are separated from unfilled strips at sufficient width. The width may
be equal or multiple of width of the felled strip.
Strips are arranged in such a way that successive felling strips fall sequentially.
Width of strip depends on dissemination of seed
Regeneration mostly by NR. AR is used when the need arises
Advantages
Clear Strip Possibility of natural regeneration through seeds received from adjacent strips
Young regeneration get protection from matured stems on adjacent strips
Soil gets protected from adverse agents
Disadvantages
Protection of regeneration is difficult and costly

Fires from unfilled strips may cause damage to establishing regeneration
Protection against grazing is difficult
Weed problem
Soil deterioration is higher due to more exposure

Alternate Strip
Clear felling is done in form of strips where the clear felled strip is alternated with
unfilled strips of similar width
Unfelled strips are felled after establishment of regeneration in the felled strips
Crops obtained are even aged
Advantages
Supplies seeds naturally from the unfilled strips on both sides

Causes lesser damage to seed bearers
Protects the seedlings from frost, cold winds and other adverse factors
Disadvantages
Problem in extraction of timber from forest

No protection for shade bearing species
Fire protection is difficult
Shelterwood System
Uniform
System Shelterwood system aiming at concentrated regeneration in which the canopy is
uniformly opened up over the whole area of a compartment to obtain uniform
regeneration
Chir, Deodar, Referred as compartment system.
Kail Regeneration is mostly NR, but sometimes AR
Crops obtained are even aged
Objectives
Supply seeds naturally

Provide shelter against adverse climate
Regulate light conditions inside the forest for better regeneration
FELLING PATTERN
Seedling felling
Opening up of canopy of a mature stand to provide conditions for securing

regeneration from the seeds
Trees to be retained: Genetically superior trees, Trees with clean and cylindrical
bole
In case of shade bearing species, less opening
Less opening in drier areas
In hills, seed bearers are retained on ridges instead of valleys
Number of trees retained per hectare varies across species
After seedling establishment, weeding and cleaning is done when needed
Secondary Felling
Between seedling felling and final felling to gradually remove the shelter and
admit more light to the regenerating crop
Governed by progress of regeneration and light requirement of the species
Number of secondary fellings depends on species and progress of regeneration
More secondary fellings are required in case of more number of seed bearers and
in case of slow growing species
Final Felling
Removal of last seed or shelter trees after regeneration has been effected under
shelterwood system
Varies depending on species, climate and biotic factors
Regeneration Period and Periodic Blocks
Crop with 100 year rotation, regeneration period required is 25 years.

Total area is divided into 4 periodic blocks
At one time, one PB is felled and regenerated within the 25 years.
Instead of age gradation, it creates age classes
Fixed PB — Allotment in which entire area is divided into various PB, which
retain their territorial identity. Area of each PB = Total area x (P/R). Main
advantage is that all operations are done in the same PB which makes supervision
simple
Floating PB — Only one PB consisting of mature forest is taken up for
regeneration during the working plan period
Factors affecting length of regeneration period
Frequency of seed years: Regeneration period shorter for species having frequent
seed years
Light requirement: Light demanding species have shorter regeneration period
Climatic Factors: Extreme climatic conditions extend regeneration period
Soil: Deficiency of moisture or nutrient extends the regeneration period
Weed growth, grazing and fires increase regeneration period
Advantages
Little risk of soil deterioration

Marking and felling is quite simple
Little danger of invasion of weeds
Young crop is protected from frost, cold winds and insulation
New crops obtained are genetically superior
Useful for both light demanders and shade bearers
Risk of multiplication of injury by insects is less
Average length of rotation is shortened
Site factor is utilised fully
Supervision is easy
Disadvantages
Damage is caused to regeneration while carrying out felling

Manipulation of canopy requires skill
Not applicable where regeneration requires protection against climate
Not suitable for areas with frequent wind storm and very steep slopes

Group System
Silvicultural system in which regeneration felling is carried out in scattered
Deodar, Kail groups due to presence of advance growth which induces regeneration de novo
Tending operations include slash disposal, weeding, cleaning and shrub cutting
Felling
Group of advanced growth is identified and located in the compartment

Seedling felling is done all around the periphery (groupI)
If advance growth is inadequate, gaps are created by felling
Gap created will be more for light demanding species (and vice versa)
Secondary felling is done when regeneration appears in gaps in the first group
Seedling felling is done around this group (group II)
When regeneration comes up well in this, secondary felling is done in group II
Final felling is done in group I and seedling felling is done in the successive areas
(group III)
In this way felling proceeds to cover the whole forest
Younger crop is un-even aged, but it becomes even-aged at the end of the
rotation.
Advantages
Young crop develops in a more natural way

Little danger to seed bearers in being uprooted
Damage from logging and conversion can be decreased.
Disadvantages
Locating groups having advanced growth is difficult

Marking of trees for felling is difficult
Isolated seed bearers are liable to wind throw
Weeding and clearing is difficult
Supervision and control is difficult
Damage is caused to established regeneration by the sliding timber
Not applicable in extensive areas
Shelterwood Regeneration system in which regeneration felling is done in the form of strips arranged
Strip System successively from one side of the compartment to the other usually against the direction
of the wind.
Felling
Seedling felling is carried out in a narrow strip in one side of the compartment
After regeneration is established in the felled strips, secondary felling is done
Successive strip is selected where seedling felling is carried out
When second strip needs more light, secondary felling is carried out in this strip.
After this final felling in Strip I and seedling felling in strip III
Sequence is continued till it reaches the next end of the compartment
Limitations
Laying out of strips is difficult

Execution of felling is cumbersome
Logging and transportation is difficult
Protection against grazing and fire is difficult
Regeneration felling is carried out in narrow strips extending in EW direction and

advancing from N to S.
Provides sideward protection to the regeneration from the sun
Useful for sub-tropical and tundra regions. Not applicable in tropical regions as
the sun lies exactly overhead
Crop obtained is even aged along the EW direction and uneven aged in NS
direction. This gives a sloping profile to the canopy
Wagner’s
Blender
Saumschlag
Strip and
Group system Silvicultural system in which felling is done in strips conforming to the group
system.
First seedling felling is done in an area, where advanced growth is present.
When regeneration comes up well, secondary felling is carried out in groups.

Felling strip is located in the middle of the cutting section.

Length of the cutting section should be along the direction of the wind.
When regeneration comes up, it is widened towards the leeward side and less
towards the windward side. This gives a wedge shape to the strips.
With time progress, base of the strip touches each other as well as one end
reaches the top end of the cutting section.
Thereafter, remaining areas in the strips are felled and regenerated.
Suitable for wind prone areas.
Wedge system
Silvicultural system in which regeneration felling is done in the pattern of a group

system, but the regeneration period is long.
Compromise between selection and shelterwood systems.
Applicable to Tropical rainforests
Andaman Canopy Lifting Shelterwood System
Trees above a prescribed GBH are felled and removed (150cm for hardwood,
Irregular 120cm for softwood)
Shelterwood Canopy lifting is done by felling all poles of non commercial species and
system undergrowth upto 10m. This facilitates light penetration through the canopy
During March/April, a general burning is carried out in deciduous forest except
areas having advance growth. Not done in evergreen forests
Seeds of commercial species is broadcasted if advance growth is not sufficient.
Weeding is done after emergence of seedling. 2nd and 3rd year onwards, climber
cutting is done along with weeding.
Cleaning operation is carried out during 3rd year onwards to remove the
unwanted growth
First thinning is carried out in 6th year followed by thinning at 15, 30 and 50
years.
Indian Irregular
Shelterwood Crop to be regenerated is opened up irregularly and the resultant crop is uneven
system aged.
Regeneration is obtained naturally through irregular opening
Reduces unnecessary sacrifice of immature stand
In certain circumstance, regeneration is not obtained at our will
Suitable for steep slope and where there is a danger of loss of fertility
Selection System
Selection System
Felling and regeneration are distributed over the whole area and the resultant
crop is uneven aged
Regeneration operations are carried out throughout the life of the crop
Felling Pattern
First scattered trees are felled to facilitate natural regeneration

Whole forest area is divide into number of coupes. Number of coupes is equal
to the umber of years in a felling cycle
Each coupe is worked out for a year for regeneration felling. Done sequentially
for all coupes.
After N years, the same coupe is repeated for regeneration felling
Felling cycle varies from 10-20 years depending upon the species
Felling mostly focuses on dead/dying/diseased/defective trees, immature strip
coming under thinning strip or coupe, mature trees above the exploitable
diameter
Regeneration is obtained naturally but some times need artificial
supplementation.
Weeding and cleaning are done every 2-3 years.
Conditions of application of selection system
Suitable to steep topography as it maintains continuous vegetative cover (and

thus, reduces soil erosion)
Suitable for preserving catchment areas
Suitable for inaccessible and least communicable areas
Suitable for region where market requirement for particular species is
desirable
Suitable for region where concentrated felling do not offer any advantage
Suitable for shade bearers
Advantages
Utilises the site fully as it maintains continuous canopy cover in all storey
Facilitates conservation of soil moisture
Selection forest is resistant to injuries by insect, diseases and adverse climatic
factors due to mixed composition
Prevents invasion of grasses and weeds
NR comes up well without difficulties
Produces more growing stock per unit area
Selection forest is biologically superior
Enhances aesthetic and scenic value
Disadvantages

Requires skill in marking and felling

Cost of logging is higher
Damage to young crop during felling of mature crop
Inherent quantities of timber of young crop are not high
Forest is closed to grazing for long periods
Damage due to fire is more
Success or failure due to regeneration is difficult to assess
Selection forest has lower number of valuable species
Trees are felled in groups instead of scattered single trees.

Size of the group depends on the light requirement. Varies with aspect, slope
and height of surrounding trees.
Groups are not enlarged centrifugally like in the shelterwood group system.
In small area, whole area is carried out while in case of vast forest area, felling
cycle is adopted.
Crop obtained is irregular. But within groups, all trees are similar in age.
Suitable for light demanders.
e.g. Sal, Teak, Fir, Spruce
Group Selection
System
Limitations
Quality of timber produced is more knotty and tapering. This reduces the
timber quality.
Supervision is difficult which increases the cost of operations.
Young Crop is damaged during felling
Insufficient data to prove the higher growing stock and increment per unit area
from the selection forest.
Considered a most natural system. Improvement is largely not possible without
human manipulation.
Accessory Systems
High forest systems which originates from other even aged systems through slight modifications.
Results in irregular 2 storied high forests
Two storied High

Forest system Accessory silvicultural system that results in formation of 2 storied forest
Tree canopy occurs in 2 strata: Upper and Lower canopy
Dominant species in each stratum is different.
Crop in each storey is even aged
Top canopy is of seedling origin
Lower storey is obtained from natural regeneration but under planting is also
done for
Protection of soil. Cover crops used are Mesua, Switenia, Evodia,
Bamboo
Improving proportion of valuable species inside the forest
Helps in propagation of certain species which cannot be raised in the
open
Conditions of applicability
Applicable to regions that need effective soil protection

Applicable to propagation of shade bearing species

Applicable to increase the productivity by growing more crops per unit
area.
Applicable to where early return is expected
Needed where change of species is required.
e.g. Sal, Pine, Deodar, Bamboo in dry deciduous forests
Disadvantages
Underplanting operations are difficult

Needs much more knowledge and skill
Thinning in upper storey may cause damage to lower storey
Under storey crop competes with upper storey crop, which reduces its
growth
High forest with Accessory silvicultural system, in which selected crops are retained for part
reserves or whole of the 2nd rotation to obtain a larger sized timber
Method of treatment involving removal of inferior growing stock for the

better growth of more valuable species.
Not considered as a silvicultural system, because it is not aimed at
regeneration of crop
Aims at bringing a forest to a normal state
Activities
Improvement felling
Felling of dead, drying and diseased tree
Felling of unsound and over mature trees
Felling of badly shaped mature or immature trees
Thinning of congested groups of poles and trees
Thinning of badly shaped and damaged saplings
Removal of undesirable undergrowth or tree of inferior species
Cutting of climbers
Coppice Forest
Coppice system refers to the silvicultural system in which the new crop originates mainly form coppice
and the rotation of crop is shorter
Simple Coppice
Fixed area of old crop is clear felled completely without reserving any
tree.
Regeneration is obtained through stool coppices
Coppicing is done little before start of spring
Stump height should be of optimum height — too high leads to drying and
splitting, too low may be damaged by wind, animals and insects
Cutting of stem should be carried out in a slopy manner (to drain out
rainwater), without stripping or splitting the bark
Tending operation is carried out from 2nd year onwards
Thinning is done according to management options
Crop obtained is even aged
Advantages
Easy to apply
Requires less skill
Regeneration is certain
Coppice shoots grow faster
Cost of weeding, clearing and protection is less
Give relatively higher yield and net return
Disadvantages
Produces small sized timber

Exploits maximum available nutrients from the soil
Not a permanent one because trees cannot keep on coppicing
Coppice shoots are liable to damage by frost and wind
System is not desirable from aesthetic point of view
Conditions for Applicability
Region where factors of locality do not support production of bigger

timber
Suitable for social forestry establishment
Suitable for private lands as rotation is shorter and income is higher
Applicable to dry fuel forest of Tamil Nadu, species
like Eucalyptus globulus
At the end of the first rotation of coppice, a few selected poles are left over
the coupe for the 2nd rotation
Coppices of two
Objective is to obtain a few bigger sized timber
rotation system
Selected poles are retained at 2nd rotation onwards and not from initial
felling
Shelterwood coppice
system In this system, some shelterwood or standards are retained at the first clear
felling
Shelter trees should be of most promising ones.
Retained till the coppices are established securely.
Thereafter, shelter is gradually removed.
Number of standards retained varies with species and conditions. Normal
prescribed standards are 125-150/ha. Reduced to 60-75/ha at 5th year, and
completely removed at 10th year.
Condition of applicability
Applicable to regions where frost is more common

Applicable to good sites or locality conditions to produce larger sized
timber
Applicable to region where species can coppice for longer duration
Applicable to region where larger as well as small sized timber is
required.
Coppices with
standard system Silviculture system based on coppices in which an over wood is of
seedling origin and composed of trees of various ages which is kept over
Sal forests, Jamun coppices for varying periods
belts, Dry Deciduous Period of retaining standards may be multiples of coppice rotation or a
and permanent one.
Anogeissus pendula Crop is composed of different storeys — lower storey is of even aged
forests coppices whereas upper storey is made up of different species of different
ages
Objectives of keeping standards
Supply a large sized timber

Give protection against frost
Enrich the coppice crops
Maintain vigour of the coppice seedlings
Increase the revenue from unit area
Felling Pattern
Standard species should not be the same as that of the coppice. It may be
single or more than one species. In Sal forest, Sal and Terminalia alata are
used as standards
Standard species should be economically valuable
Should have good qualities like long and clear bole, large crown, light
foliage, wind firm, light demanding, etc.
Number of standards retained varies with object of management
(production of large sized timber), climatic factors and silvicultural
characters (shade bearer/light demander) of the species
Standards are uniformly distributed over the whole area which are marked
clearly and numbered with paint
Diameter and relevant information of standards are measured and
recorded
Rest of the trees are marked and clear felled
Regeneration is obtained by stool coppices and gaps are regenerated
artificially
Tending includes slash burning, climber cutting and thinning at 5th and
10th year.
Crop obtained is even aged in case of underwood whereas overwood is
even aged
In the subsequent rotation
Standards at coppice rotation are reserved for the next rotation

Thinning of standards of two coppice rotation and over aged crop
Felling of mature standards is done
Clear felling of remaining coppice
Advantages
Protects the soil against erosion

Standards grow better as it is in isolation
Standards serve as seed bearers and facilitate natural regeneration
Net return obtained is higher
Superior in view of aesthetic consideration
Disadvantages
Difficult to apply in practice

Compromise between simple coppice and high forest
Depletes soil fertility as it exploits higher nutrients
Cost of operation is higher
Coppice with reserve

system Silvicultural system in which felling is done in suitable areas likely to
benefit after reserving all financially immature growth of principal as well
as other valuable species, either singly or in groups
Modification of simple coppice system
Retention of some advanced growth of teak to avoid unwanted sacrifice of
wood
Poles of some miscellaneous species are also reserved to maintain a mixed
crop which maintains site quality
Retention of groups of pure teak poles in good sites to avoid unnecessary
sacrifice of improvement crop
Retention of all crops in areas liable to erosion with a view to prevent soil
erosion
Crop obtained is uneven aged
Applicable in dry deciduous species
Felling Pattern
Desired individuals of the concerned species are reserved first

After that, the rest of the crop is felled
Felling considers mostly the financially immature trees
Regeneration is obtained either from coppice or from advance growth
obtained from the seeds
Tending operations include climber cutting, cleaning at 5-8 years and
thinning of coppice shoots.
Reservation based on area
Areas with stock density below a threshold (understocked)

Entire area is liable to soil erosion
Areas around springs, wells etc.
Areas around dense pole crop of teak and sal
High quality areas with optimum conditions
Reservation by Species
Species yielding edible and commercial fruits

Species yielding important MFP (Jamun, Dyospyrous melonoxylon)
Species yielding commercial timber (teak, rosewood, sandal)
Rare species
Reservation by Trees
Based on diameter or girth of individual tree

Reservation to maintain a healthy mixture. For e.g. Soil under pure teak
deteriorates hence mixture of species is recommended
All advanced growth of valuable species up to 24 cm GBH is reserved
Trees are reserved for completing the stocking and supply of seed
Applicability
Region where crop varies in density

Region where crop composition, quality and proportion of valuable
species is low
Region where most of the crops are good coppicers
Valuable species should be a light demander
Advantages
Improves the site condition through soil and moisture conservation

Improves the composition and condition of the forest crops
Satisfies the local people’s needs
Facilitates the regeneration of valuable species naturally
Avoids sacrifice of financially immature trees
Disadvantages
Requires higher skill and expertise in executing the works

Reservation of large number of trees may adversely affect the coppice
growth
Not applicable when species is shade bearer or frost tender
Not suitable where weed or grass growth is higher
Felling is carried out on principle of selection system, but regeneration

through coppice.
Coppice selection Exploitable size is fixed based on need or demand.
system Thereafter, felling cycle is determined accordingly
Crop obtained is uneven aged
Applicable to Acacia catechu, Acacia modesta, Olea cuspidata, Sal forest
Refers to the cutting off of tree stem usually above the browsing height to
obtain a flush of shoots
Pollard System
Pollard system is applicable for obtaining maximum fodder from the tree.
Applicable to Salix, Hardwickia binata, mixed dry deciduous forests
Choice of Silvicultural System
Needs of species: Light demanding or shade loving?

Ability to coppice
Seed yield
Topography
Soil
Climate variability, drought, frost
Chances of insect and pest attacks
Economic considerations — timber or pulpwood? Availability of labour, financial constraints
Light demanding species: Clear felling

Shade bearing species: Shelterwood system or Selection Forest system
Principal Species Good Coppicers: Coppice System
Good Seed Yielding: High Forest System
Species with long seed interval: Selection System
Catchment areas, rocky slope and areas liable to erosion: Selection System,
Topography and Soil Indian irregular shelterwood system
Soil in evergreen forest: Indian irregular shelterwood system
Region with seasonal storms: Selection system

Snow liable regions: Selection or irregular shelterwood system
External Dangers
Drought, frost, insect prone areas: Shelterwood system
Dense, woody growth: Selection system
Production of fuel wood, small poles and timber: Coppice System

Large sized timber: High Forest System
Low Cost of extraction: Clear Felling
Objective of Regions with labour scarcity: Taungya
Management Skill instead of large amount of labour: Selection System
Large amount of labour but little skill: Clear Felling
Minor Forest Produces: Selection system (shorter regeneration period)
Aesthetic considerations: Selection system
Conversion
Changing of one silvicultural system to another because of added advantages.

Conversion changes the crop composition of the forest.
Objectives
Increase yield from the forest by replacing the inferior tree species with higher yielding ones
Meet increasing demands of timber
Advantages of a particular system over current system in terms of yield, quality of produce, ease of
working etc. e.g. Fir, Spruce and Teak are changed to uniform system from the Indian regular
shelterwood system
In case of failure of a system, changing of crop is inevitable.
Advancement of silvicultural knowledge and techniques
Development of communication and market demands
Conversion Procedure
Part of the forest is taken for current working plan period

Remaining area is progressed as per schedule
Based on the success, second revision onwards the conversion progressed to the whole of the forest
Allotment of PB and its treatments needs suitable modification
Sacrifice of immature crop is higher when the length of conversion is smaller (and vice versa)
When larger proportion of mature trees in the forest, length of conversion is shorter.

Management of Bamboo Forest Roadside and Avenue Plantations
Different species of Bamboo are subjected to

different silvicultural techniques.
Silvicultural systems
Cleaning and cultural operation

Selection cutting combined with cleaning
and cultural operations
Felling Rule Done in single or multiple rows on both sides
Bamboo needs a felling cycle of 3-4 years Objective

Bamboo to be felled are marked at BH first
Cutting of one year and sometimes two year Provide and resting place
culms are restricted Protect road surface against adverse weather
Certain old clumps are retained for general Shelter belt to tree less surroundings
protection Aesthetic considerations
Bamboo should be cut at a height of 15 cm,
leaving atleast with one node.
Cutting is done with sharp instrument to Operations
avoid splitting
Bamboo should be cut after the seed shed to Each mile or km of road is considered a unit
encourage NR All trees except middle aged are felled
Lopping of Bamboo should be avoided NCA suggested three rows of trees planted on
each side of the road
Spacing may vary according to species
Method of Regeneration Regeneration by artificial means
Tending operations like weeding and pruning
New clumps arise from seeds after are needed
gregarious flowering Species should be evergreen, hardy, wind
Blanks need artificial gap filling firm, fast growing, adaptable to wide variety
As it is susceptible to grazing, it needs of soil and climate
protection against grazing
Tending
As it grows faster, there is no need for

weeding and cleaning
But, 2-3 weedings in the first year may be
given for better growth
Produces uneven aged crops
Coppice of 2 rotation system Shelterwood Coppice System
Complete clear felling at the beginning of the Some standards are retained for part of the
first rotation rotation
Some poles are retained from the 2nd rotation Objective is to get protection from frost
onwards to throughout the rotation Applicable to frost prone areas
Objective is to produce large sized timber.
Applicable to all areas except frost-prone
areas.
Coppices with Standard Systems

Coppices of 2 rotation system
Standards are kept from the very beginning as

a permanent feature of the crop Standards are kept from the 2nd rotation, not
Objective is to get general protection as well from the initial rotation
as getting good timber Objective is to get larger sized timber
Standards is of seedling origin Standard is of coppice origin
Standards are of different species from the Standards are same species as Coppice
coppice crops
Coppice with reserve system

Coppice with Standard System
Very flexible system

Rigid system Financially immature crop is reserved to
Financially immature crop is sacrificed for obtain even aged coppice
obtaining good coppices Crop cannot be differentiated into storeys
Crop is composed of 2 storeys No such distinction is made and crop is
Distinct treatments and rotations for each treated as a whole
storey Reserve groups are irregularly distributed
Standards are spaced uniformly over the over the holy area
whole area with age classes distribution Objective is protection o soil and
Object of retaining standards is production of maintenance of soil fertility
large sized timber Reserves are of several species to maintain
Standards are of 2 or more valuable species site quality
Regeneration is mainly through coppice Regeneration is obtained by coppice along
with advance growth and from seeds
Indian Irregular Shelterwood System Selection System
Regeneration felling continued within the Regeneration is spread over the entire area
compartment or sub compartment Regeneration is a continuing process
Regeneration is completed in certain years throughout life of the crop
Applicable to tropical rain forests Applicable to sal and deodar forests
Working Plan Management
Working plan is the unit of any forest management. It covers the total area of a forest division
Forest division covers extensive area, which exhibit diverse variability in crop composition, soil
conditions and site factors
Working Circle is defined as a forest area (whole or part of a forest plan) organised with a particular
objective and subject to one and same silvicultural system and the same set of working plan
prescriptions
Preparation of Working Plan
Constitution of working plan requires detailed information about the forest division
Objective of forest management, crop composition, condition of crop, site condition, wildlife
populations, local people requirements, industry requirements etc.
Interests of different stake holders are weighed upon
Working rules are prescribed for part of the working plan area that is usually of more or less
homogenous nature
Working Circles are determined based on the information — Teak WC, Protection WC, Industrial
Timber WC, MFP WC, Grazing WC
People with special expertise in these areas may be consulted before finalising these plans
MANGROVES and COLD DESERT
Mangrove Forests
Mangroves are littoral plant formations of tropical and subtropical sheltered coastlines. They grow
below the high water level of spring tides which exhibit remarkable capacity for salt water tolerance
Occur in shallow coastal belts of equatorial climate zones (10°N to 10°S). Also occur in sub tropical
summer rainfall zone and warm temperate zone
Distribution in India: West Coast, East Coast, Andaman and Nicobars
India accounts for 7% of the mangroves of the world
Role of Mangroves
Moderate monsoonal tidal floods and reduce inundation of coastal lowlands

Prevents coastal soil erosion
Supplies woods, fire wood, medicinal plants, edible plants
Protects coastal lands from tsunami, hurricanes and floods
Supports numerous flora, avifauna and wild life
Supports seashore and estuarine fisheries
Protects inland agricultural lands, homes, livestock, aquaculture from adverse climatic elements
Enhance natural recycling of nutrients
Provides employment opportunities to local communities
Characteristics of Mangroves
Evergreen ecosystem
Tolerates and flourishes under high saline mud condition
Produces blind roots or pneumatophores to overcome anaerobic soil conditions
Viviparity is more common
Produce coppices readily
Leaves of many species contain salt secreting glands
Cell Osmotic concentration is higher
Factors of Locality
Salinity and Drainage
Length, quality and distribution of rainfall determine the salinity of seawater

Delta formation is a delicate balance between type and amount of river sediment, compatibility of the
sediment, vegetation, changes in sea level, underlying geology and geomorphology
Soil drainage depends on climate, river flow, watershed and diversion of water from rivers
Drainage affects water temperature and salinity in mangrove ecosystem, which influences
osmoregulation mechanism in marine animals
Helps in primary nutrition and metabolic waste removal
Tides control oxygen concentration in water and nutrient mixing
Soil of Mangroves
Depends on sediments of river and geology of the region

Soils are highly sodic due to salt contribution by sea water
Osmotic potential is high due to salt
Physiologically dry soil - Water is not available to plants due to high salt concentration, rather than low
water concentration
Mangroves have inbuilt mechanism of high osmotic sap inside the plant system to counter this.
Soils are usually anaerobic due to high water table in this region.
Soil structure is poor and less durable
Organic matter is high in surface layer rather than sub-surface layer. This is due to little decomposition
of organic matter in the anaerobic environments.
Mangrove Vegetation
Nuclear Vegetation: Only in Inter Tidal zones where salinity influence is very high. Obligate
halophytes, viviparous, withstand submergence, have pneumatophores and salt secreting glands. e.g.
Rhizophora mangle, Rhizophora harrisoni, Avicenia germinans, Lagungularia racemosa, Pelliciera
rhizophorae
Marginal Vegetation: Present in low land fringes of seasonal freshwater swamps and beaches. Salinity
influence is moderate, so species are not restricted to mangroves alone. e.g. Canocarpus erecta, Mora
olerifera, Annona glabra
Marginal facultative vegetation: Upland zones surrounding typical mangrove habitat. e.g. Carapa
guianensis, Elaesis oleifera
Mangrove Succession
Pioneer Species - Avicennia, Sonneratia which can stand in high salinity, wave and wind. Extensive
root system traps and collects the sediment, including organic matter from decaying plant parts, making
the soil more compact
Compact soil favours Rhizophora, which replaces Avicennia and Sonneratia. Rhizophora has prop
roots which create firmer soil.
The ground gets higher than less submerged under seawater - favours Brugueira
Nipah and Pandanus replace Brugueira
Over all, the mangroves move towards the sea.
Zonation in Mangroves
Zonation of mangroves is distinct in the east coast and merging in the west coast
Salinity range, range and force of tidal action play a role in creation and maintenance of zones
Zones of Mangroves
Proximal Zone - Towards sea water, subject to regular tidal effect, species have stilt roots and prop
roots for stability and anchorage. e.g. Rhizophora, Avicennia, Sonneratia, Caseolaris
Middle Zone - Core zone of mangroves. e.g. Bruguiera, Lumnitzera, Ceriops, Aegiceras. Develop a
strong hold fast in the form of knee roots or bent roots as a special adoption for supporting the erect
bole.
Distal Zone - Towards land, subjected to less sea action. Exposed to lesser salinity. Duration of tidal
submersion is lower as well e.g. Excoecaris, Heritiera, Xylocarnus
Role of Mangroves
Protect shores from damaging storms and hurricane winds

Stabilise sediments with their tangled roots systems
Stabilise the coastline by trapping sediments brought down by rivers
Nursery for number of species of fish, crab and shrimp
Unique ecosystem which harbour unique species of fauna. e.g. Fishing Cat, Kingfishers
Mangrove wood is valuable as it is resistant to rot and insects
By trapping sediments, they also protect coral reefs and seagrass meadows
Distribution of Mangroves
Mangrove Scrub KG delta, Sunderbans Avicenia, Exocaria, Ceriops
Mahanadi Delta, KG delta,

Mangrove Forest Rhizophora, Avicenia, Brugeria
Sunderbans
Salt water mixed forest Sunderbans Hereteria, Exocaria, Ceriops,

Brugeira
Brackish water mixed

Sunderbans, Andamans Hereteria, Brugeira
forest
Enumeration of Mangrove Vegetation
Lines are demarcated at 100m interval. Within the lines, circular plots of 5.64m radius
are made at 100m apart. This gives 1% sampling. From the samples collected, total
assay will be carried out using specific formula
Line Plot Number of Sampling Units (n) = Ap/a

Sampling Sampling Intensity (f) = a/(D1 x Dp)
Actual forest area sampled = fA
A = total area, a = area of sampling unit, D1 = distance between two lines, Dp =

Distance between plots
Continuous strips of uniform widths are laid out across the topography gradient and
drainage pattern to cover all physiographic conditions.
First strip is randomly selected and thereafter, all strips are regularly spaced.
Strip width ranges from 10-20 m and 500m is allowed between strips.
Strip Sampling
Natural Regeneration comes from existing advance growth, viviparous seedlings and seeds released from
trees.
Class I: Area having >30 cm but less than 150 cm established regeneration
Class II: Area having <30 cm but have potential regeneration of 1.5 to 3 m
Class III: Area having saplings of 3-5 m
Rhizophora does not require a nursery.

Small seeded species like Sonneratia, Avicennia and Exoecaria agallocha require a nursery because
these seeds are easily washed off by the water.
Spacing varies across species
Aerial seeding of Avicennia species gives about 50% success in seedling establishment
Pest Control
Crabs are a threat as they cut the succulent shoots of juvenile regeneration.
Seedlings are placed inside bamboo containers.
It is better to plant seedlings instead of seeding.
Rhizophora is liable to be damaged by the stem borers.
Leaf caterpillars might defoliate mangroves. Termites can also infest the trees
Harvesting
Rotation for mangrove is fixed based on control of supply of certain services, or to control the
production of selected forest products or for financial return.
Felling is fixed by sequential logging plan over space and time.
Felling strips are oriented 45º or 90º to the tidal waves, which facilitates seed dispersal.
Harvesting systems: Wheel furrow method, Tramway, Canals, Portable cable winch
Mangrove Afforestation
Challenges: High Salinity, Water logged soil, poor soil aeration and fluidity of soil surface are the main
constraints for mangrove afforestation.
Area Selection: Local people’s requirements, livestock density, fuel wood requirements
Staff Orientation
Species Selection: Considered based on locality factors, existing mangrove vegetation, local needs of
community
Rhizophora is suitable for fuel wood purposes, while Avicennia is suitable for fodder as it
coppices well.
Planting Stock: 6-12 month old natural seedlings. Rhizophora, Avicennia are raised from seed
propagules. Nursery should be close to planting site.
Site Preparation
Planting is done in monsoon. In low tidal zones, seedlings are planted at a 2x2m spacing
Beating Up: Areas with <70% survival need refilling with fresh seedlings.
Thinning is carried out at the age of 10-15 years
Protection: Fencing to prevent grazing and pulling of plants during fishing. Proper weeding to limit
algal growth. Pest control becomes difficult as pesticides get washed away
Fishbone Technique
Developed in Picchavaram, Tamil Nadu

Planting is done in a manner 45º angle to the prevailing tide direction.
Bed for planting is dug in a fish bone fashion.
Seedlings are planted inside the bunds of the channel
During HT, water enters the channel. During LT, water leaves the channel.
Silvicultural Systems for Mangroves
Suitable for species of Rhizophora which are strong light demanding species
that can withstand competition in open areas
Retention of 7 trees/ha at the time of final felling. All trees above diameter of
Clear Felling
7.5 cm are removed by this time.
Narrow 3m belt of trees is retained adjacent to river banks or the coast to
prevent erosion.
Trees above certain pre determined diameters are harvested from the annually
Selection stipulated coupes
Used in Sunderbans
Selection cum
Improvement Mangroves in Sunderbans, 2 years after planting are managed under a selection
cum improvement system.

Separate annual coupes are laid out for timber, fuel wood and pulpwood
extraction
All types of harvest are carried out once in each 20 year period
COLD DESERT
Cold Desert is an area that experiences extreme cold temperatures and low rainfall
Weather and soil are not suitable for plant growth
There is only some isolated, scattered and over grazed herbaceous growth.
Division
Dry Temperate Zone: Betula utilis, Salix, Juniperus recurva

Alpine Zone: Juniperus, Birch, Rhododendron
Perpetual Snow Zone: No vegetation due to permanently frozen soil
Based on Champion and Seth Classification
Himalayan Dry Temperate Forest

Wet Himalayan High Level Dry Blue Pine forest
Wet Himalayan dry Juniper forest
Hyppophae myricaria on inner Himalayan streams
Populus/Salix forest
Sub Alpine Forest
Wet Himalayan subalpine birch/fir forest
Moist Alpine Forest
Birch Rhododendron Scrub forest
Deciduous alpine scrub
Alpine pastures
Dry Alpine Scrub
Characteristics
Temperature is less than zero for a large part of the year. Inhibits water absorption by plant
Atmosphere is very dry. Mean annual rainfall is <40cm
Snowfall is heavy (mostly between late November,
Wind erosion is common
Soil is sandy to sandy loam, neutral to alkaline
Low water retention capacity. Poor organic matter content
Growing period is narrow which is mostly during the summer
Growth of vegetation is in a slow and stunted manner
Native vegetation is scarce. e.g. Pinus gerardiana, Daphne acuminate, Indigofera sp, Desmodium,
Butea minor, Artimisia. Shrubs: Berberis vulgaris, Rosa webbiana, Poa alpine, Lolium, Cymbopogon
Afforestation in Cold Desert
Need for afforestation
Regions are deficit in timber species

Huge demand for fuel wood and fodder for livestock
Presence of vegetation prevents soil erosion

Problems
Poor fertility and hostile climate

Shallow stony soil which doesn’t hold moisture and nutrients
Steep slopes and wind erosion
Heavy grazing and Browsing
Procedure for Afforestation
Careful species selection

Rocky areas: Pinus armandi,
Calcareous soil: Pinus
Cold temperature: Eucalyptus
Moist areas: Betula, Salix
Create favourable environment for plant establishment
Protection from browsing and grazing
Conservation and utilisation of moisture
Useful for gentle sloping lands as well as stony areas

Trench cum Pit Type Contour ditches are dug in a staggered manner at 10m interval
Soil, silt and mulch is added
Useful for low lying areas — river banks nd marshy lands with high
Irrigation cum Trench
salt concentration
Type
Mounds are made around the plants by piling excavated soil.
Willow Cultivation (Salix alba)
Distributed in Western Himalayan regions. Upto 2400m in Kashmir and Kullu valleys. Mostly on
banks of water bodies
Deciduous tree, light and spreading crown
Moist temperate climatic conditions, with 60-100 cm annual rainfall. Maximum temperature in summer
should not be more than 32ºC. Minimum altitude of 1200m.
Well aerated, deep, fertile loam soil.
Distribution is largely restricted by water availability
Planting of sets Planted Rooted Cuttings
Sets collected from young tree are most ideal Cuttings of 20-25 cm length and 1-2cm
for planting purposes diameter are selected and planted in
Selected from pollarded young trees nursery at a spacing of 60x30cm.
Planted during Nov-March One year old twigs are most ideal for
Should be treated with water sufficiently before making cuttings.
planting. Site should ideally have a source of Each cutting should have one main bud and
running water nearby no side buds.
Planted into holes and the soil is compacted December to Mid-Jan is most suitable
around it Tending is essential to get a clean bole up
Thinning at 5th and 10th year to a height of 2.5m

Rub young immature buds before they

come out for a clean bole.
SILVICULTURE OF SPECIES
F: Flowering, S: Shedding, LS: Leaf Shedding, LF: Leaf Fleshing, ST: Seed Treatment, H: Harvest
Moderate
NR by seed
sized Frost hardy
AR by Direct House posts,
Acacia catechu deciduous tree Strong light
50-200mm Sowing and Fire wood,
demander
Porous Planting Fodder, Tool
Leguminosae F: June-July Coppice well
Alluvium ST: 24h handles, Kathy,
S: Nov-Dec Moderate fire
water charcoal
LS: Feb hardy
soaking
LF: April-May
Strong light
Rajasthan, Evergreen NR by seed
demander
Gujarat and AR by Direct Carts and wheel
Frost tender
Acacia nilotica Deccan F: June- Sowing and work, boat,
Drought
600-1250mm October Planting building, fuel
hardy
Leguminosae Alluvial Black S: April-July ST: 40h wood, bark for
Fire tender
Soil LS: April-May water tanning
Wind hardy
15-45 °C LF: April-May soaking
Moderate frost
hardy, strong
light
600-1100 mm demander, Fuel wood,
Acacia Altitude moderate NR by seed Pulpwood,
Moderate
auriculiformis 600m drought hardy, AR by Direct Small furniture,
sized
All kinds of fire tender, Sowing and Tannin,
evergreen tree
Leguminosae soils withstand Planting Reclamation of
20-30 °C grazing, no wastelands
coppicing,
profuse root
suckering
Frost tender
Large Light
deciduous tree demander
650-2500 Not wind firm NR by seed
mm F: April-May Young plants AR by Direct Furniture,
Albizzia lebbeck
Well drained, S: August are moderate Sowing and Agricultural
mid saline and H: Dec shade bearer Planting implements,
Leguminosae
laterite soil LS: October- and sensitive ST: 30 min fodder
-5 to 45 °C Nov to drought hot water
LF: March- Coppices well
April Produces root
suckers
Albizzia procera
Leguminosae

Anogeissus
latifolia
Azadirachta
indica
Butea
monosperma
Cassia siamea
Casuarina
equisetifolia
Cedrus deodara
Chukrasia
velutina
Dalbergia sisoo
Dipterocarpus
indicus
Dipterocarpus
macrocarpus
Dipterocarpus
turbinatus
Emblica
officinalis
Eucalyptus
commaldulensis
BAMBOO
India possesses one of the largest bamboo reserves

Bamboos are perennial grasses. The woody stem arises from a underground rhizome
Stems are called Culms and a group of Culms is called a clump
Culms are usually hollow, but in Dendrocalamus strictus it is solid
Found in variety of habitats but usually prefers moist sites. From sea level to 3700m in the Himalayas.
Eastern India accounts for more than 50% of bamboo distribution
Species of Bamboo
North west India: Dendrocalamus strictus

Bihar, eastern UP: Bambusa balcooa
Himalayas: Arundinaria

Western India: Dendrocalamus strictus, Dendrocalamus hamiltoni, Bambusa bambos,

Bambusa nutans, Bambusa vulgaris
Central India and Deccan: Bambusa bambos, Bambusa Tulsa, Bambusa vulgaris, Dendrocalamus
strictus
Deccan Plateau: Gigantochloa rostrata
Andaman and Nicobar: Gigantochloa rostrata, Dinochloa andamanica, Schizostachyam kurzii
Flowering
Flowers once in its lifecycle. Usually die after flowering

Flowering phenomenon varies from species to species.
Due to this, seed availability of bamboo is very less.
Propagation of bamboo is largely by vegetative propagation
Types of Flowering in Bamboo
Annual Flowering: Bamboos do not die after flowering. e.g. Indocalamus wightianus, Arundinaria
wightiana
Periodic Flowering: Period varies. Type of gregarious flowering and hence, Rhizomes and Culms die
after flowering gradually. e.g. Dendrocalamus strictus flowers once in 30-70 years.
Sporadic Flowering: Flowering occurs irregularly. One of few culms in a clump of few clumps in a
particular locality flowers. e.g. Dendrocalamus hamiltoni, Gigantochloa sp., Oxytenanthera sp.
Gregarious flowering: Bamboos die after flowering. Proceeds from one end of the forest to another in
waves.
Why Bamboo dies after flowering?
Most herbaceous bamboo flower annually, most woody bamboos flower very infrequently
After producing seeds, they die completely or in part.
Seed production requires enormous amount of stress leading to death of bamboo
Death of parent bamboo facilitates better growth for seedling as it reduces competition.
Occurs after gregarious flowering is side forests. Seedling emerges after rain in abundance like a green
grass carpet
Only a few culms establish to form a mature bamboo. Takes a minimum of 5-10 years
Grazing and Fire are harmful to NR
Propagation by Seed
Collected from forest just after maturity. Seeds are collected by spreading a cloth on ground and
shaking Culms.
Seeds are cleaned and stored in dry cloth bags.
Used for direct sowing in field or seedling production in nurseries.
Seeds are placed at a depth of 10-15 cm in the soil. In dry and poor sites, more depth is advisable.
Seeds are soaked for 24-48 h in water. This promotes germination and facilitates uniform emergence.
Soaked seeds are spread over prepared soil beds and covered in 1-2cm of sand. Bed should be located
in a shady place.
Irrigation and protection from rodents and birds
Vegetative Propagation
Rhizome cutting
Fresh, live rhizome cutting of about 15-30 cm long at least with one node are cut from the
mature rhizome
Treated with water for sometime and planted in pits.
e.g. Melacona baccifera
Rhizome planting
Rhizome mass is divided into small divisions comprising Rhizome and full, single individual
culm
Directly planted in field.
Carried out in dwarf bamboos where it is easy to handle this Rhizome cutting
Offsets
One season old culms are used. Avoid use of more than 2 season old culms.
Rhizome with roots intact is cut along with the Culm.
These offsets are directly planted in the field.
Gives better establishment in the shortest time.
After care management like weeding, irrigation, cleaning and protection from grazing and fire
are essential.
Entire Culm Planting
One year old culm is removed from matured mother clump.
Placed in raised nursery bed and covered with loose loamy soil for 2-3 cm thickness.
Adequate shade is maintained and watering is done twice a day.
Cost effective as it does not require any growth promoting substances or hormones for cutting
treatment
75% success rate, which makes it better than other methods
Layering
Partial cut near the base of the Culm
Culm is bent down and buried in the soil. Sprouting from the node section of the Culms.

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Forestry 1A

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21/09/2019 Forestry 1A

Branch of Forestry which deals with

Production of higher volume per unit area

Seedling: Plant grown from seed till it reaches about 1m in height.

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Leaf Green, ﬂattened, lateral structure attached to a stem

Upper branchy part of the tree above the Bole.

Based on crown, trees in forests are classiﬁed as

Dominant Trees: Trees of the upper most canopy. (Class I, abb-D)

Acute angle with main stem: Populus nigra

Outer most layer of stem and root of woody plants.

Method of plant propagation in which plants are propagated by means of seed.

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Aerial seeding is the process of dispersing the seed aerially.

Sites for Aerial Seeding

Remote and inaccessible areas

Choice of species for aerial seeding

Smaller to medium sized seed

Needs large amount of seeds, as germination percentage is

Examples of Aerial Seeding

Chambal ravines in UP, Rajasthan, West Bengal, Western Ghats of MH

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Only possibility when plants are not producing seeds

Factors affecting cuttage

Development of roots on stems while it is attached to the parent plant.

Limited to certain plants only

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Also called Goottee or Marcottage

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Factors for successful graft

Rootstock and scion should be closely related for better compatibility

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Temperature, wind, humidity

Approach Grafting (Inarching)

Side Grafting (Veneer Grafting)

Whip or Splice grafting

Tongue shaped cut in both scion and rootstock.

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Strong, healthy seedlings in short time. e.g. Apple

Shield or T budding: T or inverted T incision is made on the rootstock. Scion of

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Sub culturing the callus growth

Rapid multiplication of plants

Need for nurseries

Meet afforestation needs for increasing forest and vegetative cover

Site Selection for Nursery

Central place with easy accessibility from forest

Pre treatment measures

Seeds with high lipids — Avoid delayed sowing

After treatments, seeds are sown in the mother bed.

Steps in maintaining a nursery

Should be ﬁrm and dense

Shade to seedlings is gradually removed.

Artiﬁcial regeneration of barren sites

Planting in straight lines.

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Plants on the corners of an equilateral triangle

Planting in a group of 5 points, 4 of which are corners of a square and

Types of tree species

Principal species: highest in volume/value

Dominant growth form - Tree, Shrub, Grasses

Why classify forests?

Study and characterise different forest types

System for Classiﬁcation