1A Non Chordata

21/08/2019 1A Non Chordata
Major and Minor Phyla
Concept of Major or Minor Phyla depends on

Number of species and individuals
Participation in ecological communities
9 are regarded as major phyla: Protozoa, Porifera, Coelenterata, Platyhelminthes, Nematoda, Mollusca,
Annelida, Arthropoda, Echinodermata (large number of species and found in many ecological
communities)
Rotifera and Ectoprocta have many number of species, but are not found in many communities
Minor Phyla: Rotifera, Acanthocephala, Nemertinea, Pogonophora
Acanthocephala Entoprocta Rotifera
Minute worm like Sessile Microscopic

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endoparasites Body of calyx and slender Anterior end with a ciliated

No digestive cavity stalk crown
Protrusible proboscis with Digestive tube U shaped Pharynx with internal jaws
recurved spine Mostly marine Mostly freshwater, some
Mouth and anus close marine
together, surrounded by a
tentacular crown
Phylum: Onychophora
Body is elongated, cylindrical and bilaterally symmetrical (5-7 cm in length)

External segmentation is unclear and unjointed legs number from 14 to 43 pairs
Each leg is a stumpy protuberance ending in 2 claws. 3-6 pads on the ventral
side which serve as walking soles which contact the substratum
Skin is covered in a thin cuticle, covered with numerous velvety processes
Skin is thrown into transverse ridges bearing conical tubercles with chitinous
External spines
Morphology Below the cuticle, are typical layers of muscles and connective tissue of a worm
like body. Muscle plays no role in locomotion
Anterior end is not differentiated as a head. Bears a pair of eye, pair of pre-oral
antennae, slime secreting oral papillae, and a mid ventral mouth with a pair of
chitinous jaws. Antennae are not homologous to arthropods
3 segmented head is midway between Annelida and Arthropoda.
Anus at the posterior end and genital aperture located in front of the anus.
Body wall has cuticle, epidermis, dermis, striped/circular/longitudinal muscles

Coelom is in form of small cavities around gonads and metanephridia
Body cavity is Haemocoel, lined with epithelium
Mouth leads to alimentary canal (tongue, muscular pharynx and salivary glands,
oesophagus, stomach, intestine and rectum)
Respiratory organs are unbranched trachea
Excretory organs: Coxal glands, one pair in each segment, opening at the base of
Anatomy
the legs.
Dorsal tubular contractile heart within the pericardial cavity
Sensory organs: pair of eyes near base of antennae, taste spines in mouth, tactile
spines on surface tubercles.
Nervous system: Pair of supra pharyngeal ganglia, pair of lateral longitudinal
nerve cords connected by transverse commissures. No true ganglia.
Internal Fertilisation

Affinities with Annelida Affinities with Arthropoda
Vermiform body, with truncated extremities Presence of antennae

Absence of true head Jaws are modified appendages
Dermo-muscular body wall, with a thin Locomotion by definite legs, having definite
flexible cuticle and underlying circular and musculature and claws
longitudinal muscles. Cuticle has thin deposits of Chitin
Locomotion slow and by peristalsis like in an Body cavity is a Haemocoel
earthworm Coelom reduced to small cavities that
Structure of simple eyes like Polychaetes surround the excretory and reproductive
Presence of Cilia in reproductive and ducts
excretory ducts Similar salivary glands
Slime and Coxal glands Tracheal respiratory system
Simple, straight alimentary canal with Brain is large like arthropods
terminal mouth and anus. Structure of reproductive organs and
Segmentally arranged paired Nephridia. developmental stages like insects
Considered an intermediate link between Annelida and Arthropoda.

However, it has certain unique characters as well because of which it is placed in a Phylum of its own.
Undoubtedly an ancient lineage, because the mid Cambrian fossil Aysheaia closely resembles modern
day Onychophora
Lower Invertebrates Higher Invertebrates
Small in size Larger in size

Simple body organisation Body organisation complex
Radial, bi-radial or no symmetry Bilateral Symmetry
Germ Layers 2 or 3 3 germ layers
No Coelom or Pseudo Coelom True Coelom
No separate mouth and anus Mouth and Anus are separate
No muscular gut True muscular gut
Blood vascular system not well developed Well developed blood vascular system
Protozoa Metazoa
Microscopic, unicellular animals Larger, multicellular animals

Structure simple with sub cellular organelles Complex structure, with strong cellular
Centriole absent differentiation
Protoplasmic grade of organisation Contain centrioles
Very little physiological division of labour Cellular, Tissue and Organ level of
Asexual reproduction dominant organisation
Conjugation between adults: Hologamy Physiological division of labour is well
marked
Asexual reproduction common in lower

metazoans, else sexual
Conjugation between sperm and ovum:
Syngamy
Further divided into Mesozoa, Parazoa,
Eumetazoa
Mesozoa Parazoa Eumetazoa
Sessile, Parasitic Mostly mobile

Sessile
Tissues absent, few cells Well defined tissues
Poorly defined tissues
in 2 layers Organs well formed
Organs not formed
Organs not formed Mouth and digestive tract
Mouth and digestive tract
Mouth and digestive tract present
absent
absent Extracellular digestion
Intra cellular digestion
Intra cellular digestion Not porous
Porous
Body surface not porous Body cavity not lined by
Internal cavities present
Body cavities are absent Chaonocytes
Phylum: Porifera
Phylum: Mesozoa Radiata and Bilateria
Radiata Bilateria
Body bilaterally symmetrical

Body radially or bi-radially symmetrical
Organ systems are well marked
Organ systems are incipient and not well
Triploblastic. Mesoderm is well developed.
marked
Coelomic cavity: Pseudo coelom or True
Diploblastic. Mesoderm is not well developed
Coelom or Absent
Coelomic cavity invariably absent
Mouth and Anus are both principal
Mouth is the principal opening of digestive
openings
cavity
Tentacles if present, are with our
Tentacles with Nematocysts.
nematocysts
Comb plates in some
No comb plates
Fertilisation is mostly external
Fertilisation is mostly internal
Coelenterata, Ctenophora
Protostomata, Deuterostomata
Protostomata Deuterostomata
Mouth arises from the blastopore Mouth arises anteriorly some distance away
Anus arises secondarily from Blastopore
Mesoderm formed when Mesenchyme cells Mouth arises secondarily
migrate in Protostomia Mesoderm originates when Epithelial cells
Coelom absent. Pseudocoelom or Blastocoel in pocket from archenteron
may be present. Shizocoel may be present by Coelom developed as Enterocoel by fusion
split of mesoderm. of gut pouches
Cleavage spiral and determinate Cleavage radial and indeterminate
Larva Trochophore Larva Tornaria or Bipinnaria.
Acoelomata: Platyhelminthes, Nemertinea Enterocoelus Coelomata: Echinodermata,
Pseudocoelomata: Rotifera, Entoprocta, Hemichordata
Acanthocephala, Nematoda

Lophophorate Coelomata: Phoronida,

Brachiopoda
Schizocoelous Coelomata: Mollusca, Annelida,
Onychophora, Arthropoda
Phylum: Onychophora
Worm like unsegmented body covered by thin cuticle

Pair of anterior antennae
Many pairs of short stumpy legs ending in claws
Moist soil
e.g. Peripatus, Peripatopsis
SYMMETRY
Symmetry is an arrangement of body parts into geometrical designs, so that the body is divided into
equal parts along lines or planes.
Developed as a concept by Ernst Haeckel
Asymmetric: Sponges, Protozoa
Spherical
Symmetry Found in animals whose body has the shape of sphere

All planes that pass through centre will cut it into similar halves
Some protozoans have spherical symmetry, adapted for free-floating or rolling
movements.
Body is in form of a flat or tall cylinder.

Many similar body parts (antimeres) are arranged around one main central axis
All the planes passing through this longitudinal axis, will divide the body into
Radial
two equal halves
Symmetry
e.g. Porifera, Echinoderms, Most Coelenterates
Best suited for a sessile existence, most of them are attached to substrate at their
aboral surface
Variant of radial symmetry

Biradial
e.g. Ctenophora, Anemones
Symmetry
Only 2 pairs of symmetric sides
Most higher animals

Longitudinal axis of the body runs from head to tail — divides into similar right
Bilateral
and left halves
Symmetry
In most of them, anterior end is differentiated into the head.
e.g. Platyhelminthes
COELOM
Coelom or true cavity generally refers to a large fluid-filled space lying between outer body wall and
inner digestive tube.
It arises as a secondary cavity between 2 layers of embryonic mesoderm and contains most of the
viscera organs, and is bounded on all sides by a definite coelomic epithelium
Primary Coelom Secondary Coelom
Blastocoel is obliterated by embryonic

archenteron, without forming a primary
Also called a False Coelom or Pseudocoelom
coelom
Derived from the Blastocoel of the embryo
True coelom develops within the embryonic
Internal organs remain free in it, since it is not
mesoderm and is lined by a layer of
bound by peritoneum or mesoderm
flattened mesodermal epithelial cells
Enclosed by ectoderm and endoderm
True coelom appeared for the first time in
e.g. Rotifers, Roundworms etc.
Annelids
Present in all higher Bilateria
Coelomic Division of Metazoa
Acoelomata
No body cavity or coelom
Embryonic mesoderm is a solid layer, space between endoderm and ectoderm is

filled with mesenchyme and muscle fibres.
e.g. Porifera, Coelenterata, Ctenophora, Platyhelminthes, Nemertinea
Persistent blastocoel enclosed between outer ectoderm and inner ectoderm, and
Pseudo
not lined by mesoderm
Coelomata
e.g. Acanthocephala, Ectoprocta, Aschelminthes
Body space is a true coelom, enclosed by mesoderm on both sides

Bilateria from Annelida to Echinodermata
Types of Coelom
Schizo Coelomata: Coelom arises by splitting of endomesodermal bands which

originate from blasts-oral region of larva and extend between ectoderm and
Coelomata mesoderm.
Annelida, Arthropoda, Mollusca
Mesenchymal Coelomata: Mesenchymal cells rearrange to form a coelom.
Regarded as an aberrant schizocoel
Only in Phoronida
Entero Coelomata: Arise in form of mesodermal pouches from larval
archenteron. After separation from endoderm, the pouches fuse and expand until
they touch the gut and body wall.
Deuterostomes (Echinodermata, Hemichordata, Chordata), Brachiopoda
Significance of Coelom
Progressive development of complex structure: Permits greater size and contributes directly to
development of excretory, reproductive and muscular systems
Surrounds the internal organs like a water jacket and protects them from external shocks.
Flexibility to the body
Coelomic fluid functions as a hydraulic skeleton
Circulatory medium for the transport and distribution of nutritive substances and gases
Excretory substances are collected into Coelomic fluid and then passed out of the body through
Nephridia
Ova and Sperms are extruded through gonoducts connecting coelom to the exterior
ORIGIN OF BILATERIA
First metazoans were most likely radial animals

Believed that bilateral symmetry evolved in radial ancestor when it started creeping
Ctenophore Ctenophores provided a bridge or intermediate forms between radiate coelenterate

Polyclad ancestors and bilateral polyclad flatworms
Theory
Based on resemblance
Oval flattened shape with dorsoventral differentiation

Creeping on entire ventral surface
Presence of 2 dorsal tentacles
Centrally located ventral mouth

Radiating, anastomosing nervous system
Swimming larval stage of polyclads have 8 ciliated lobes comparable to 8 comb
rows of ctenophores
Limitations
Cleavage is biracial in Ctenophore but spiral in Polyclad

Acoel flatworms are now regarded to be the most primitive
Ludwig Von Graft formulated the theory, elaborated by Hyman

Places Acoel flatworms at the base of the Bilateria and suggests origin of
Bilateria from a planuloid ancestor, through a Acoeloid form
Hypothetical planeload ancestor was very similar to the planula larva of
Coelenterates — elongated, radially symmetrical and without mouth or
archenteron
Planuloid- Exterior cells are ciliated or flagellated epithelia-muscular cells, solid mass o
Acoeloid interior cells were digestive and reproductive
Theory There was a nerve net under the epidermis and the anterior pole had a nervous
centre
Some planuloid ancestors may have evolved a creeping mode of life.
This resulted in flattening out of oral-aboral axis, causing development of a
ventral mouth
Hollowing out of internal mass formed an archenteron, and differentiation of
anterior region produced a head with brain and sense organs
PROTOZOA
LOCOMOTION
Locomotor Organelles
Pseudopodia Temporary structures formed by streaming flow of cytoplasm (false feet)
Lobopodia
Lobe like Pseudopodia with broad and rounded ends

Composed of both ectoplasm and endoplasm
Move by pressure flow mechanism
e.g. Amoeba
Filopodia
Filamentous pseudopodia
Tapering from base to pointed tip
Composed of Ectoplasm only
May branch and form simple networks
e.g. Euglypha
Reticulopodia
Filamentous (rhizopodia or myxopodia)

Filaments are branched and interconnected extensively
2 way flow of cytoplasm
e.g. Foraminiferans
Axopodia
Almost straight, radiating from surface of the body

Each axopodia contains a central axial rod, covered by granular and adhesive
cytoplasm.
2 way flow of cytoplasm
e.g. Heliozoans
Locomotion organelles of flagellate Protozoa: Euglena, Trypanosoma

Thread like projections on the cell surface
Contains an elongated stiff axial filament, enclosed by an outer sheath
Axoneme: 9 longitudinal paired fibres, surrounding 2 central longitudinal fibres
Each of the Peripheral fibres bears a double row of short arms
Axoneme arises from a basal granule.
Flagella
Resemble Flagella in their basic structure

Highly vibrate small ectoplasmic processes
9 + 2 paired longitudinal fibres arrangement,
1 fibril in the peripheral pairs bears short arms
Central fibres are enclosed within a delicate sheath
Each cilium arises from a basal body
Spoke like radial lamellae between central and outer fibrils
Cilia

Contractile Contractile structures in Pellicle or Myoplasm are called Myonemes.

structures Euglena: Ridges and grooves
Larger ciliates: contractile myofibrils
Trypanosoma: Microtubules
Methods of Locomotion
Formation of Pseudopodia by streaming flow of cytoplasm

Locomotion by Pseudopodia is possible only over a surface
Sol Gel Theory (Mast and Pantin, 1925)

Amoeboid
Amoeboid movement and formation of Pseudopodia.
Contraction of ectoplasmic tube (plasma gel) at the posterior part of the body
Causes the endoplasm (plasma sol) to flow into the expanding pseudopodium.
Involves continuous solation at the posterior end, and gelation at the anterior
end.
Flagella need liquid medium for locomotion

Some or all axonemal fibres are involved in movement
Adjacent doublets slide past each other, causing the entire flagellum or cilium to
bend
Cross bridges are formed and energy utilised for the process is supplied by ATP
Paddle Stroke
Sideways lash with the flagellum held out rigidly

Relaxed recovery stroke in which flagellum, strongly curved is brought forward
Animal moves forward, gyrates and rotates on its longitudinal axis
Flagellar
Undulating Motion
Wave like undulations

Tip to base: move forward
Base to tip: move backward
Spiral undulations facilitate rotation
Conical Gyration
Spiral turning of flagellum like a screw

Exerts propelling action, pulling the animal forward through water with a spiral
rotation
Ciliary
Most ciliates appear to move in a spiral path, rotating on their axis as they go.
Basal bodies of all cilia are inter-linked by kinetodesmata, ensuring
coordination
Large ciliates are the swiftest
Most likely based on contraction of peripheral fibres

Movement mostly occurs during the backward effective stroke rather than the
forward recovery stroke.
Typical of certain flagellates and most sporozoans at certain stages of their life
cycles
Metabolic Gliding, wriggling or peristaltic movement
Contractile myonemes present in pellicular walls are responsible or this kind of
movement.
NUTRITION
Phytoflagellates possessing Chloroplasts or Chromatophores synthesis their

food by photosynthesis.
Holophytic Carbon Dioxide and Water act as raw materials and to enter a complex cycle of
Nutrition chemical reactions and produce Dextrose sugar
From Dextrose, Paramylum may be formed (especially in Euglenoid
flagellates)
All Sarcodina are Holozoic or Parasitic

Involves development of organelles for food capture, ingestion, digestion and
egestion of indigestible residues.
Ingestion by Phagocytosis
Circumvallation: Amoeba sends out Pseudopodia to surround the prey
without touching it. Later Pseudopodia fuse at their tips and food
vacuoles are formed which in engulfed as a whole.
Invagination: Food article is sucked in upon contact with the Ectoplasm.
Food particle sinks into the endoplasm
Heliozoans: Axopodia act as traps. Withdrawn inside after capture into
the cytoplasm
Foraminiferans: Produce a delicate reticulopodia net with a granular
mucoid film.
Ciliates: Oral apparatus meant for food capturing is well developed. By
beating of cilia of oral groove, food is taken into buccal cavity and then
Holozoic
driven towards mouth.
Nutrition
Digestion
Digested within food vacuoles, which keep on circulating in the
endoplasm
Lysosomes fuse with the food vacuole to provide the enzymes
Reaction at first is acidic (proteins to dipeptides) and later alkaline
(dipeptides to amino acids, hydrolysis of carbohydrates)
Proteolytic and Glycolytic enzymes
Absorption
Digested food is diffused into endoplasm, where it is assimilated into
protoplasm.
Excess food may be stored as Glycogen, Paramylum, Lipids, Chromatoid
bodies etc.
Egestion
Expelled from the hind part of the body
Ciliates possess an anal opening (Cytopyge) for this purpose.

Pinocytosis Ingestion of liquid food by invaginations through the surface of the body.
Pinocytotic channels are formed at some parts of the body surface to enclose the
fluid food from the surrounding medium.
Lower ends of the channels are pinched off as food vacuoles, which circulate in
the endoplasm
Pinocytosis is induced only by certain active substances in the surrounding
medium.
e.g. Amoeba, certain flagellates and ciliates
Absorption of food by Osmosis, through the general surface of the body

(Osmotrophy)
Food is in the form of solution of dead organic matter.
Saprozoic
Dissolved food materials, upon which the saprozoic protozoans subsist are
proteins and carbohydrates.
e.g. Polytoma
Combination of more than one mode of nutrition

Myxotrophic
e.g. Holophytic protozoans also obtain food by phagocytosis and pinocytosis
Mechanisms are broadly similar to non-parasite protozoans

Parasitism Trypanosoma: Feed by Osmotrophy
Digested food particles can be ingested by phagotrophy
REPRODUCTION
Asexual Reproduction
Binary Fission
Division of an individual into approximately 2 equal parts.
Karyokinesis followed by Cytokinesis
Division might occur across transverse, longitudinal, oblique or any plane
Some organelles from the parent are distributed, some are regenerated in the
daughter cells
Some Protozoa divide only in the encysted stage. e.g. Colpoda
Division of multi-nucleate Protozoa into two or more smaller multinucleate

daughter individuals
Takes place in Opalina
Plasmotomy
A variant of fission which results in a smaller small daughter individual in the

form of a bud.
When the bud breaks off from the parent it grows to full size.
Budding
Sporulation. Common in Foraminifera, Radiolaria, Sporozoa

Nuclear division is not followed immediately by division of cytoplasm.
First nucleus undergoes a series of divisions by repeated binary fissions or by
simultaneous multiple divisions.
Multiple Fission This multinucleate body then divides into as many parts as there are nuclei
through cytoplasmic division.
Schizogony: Formation of numerous daughter nuclei — formation of
cytoplasmic buds each containing a nucleus — Buds are pinched off to grow
directly into new organisms
Two or more individuals may fuse their cytoplasm to form a Plasmodium, in

Plasmogamy which the nuclei remain distinct, and they separate afterwards
Serves the purpose of digestion of large prey.
Sexual Reproduction
Syngamy
Complete fusion of two sex cells or gametes, resulting in formation of zygote.

Classified based on degree of differentiation displayed by the fusing gametes
Hologamy
Two protozoan individuals do not form gametes, but themselves behave as

gametes and fuse to form zygote.
e.g. Sarcodina and Mastigophora
Isogamy
Fusing gametes are similar in morphology but different in behaviour

e.g. Foraminifera, Monocystis, Chlamydomonas
Anisogamy
Fusing gametes differ in both morphology and behaviour

Conventionally, male gamete is small and motile, female gamete is large and
non-motile
e.g. Plasmodium, Volvox
Autogamy
Fusion of gametes derived from the same parent cell

e.g. Actinophrys
Pseudopodia are withdrawn and a cyst is formed — Meiotic division that leads
to two daughter nuclei with half the number of chromosomes (no cell division)
— gametic nuclei fuse to form zygote
Temporary union of two animals (conjugates) — usually at oral or buccal

regions
e.g. Suctoria ciliates
Different syngens, and each syngen has 2 mating types.Conjugation can only
take place between individuals of the same syngen but opposite mating types
Process
Fusion of protoplasm occurs at place of contact

Macronuclei break up and disappear.
Conjugation All but one micronuclei degenerate
Single micronucleus divides forming two gametic micronuclei
Out of these two one is considered male pro-nucleus and the other female pro-
nucleus.
The pro-nuclei move through protoplasm to the other cell and fuse with the
opposite sex gamete.
Forms a Zygote nucleus.
Individuals separate and are called exconjugants
Conjugation thus, involves genetic exchange
Each exconjugant undergoes further nuclear and cytoplasmic divisions forming
4 daughter individuals

Parthenogenesis Gametes which fail at cross fertilisation, develop parthenogenetically

In Chlamydomonas, it occurs when syngamy has been missed
Individuals of Polytoma which are potential gametes can grow and divide
parthenogenetically
Most protozoa can regenerate their lost parts

Ability to regenerate is generally less among parasitic protozoa
Regeneration
Relative quantities of nuclear and cytoplasmic material and size of the broken
piece affect the rate and result of process of regeneration
EVOLUTION OF SEX
Early Protozoan adopted this method as the primary means of multiplication

Enabled them to build up large populations in shortest possible time.
Binary fission, multiple fission, budding, plasmotomy etc.
Best suited to these animals which possessed delicate bodies, no apparent means of defence and
therefore needed a speedy way of multiplication
In asexual method all individuals produce offspring without the help of other individuals
Saves energy and time
Disadvantages: Produces clones and does not produce diversity
Sexual Reproduction
Sexual reproduction involves two types of individuals producing two types of gametes whose primary
aim is to exchange the genetic material and to bring about genetic diversity in the population
Power of recombination is so great that chances of two individuals being identical are almost nil
Such a trait is advantageous and is favoured by natural selection
In sexually reproducing populations only 50% individuals produce offspring, while the rest half just
contribute their genes, thus reducing the reproductive capacity, whereas in asexuals all individuals
produce offsprings with no help from others.
Evolution of Sex
First there was asexual reproduction - fast and simple but produced clones and could not get rid of
harmful effects of mutation.
Meiosis evolved to reduce the no. of chromosomes to half.
Nucleus and the cell division apparatus were necessary to invent the process of meiosis that produced
gametes carrying half the number of genes.
Isogamy produced equal sized gametes that had equal amount of energy investment.
They were large cells, had low searching capacity and did not have particular attraction towards each
other to fuse and form zygote.
Anisogamy: Different mating types originated
Anisogamy to some extent tried to solve the problem of cell fusion.
Large number of mating types was reduced to two.
Larger gametes (females) specialized in the storage of nutrients and development of embryo.
Could now be produced in small numbers.
Being in small numbers became limiting resource, triggering competition, and in turn selection
Small gametes were in large number and competed to fertilise the large gametes
Evolution of anisogamy from the primitive isogamy happened due to two selection forces:
Increased efficiency in finding mating partner in anisogamy.
Supply the zygote with sufficient amount of reserve food for development of embryo.
Paramaecium
General Features
External Features
Microscopic, elongated organisms. 80 to 350µ

Oral groove is a shallow depression on the ventral part. Leads to the buccal cavity, which has a basal
mouth called Cytostome
Pellicle: Internal envelope of body. Clear, firm and elastic cuticular membrane. It consists of a series of
polygonal depressions, with a single cilium emerging from the middle of each polygon.
Pellicle is a series of 3 membranes: Outer cell membrane, Outer alveolar membrane, inner alveolar
membrane
Cilia: Body is covered by numerous, tiny, hair-like projections called cilia.
Internal Features
Cytoplasm is differentiated into ectoplasm and endoplasm

Ectoplasm has Trichocysts, oriented at right angles to the body surface. They alternate in position with
the basal bodies of the cilia.
Contain a macronucleus and a micronucleus.
Macronucleus: polyploid, kidney shaped, much more DNA, controls metabolic activities
(somatic nucleus), divides amitotically during fission
Micronucleus: diploid, spherical, controls reproductive activities, divides mitotically during
fission
Two contractile vacuoles occupying somewhat fixed positions in the endoplasm (anterior and posterior)
Numerous non contractile food vacuoles
Cytopyge: Small portion of ectoplasm and pellicle is somewhat weak. During egestion, it functions as
an anus
Physiology
Movement through ciliary beats

Holozoic mode of nutrition. Cilia of the oral groove generate a water current that is drawn in along
with food particles into the food vacuole. The ciliary apparatus controls what particles can pass into the
buccal cavity
Respiration by diffusion through semi-permeable pellicle. Oxygen in water diffuses in and is used for
oxidation of protoplasmic molecules. Catabolic wastes like CO2 and NH3 diffuse out

Locomotion
Streamlined body which enables it to swim about in water with a minimum amount of friction.
Swimming is facilitated by Cilia - fine, hair-like cellular organelles that cover the entire animal’s body.
Energy needed for fibrillar contraction is supplied by ATP
Ciliary Beats
During movement cilia oscillates, between fast effective stroke and slow recovery stroke.
It propels the cilia similar to an oar. Recovery stroke brings the cilium into position for next effective
stroke.
Metachronal Rhythm
All cilia of the body do not move simultaneously or independently.
They beat progressively in a wave like pattern, beginning at the anterior end and progressing
backwards.
A cilium in the longitudinal row always moves in advance of the one behind it.
All cilia in a transverse row beat simultaneously
Mode of Swimming
Animal does not follow a straight tract but rotates spirally along a left handed helix
Body Cilia beat obliquely towards right, so animal moves over to left on its long axis.
Cilia of the Oral groove strikes obliquely to turn the anterior end away from oral side.
Combined effect causes movement of animal along a fairly straight path, rotating about its axis in an
anticlockwise direction

Conjugation
Not a true form of sexual reproduction, even though there is exchange of genetic material
It is simply a temporary union of two individuals which facilitates exchange of genetic material.
Process
Pre-conjugants of two different mating types come in contact at their oral grooves.
They stop feeding and their buccal structures disappear.
Pellicle and ectoplasm degenerate and at the point of contact, a protoplasmic bridge is formed between
the conjugants
Macronucleus disintegrates
Micronucleus divides twice to form 4 micronuclei
3 of the micronuclei disintegrate. The 1 remaining micronucleus divides to form 2 unequal gamete
nuclei
1 gamete nuclei is male (motile and smaller) and the other is female (non motile and larger)
Motile gamete of one conjugant passes through the protoplasmic bridge and fuses with the non motile
gamete of the other forming zygote
After formation of zygote, the conjugants separate and form ex-conjugants
In each, zygote divides 3 times rapidly to form 8 nuclei. 4 enlarge to form macronuclei, other 4 are
micronuclei
3 micronuclei degenerate and disappear
The other micronuclei divides with mitotic division — 2 daughter paramecia from each ex-conjugant.
Each with 2 macronucleus, 1 micronucleus
Another round of mitotic division produces 4 paramecia, each with 1 macro and 1 micro nucleus
Conditions under which conjugation takes place
Starvation and shortage of food.

Certain range of light and temperature, variable across species
The conjugating individuals are usually smaller in size than the normal individuals
Individuals are isogamous
Only between individuals of same syngen but 2 different mating types (physiological sexual
differentiation)
Significance
Rejuvenation
If binary fission continues for many generations, the Paramaecium loses vigour and enters
depressed physiological efficiency
The individual ceases to multiply, reduces in size and eventually dies off
Conjugation can revive this lost vigour for asexual reproduction
Nuclear Reorganisation
During conjugation, there is readjustment between nucleus and cytoplasm.
Replacement by a new macronucleus brings renewed vigour and vitality to metabolic functions
Hereditary Variation
Blends genetic lines and introduces variations
Confers traits that can better adapt to environment
Leishmania donovanii
Exists in 2 forms: Leishmanial in man (vertebrate host) and Leptomonad in

sandfly (invertebrate host)
Whole body is covered by a pellicle.
General Features Uniflagellate. But in the Leishmanial form, there is no free flagellum, as it is
reduced and lies embedded in the cytoplasm
Cytoplasm has microtubules and striations which maybe contractile
Single large spherical nucleus. Vesicular with a distinct nucleolus
Life Cycle
Primary host (Vertebrate): Parasite feeds and multiplies asexually.
Secondary host (Non-vertebrate): Does not undergo any change
When sandfly bites, it releases the parasite in Leptomonad form into human
body at the bite wound
Upon entering the reticulo-endothelial system (liver, spleen, bone marrow,
lymph nodes), they change to Leishmanial form
Leishmanial form undergoes binary fission, increasing in number
When number of parasite increases (50-200) the cell ruptures, and liberated
parasites are taken up by new host cells. RE system becomes progressively
infected
When a sandfly bites, it takes up Leishmanial parasites, which change to
flagellated form in midgut of the sandfly.
In 6-9 days, the number of parasites becomes enormous and they spread to
pharynx and buccal cavity. When this host bites a human, transmission of
parasite occurs.
Pathogenicity Kala Azar
Transmitted through bite of sandflies

Intracellular parasite in leucocytes, cells of liver, spleen, bone marrow,
lymphatic glands
Incubation period: 3 to 6 months.
Symptoms: fever, enlargement of spleen, reduction in number of WBCs,
anaemia due to reduction in RBCs.
In advanced stages, skin becomes rough, dark or pigmented
Death is generally due to secondary bacterial infections
Diagnosis
Microscope examination of blood film taken from spleen or bone marrow of

patient, for presence of Leishmanial forms.
Examination of WBC counts shows decrease of neutrophils, but an increase in
lymphocytes and monocytes. RBC number also decreased
Treatment
Resistance to drugs is increasing in India

Drug used is Amphotericin B.

Miltefosine is a newer oral drug with 95% cure rate
Prevent bites of sandfly
Plasmodium vivax
Life Cycle
Man: Asexual phase

Liver schizogony: Multiple fission forming Merozoites.
Erythrocytic schizogony: Second phase in RBCs. Forms gametocytes at the end
Mosquito: Sexual cycle
Gametogony: production and fusion of gametes.
Sporogony: Post zygotic multiplication, resulting in formation of infective individuals
During a blood meal, a malaria-infected female Parasites’ multiplication in the mosquito is

Anopheles mosquito inoculates sporozoites into known as the sporogonic cycle
the human host While in the mosquito’s stomach, the
Sporozoites infect liver cells and mature into microgametes penetrate the macrogametes
schizonts generating zygotes
Schizonts rupture and release merozoites Zygotes becomes motile and elongated
Merozoites infect red blood cells (ookinetes)
Parasites undergo asexual multiplication in the Ookinetes invade the midgut wall of the
erythrocytes (erythrocytic schizogony). mosquito where they develop into oocysts
Infected RBCs mature into schizonts, which Oocysts grow, rupture, and release
rupture releasing merozoites sporozoites
Some parasites differentiate into sexual Make their way to the mosquito’s salivary
erythrocytic stages (gametocytes) glands
Gametocytes: male (microgametocytes) and Inoculation of the sporozoites into a new
female (macrogametocytes), are ingested by human host perpetuates the malaria life
an Anopheles mosquito during a blood meal cycle
PORIFERA
CANAL SYSTEM
Distinguishing feature of Sponges is the perforation of body surface by numerous apertures for ingress
and egress of water current.
Water current flows through a certain system of spaces collectively forming the canal system
This water current maintains all exchange between sponge body and external system
Food and oxygen are brought in, carbon dioxide and waste products are removed
Ascon Type
Simplest type of canal system. e.g.

Leucosolenia
Ostia: Incurrent pores within tube like cells
called Porocytes.
Ostia open into the Spongocoel, which is a
single, large, spacious cavity in the sponge
body.
Spongocoel is lined by flagellated collar
cells or Choanocytes.
Spongocoel opens to the outside through a
narrow circular opening called the Osculum,
located at the distal free end.
Surrounding sea water enters the canal
system through Ostia.
Flow of water is maintained by beating of
flagella
Flow of water is slow, because the large
spongocoel contains much water that cannot
be pushed out readily through a single
Osculum
Ingressing Water — Ostia — Spongocoel —

Osculum — Water Outside
Sycon Type

E.g. Scypha, Grantia

Theoretically, it can be derived from Ascon
by horizontal folding of walls
Embryonic development of Scypha shows
the Asconoid pattern developing to Syconoid
pattern.
Two types of canals — incurrent and radial
alternate with each other
Incurrent pores (Dermal Ostia) found on
outer surface of body open into Prosopyles
Prosopyles open into Radial Canals, Radial
canals open into Apopyles
Apopyles open into Spongocoel.
Water from Spongocoel leaves outside
through Osculum
Ingressing water — dermal Ostia — incurrent

channels — prosopyles — radial canals — apostles
— spongocoel — osculum — outside
In more complex Sycon type (Grantia),

incurrent canals are irregular, branching and
anastomosing, forming large sub dermal
spaces.
Leucon Type
Further folding of the body wall. e.g.

Spongilla
Radial symmetry is lost. Canal system
becomes very irregular
The engrossing water comes into incurrent
canals through Dermal Ostia. Passes through
Prosopyles into Flagellated Chambers
Flagellated chambers communicate with
excurrent canals through Apopyles
Excurrent canals are developed due to
shrinkage of spongocoel
Develops directly without passing through
Ascon or Sycon stages
Ingressing Water — Dermal Ostia — Incurrent

Canals — Prosopyles — Flagellated Chambers —
Apopyles — Excurrent Canals — Osculum —
Outside
Rhagon Type
Spongocoel is surrounded by flagellated

chambers opening into it through very wide
apopyles
Canal system of Rhagon larva does not

occur in any adult sponge
Leucon type can be derived from Rhagon
Ingressing Water — Dermal Ostia — Flagellated

Chambers — Apopyles — Spongocoel —
Osculum — Outside
SKELETON
Almost all sponges have skeleton embedded in the Mesenchyme (loosely organised, mesodermal
embryonic tissue which develops into connective and skeletal tissues, including blood and lymph)
Supports and protects the soft body parts. Serves as the basis of classification of Sponges
Spicules
Crystalline structures consisting of Spines or Rays that radiate from a point.

Secreted by Scleroblasts. Each ray is secreted by a group of two sclerocytes, one acting as a founder
and the other as a thickener cell
All kinds of Spicules have a core of organic material around which calcium carbonate (Class: Calcarea)
or colloidal silica (Class: Hexactinellida) is deposited
Megascleres or Microscleres based on size
Megascleres constitute the main skeleton
Microscleres occur interstitially
Growth along one axis

Straight needle like, rod like or
curved
Ends may be pointed knobbed or
Monaxon hooked
Monactinal or Diactinal based on
directions in which growth occurs
Occurs in both calcareous and
siliceous types
Three axes that cross one another

at right angles to produce six rays
Triaxon Hexactinal
Characteristic of only Siliceous
sponges (Class: Hexactinellida)
Tetraxon
With 4 rays, each pointing in a
different direction
Usually one of the three rays is
elongated, giving the appearance
of crown of 3 rays

When all rays are equal, the

Spicule is termed Calthrops
When one of the 4 is lost, it
becomes triradiate (calcareous
sponges)
Spicules with several equal rays

Polyaxon radiating from a central point.
Common among microscleres
Spongin
Spongin is organic, elastic substance resembling silk

Scleroprotein containing sulphur and chemically related to collagen
Insoluble, chemically inert, and resistant to protein digesting enzymes
8-14% iodine
May act as a cement connecting together siliceous spicules
Keratosa: Spicules are completely absent, and only spicules are formed.
Spongin fibres are secreted by flask shaped mesenchyme cells called Spongioblasts.
Spongioblasts become arranged in rows and the spongin rod secreted by each fuses with those of
neighbouring cells to form a long fibre
Spongioblasts later become vacuolated and degenerate after having secreted a certain quantity of
spongin
REPRODUCTION IN SPONGES
Number of individuals in colonies

increases, or new colonies are formed
Archaeocytes collect at the surface
and Pinacoderm bulges out to receive
them
Budding
Bud grows into an adult individual.
Either remains attached to the parent
individual or gets detached and
attached nearby to develop into an
independent colony.
Throw off parts of their body which

Fission develop into individual sponges
New individual forms a new colony
Reduction
Bodies Freshwater and Marine sponges
disintegrate in adverse conditions into
reduction bodies
Each body consists of an internal
mass of Amoebocytes, covered
externally by a pinacoderm layer

When favourable conditions return,

these reduction bodies grow into
complete new sponges
Internal buds that eventually detach

and develop into new individuals
Enable the sponges to tide over
unfavourable conditions, like
excessive cold and draught.
Gemmule is a small hard ball with an
Gemmules
internal mass of archaeocytes,
surrounded by a resistant chitinous
covering made of two membranes.
Protective envelope may be
strengthened by siliceous amphidisc
spicules
Sexual Reproduction

Most sponges are monoecious, but dioecious sponges are also known
Sperms and Ova are derived from Archaeocytes or Choanocytes, which undergo Gametogenesis.
Even in hermaphrodites, cross fertilisation occurs because eggs and sperms are produced at different
times
Fertilisation
Sperms are released to the outside through outflowing water and make their way to another sperm
through the ingressing current
Choanocytes transfer sperms to the mature ova, which lie in flagellated Choanoderm
Fertilisation is in situ
Development
Early development within the maternal sponge, leading to development of a larval stage.
Amphiblastula: Hollow, oval, larval stage. Calcareous sponges. Anterior half of amphiblastula
bear flagella, posterior half does not
Parenchymula: Solid, oval or flattened larval stage. Calcarea, hexactinellida, Desmospongiae.
Entire outer surface bears cilia
Regeneration
Individual pieces of Sponge, no matter how small, will grow into a complete sponge if it has
Amoebocytes and Choanocytes
Calcium and Magnesium ions play a role in regeneration.
Bergquist: If a tissue is grafted in a sponge from another sponge of same species, the host and graft will
grow together. If the graft is from a different species, the host will reject the graft
COELENTERATA
POLYMORPHISM

Occurrence in the same species of more than one type of individuals, which differ in form and
function.
Ensures an effective division of labour between the individuals
In coelenterates, the different individuals are united in the form of a colony
Polyps Medusa
Bowl or umbrella shaped body

Tubular body with a mouth surrounded by Tentacles hanging from lower concave
tentacles at one end. surface.
Other end is blind and attached to a Generally motile
substratum. Sexual reproduction
Generally sessile Velum is present around the margin of the
Feeding, protection and asexual reproduction umbrella
Velum is absent 4 radial and 1 circular canal
No circular and radial canals Sense organs called Statocysts present at the
No sense organs margins of the tentacles
No gonads 4 gonads on the radial canals
Mesogloea poorly developed Mesogloea enormously developed
Tentacles generally 24 16 tentacles in young Medusa, numerous in
older Medusa
Simplest and most common. e.g. Obelia, Tubularia

Dimorphic Gastrozooids (Hydranths): Concerned with feeding
Gonazooids (Blastostyles): Asexual budding forming sexual medusa.
e.g. Plumularia
Trimorphic Gastrozooids, Gonazooids, Dactylozooids
Dactylozooids: Non feeding and defensive Polyps bearing Nematocysts
Polymorphic
Gastrozooids
Gonazooids
Dactylozooids
Skeletozooids: Spiny projections of Chitin
Tentaculozooids: Sensory cells
Extreme specialisation in Siphonophora
Modification of Polyps
Gastrozooid: Feeding polyp with a mouth and long tentacle

Dactylozooid: Protective polyp without mouth and usually with a long basal
tentacle
Gonozooid: Reproductive Polyp which produces sexual medusa or gonophores
Modification of Medusae

Nectophore or Nectocalyx: Swimming zooid with muscular bell without

manubrium or tentacles
Pneumatophore: Bladder like Medusa filled with a secreted gas
Phyllozooid: Usually leaf like and studded with Nematocysts
Gonophore: May be either male or female
Metagenesis
Diploid asexual phase and a haploid sexual phase regularly alternate with each other
Haploid gametophytes produce haploid ova and sperms. After fertilization, they give rise to a new
diploid saprophyte. This completes one life cycle.
Alternative phases in Cnidaria: Polyp and Medusa
Polyp and Medusa alternate successively where the polyp reproduces asexually to form a large number
of medusa, each medusa reproduce sexually by the union of eggs and sperms to form zygote.
The zygote grows into larva, which fix itself to a substrate and finally form a new polyp
DEFENCE MECHANISMS
Body wall of all the coelenterates contains special defensive structures called as stinging cells or
nematocysts.
Cnidocyte contains a fluid-filled membranous capsule called cnida.
Help not only in defense but also in locomotion, adhesion and capture of prey.
Cnidoblasts develop only from modified interstitial cells of epidermis and are not found in the
gastrodermis.
When fully developed, cnidoblasts migrate to the tentacles through mesoglea by means of amoeboid
movement.
Structure of cnidoblast
Cnidoblast is an oval or rounded cell with a basal nucleus on one side.

Inside the cnidoblast an oval called Nematocyst (stinging capsule) is present.
Nematocyst consists of a tiny bulb made of chitin.
Bulb is filled with poisonous fluid or hypnotoxin, which is chemically a mixture of proteins and
phenols.
One end of this bulb is extended as a narrow, long, hollow tube like filament which is coiled round the
poisonous sac (Thread tube)
Base of the thread tube is swollen to form a shaft.
Inside the shaft there are three large spines called as barbs and three spiral rows of minute spines called
as barbules.
Shaft is externally covered by a lid-like structure called as operculum
Outer end of the cnidoblast projects freely beyond the epidermal surface as a tiny, pointed hair-like
process called cnidocil or trigger.
Groups of supporting rods surround the central core of cnidocil.
Cytoplasm of the cnidoblast contains contractile muscle fibrils.

Distribution of nematocyst
Nematocysts are found scattered single or in groups (very rare) throughout the epidermal region of the
cnidarian body.
Absent on the basal disc.
Abundant at the oral region and on the tentacles where they form batteries of nematocysts.
Two large central nematocysts surrounded by 10-12 small nematocysts.
All these large and small nematocysts are enclosed within a single large epithelio-muscle cell
Mechanism of Defense

The discharge or explosion of nematocysts takes place when cnidocil is stimulated by food, prey or
enemy.
Both the presence of food and touch together initiates the process of explosion and not any one alone.
Response is wholly local without the involvement of nervous system.
The wall of nematocyst remains impermeable to water except during discharge.
On stimulation, the wall of the capsule suddenly increases its permeability causing rapid intake of
water
Consequently the osmotic pressure inside the capsule increases
Operculum is forced to open up
Coiled thread tube turns inside out and finally the whole nematocyst explodes to the outside
Barbs and barbules present inside the shaft unfold to the outside
Nematocyst once exploded cannot be used again
After the explosion the cnidoblasts migrate to the gastro vascular cavity and are digested.
The exploded nematocysts are replaced within 48h
Types of nematocysts
Type is constant for particular species. In Hydra, there are four basic types of nematocysts which serve
various functions
Penetrant nematocyst (Stenotele)
Very large and complex compared to other types.

Pear-shaped almost occupying the entire space of cnidoblast in which it lies.
Thread is long and hollow, coiled transversely and bearing three large barbs and three rows of small
spines.
When the thread tube is discharged, it shoots out with great explosive force to pierce the victim body
and injects the poisonous fluid which paralyses or kills it outright.
Hydra then seizes its prey with tentacles and draws it into its mouth
Volvent nematocyst (Desmonene)
Small and pear-shaped

Contain a short, thick, spineless elastic thread tube forming single loop.
When discharged, it tightly coils around the small projections like hair or bristles of the prey and thus
stopping the movement of the prey
Stereoline glutinant nematocyst
Oval or elongated in shape

Do not have shaft.
Discharge a straight unarmed thread tube open at the tip
Useful in attachment and anchorage.
Streptoline glutinant nematocyst
Oval or cylindrical.
Their thread tube is long with a narrow shaft which forms three or four coils.
Bears a spiral row of small spines.
Mainly useful in attachment and to impede the movement of small animals.
CORALS

Marine, colonial, polypoid coelenterates which live in a secreted skeleton of their own
Calcareous skeleton is called the coral (secreted by epidermal cells)
Belong to Class Hydrozoa and Anthozoa
Kinds of Coral Reefs
Vaughan (1917): Coral Reef is a ridge or mound of limestone, formed from calcium carbonate
produced by marine organisms (corals), the upper surface of which is near the sea surface.
Confined to about 28º on either side of equator
Fringing Reefs
Coral reefs lying close to shore of some volcanic island or part of some continent.
May extend out to a km from the shore, most active zone of coral growth faces the sea (front)
Shallow water channel (50-100m broad) lies between lies between reef edge and shore.
Most common type of coral reef
Barrier Reefs
Like fringing reefs, but they are located some distance away from the shore and parallel to it.
Stretch of water separating the barrier reef from land is a deeper and wider lagoon
e.g. Great barrier reef
Atoll
Coral Island or Lagoon Island formed when island surrounded by fringing reef sinks
Ring like horse shoe shaped reef that surrounds a lagoon
May be complete or broken by a number of channels.
e.g. Bikini Atoll in Pacific Ocean
Theories of Formation
Subsidence Theory by Darwin
Fringing reef was first formed on the sloping shores of an island.

Subsidence of sea floor in regions of the reef, followed by upward and outward growth of coral
(Fringing reef becomes Barrier reef)
Gradual sinking leads to vanishing of island (Barrier reef becomes Atoll)
Glacial control Theory by Daly
Lowering of Ocean level by withdrawal of water for glacial formation

Exposed several flat platforms cut out by action of waves
When glaciers melted and temperatures became favourable, coral grew on these platforms, building
higher as the ocean level rose
Fringing reefs grew on narrow wave cut platforms, barrier reefs on broad wave cut platforms

Obelia (Sea Fur)
Sedentary, marine, colonial hydroid. Occurs in both sexual and asexual forms

Aurelia (Jelly Fish)
Medusa is the dominant and conspicuous form while the polypoid form is restricted to a short larval
stage
Scyphistoma (polypoid stage) produces a series of disc like Ephyrae through transverse fission called
Strobilation.
Each Ephyrae develops into adult Aurelia
Medusa phase is called the Jelly Fish
Bell margin has many small tentaculocytes
True velum absent. Instead an inconspicuous velarium is present
Manubrium is comparatively short and inconspicuous
Corners of mouth form 4 oral arms
Canal system complicated and branched
Muscle derived only from ectoderm
Ocelli and Olfactory pits are present.
Nematocysts occur all over the bell, tentacles, oral arms and gastric filaments

PLATYHELMINTHES
GENERAL FEATURES
Free living, commensal or parasitic forms

Tissue level grade of organisation
Triploblastic: Body derived from 3 embryonic germ layers
Bilaterally symmetrical with definite polarity of anterior and posterior ends
Dorsoventrally flattened, with a well defined ventral surface bearing mouth and gonopore.
Body unsegmented
Acoelomate — without any body cavity. Spaces between various organs is filled with special
mesodermal tissue
Adhesive structures like hooks, spines, suckers and adhesive secretions
Muscular system of mesodermal origin. Longitudinal, circular and oblique muscle layers beneath
epidermis
Digestive system branched and incomplete without Anus. Altogether absent in Acoela and Cestoda.
Degenerated skeletal, respiratory and circulatory
Excretory System has lateral canals and protonephridia (flame cells)
Nervous System primitive and ladder like.
Sense organs simple. Eye spots or photoreceptors in free living forms
Mostly hermaphrodite with complex reproductive system. Well developed gonads, gonoducts and
accessory organs. Eggs are mostly devoid of yolk.
Fertilisation is internal
Turbellaria (Planarians) Trematoda (Flukes) Cestoda (Tapeworms)
Non-parasitic free living Ecto/Endoparasites. Called Endoparasitic. Called

worms, called Planarians. Flukes Tapeworms
Terrestrial, marine or Thick tegument but no cilia Scolex with suckers or
freshwater Larva have cilia hooks or both
Body unsegmented Body unsegmented Neither adult nor larva
Suckers absent. Chemo Sucker and hook are have cilia
and Photo receptors are sometimes present No alimentary canal, no
present. Mostly hermaphroditic. sense organs
Hermaphrodite
Body unsegmented, Development direct or Life cycle complex with

flattened and covered in indirect multiple intermediate
ciliated epidermis hosts
Mostly hermaphroditic.
Some reproduce asexually
Development usually
direct
e.g. Euplanaria, Geoplana,

e.g. Polystoma, Fasciola e.g. Taenia
BIpalium
PARASITIC ADAPTATIONS
Morphological Adaptations
Body Covering: Thick tegument, frequently provided with scales. Possibly continuously renewed by
mesenchymal cells
Adhesion: Suckers, hooks and spines.
Locomotion: Locomotory structures like Cilia are absent in adult, but present in the free living larval
forms
Trophic Organs: Elaborate organs for nutrition are not needed as the food of parasite comprises
digested and semi-digested food. Alimentary canal has partially or completely degenerated in
Platyhelminthes
Nervous System: Reduction of nervous system and near total absence of sense organs, as response to
stimuli is not of much importance
Reproductive System: Highly evolved to meet the need for tremendous egg production. Many
Platyhelminthes are Hermaphrodites, because it ensures that copulation takes place even when very
few individuals are present. Uterus size is maximised at expense of other organs in the body to
accommodate eggs.
Physiological Adaptations
Protective Mechanism: Alimentary canal of parasites must protect itself from digestive juices of the
host.
Stimulate walls of gut to secret mucus which forms a protective covering around the parasite
Secrete anti-enzymes that neutralise digestive enzymes
Continually renew their protective body covering
Anaerobic Respiration: Respire anaerobically by breaking down Glycogen. Environment in gut and
bile ducts is devoid of oxygen
Osmoregulation: In intestinal tapeworms, osmotic pressure adjustments permits absorption of host’s
digested food
High Fertility: Because the parasites have a complicated life cycle across multiple intermediate hosts,
chances of survival are generally low. This is countered by producing millions of eggs.
F asciola hepatica (Class: Trematoda)
General Features External Features
Body is soft and oval in outline, dorsoventrally flattened and leaf like.
Anterior end of body has a prominent oral projection, bearing a triangular
aperture (mouth)
Suckers are devoid of hooks and spines.
Single excretory pore at the posterior end.

Alimentary canal is incomplete with no anus
Body is covered by cuticle, from which numerous backwardly directed scales
project. These anchor the body to the walls of the host’s bile duct, protect the
body and help in locomotion.
Parasitic Adaptations
Tegument is thick, permeable to water but enzyme resistant. (So that the
parasite is not digested by digestive juices of the host)
Locomotory organs are absent as not required by adult. Free living larvae have
cilia
Oral sucker, acetabulum and spines serve to attach to body of host
Alimentary canal without anus, as there is no undigested food for excretion
Highly branched intestine helps in distributing food to all parts of the body
Lack circulatory, respiratory and nervous system. Also lack sense organs
Respiration is anaerobic as free oxygen is not available.
Reproductive system is highly developed. Number of eggs produced is
enormous.
Resistant egg shells around zygotes.
Hermaphrodites: ensures self-fertilisation
Life History
Adult fluke lays eggs within an egg shell.
Leave the fluke’s body through Gonopore and into the host’s intestine, and are
finally ejected out with its faeces
Further development takes place when the capsule comes in contact with humid
soil/water and slightly acidic environment, temperature 22-25ºC. Thus, the
encapsulated embryo enables survival till the intermediate host (snail) is
encountered.
Encapsulated embryo develops into Miracidium larva — has sense organs,
nervous tissue and protonephridia. Enables it to have a free-living existence till
if finds a host. It does not feed and only tries to swim about trying to attach to a
host.
Apical papilla of miracardium enables it to bore into the host body.
Miracardium makes its way to digestive glands of snail and forms Sporocyst
larva. Glands, brain, apical papillae, eye spots degenerate.
Sporocyst develops into Rediae, which emerge by rupture of Sporocyst.
2nd generation Rediae develop into Cercaria larvae which leave the body
through birth pore.
After an active life for 2-3 days it forms metacercaria larva by undergoing
encystment on aquatic plants
When the host ingests leaves with metacercaria larva, it gets infected. Cyst
wall dissolves and liberates the larva
The larva moves to bile duct where it attains sexual maturity
Opisthorchiasis
Caused by Opisthorchis sinensis

Due to eating raw or undercooked fish which contain metacercariae.
Pathogenicity
Inhabit the bile ducts, causing thickening of duct walls
Sever cases may lead to Cirrhosis and death
Treatment: Gentian Violet and Chloroquine
Taenia solium (Class: Cestoda)
General Features
Adult dwells as internal parasite in the small intestine of man, where it is
anchored to intestinal mucosa by its scolex.
Larval stage occurs in the tissues of a intermediary phase.

Body is 1-5 m long, flattened like a ribbon. Narrow anteriorly and gradually
broadens towards the posterior end.
Divided into great number of Proglottids (not true metameric segments)
Scolex
Represents the anterior region of the body.

Knob-like, bilaterally symmetrical
Rostellum: Prominent rounded cone at the apex.
Hooks: Arranged in 2 rows around base of Rostellum
Hooks of anterior circle are larger.
Broadest part of Scolex has 4 hemispherical suckers
With the help of Scolex, Taenia lies buried in the intestinal mucosa, providing
firm adhesion to the body against the loosening action of peristaltic movements
of the host’s intestine. It plays no role in perceiving or catching food.
Parasitic Adaptations
External body covering or tegument is freely permeable to water and nutrients,

but protects against digestion why host’s alkaline juices
Internal Osmotic pressure is higher than that of the surrounding host fluid. pH
tolerance is high
Adult as well as larva lack cilia and other organs of locomotion, as they are not
needed.
Scolex with suckers and spines, serves for attachment with the epithelial lining
of the host intestine.
Alimentary canal is absent as it absorbs digested food
Circulatory, respiratory and sensory systems are absent. Nervous system is
poorly developed
Respiration is anaerobic as free oxygen is not available
Reproductive system is immensely developed and enables production of large
number of eggs.
Hermaphroditism and Proglottisation ensures self-fertilisation within the same
Proglottid or cross-fertilisation with another Proglottid, in the same worm.
Resistant covering, shell or capsule around zygotes and embryos provides
protection from unfavourable conditions.
Life History
Development begins within parent’s body.
Zygote develops into a six toothed hexacanth, which together with protective
covering is called Onchosphere.
Ingested by pig host
Hexacanth loses protective envelope, bores into blood vessels of gut and
migrates voluntary muscles, where it encysts as Cysticercus.
Man acquires infection by eating inadequately cooked pork containing
Cysticercus.

Taeniasis
Man acquires infection by eating uncooked pork that contains Cysticerci.

These develop into adult tapeworms in the intestine
Presence of tapeworms in intestine causes gastro-intestinal disorders.
Anaemic conditions may develop
Treatment: Atabrin drug, only eat thoroughly cooked beef or pork
Pathogenicity
Hydatid Disease
Due to Echinococcus granulosus
Primary host is Dog. Pass out in faeces and develop into Onchospheres.
Man acquires infection on ingesting food or water contaminated with
Onchospheres.
Cysts develop in liver, lungs etc. In brain and kidney, cysts can be fatal.
Treatment: Atabrin drug
NEMATHELMINTHES
General Features
Widely distributed. Aquatic or Terrestrial. Parasitic or Free living

Body elongated, cylindrical, unsegmented, worm-like, bilaterally symmetrical
Triploblastic body. Organ system grade of organisation.
Body wall with thick resistant cuticle, cellular or syncytial epidermis and only longitudinal muscle
fibres in 4 bands.
True coelom absent. Persistent blastocoel or pseudocoel present not lined by mesoderm
No cilia. No circulatory or respiratory system
Digestive system complete with anus. Muscular pharynx and non-muscular intestine
Excretory system of glandular organs or canals or both. Flame cells are absent.
Nervous system with anterior and posterior nerves.
Sense organs poorly developed
Sexual dimorphism. Male smaller than female. No asexual reproduction
Fertilisation internal.
Ascaris lumbricoides
General
Description One of the most common and best known gastro-intestinal parasites
Body is elongate, cylindrical and gradually tapering at both ends.
Sexes are separate with distinct sexual dimorphism

Cuticle covering the body has transverse striations, giving a pseudo-segmented

appearance to the worm
Tough, thick and resistant cuticle. Covers the body and shields against the
action of host digestive enzymes. It also secretes anti-enzymes that protect it
from host digestive enzymes.
Power of locomotion counteracts peristalsis of host’s intestine. Compensates for
the absence of adhesive suckers and spines.
Muscular Pharynx facilitates ingestion of food by sucking action.
Because there is a constant supply of food, the alimentary canal is simple with
no provisions for storage
No elaborate digestive glands, because the ingested food is pre-digested.
No circulatory system. Pseudo-coelomic fluid serves for absorption, transport
and distribution of food, oxygen and wastes, so that there is no circulatory
system.
Parasitic
Extremely low metabolic rate and anaerobic respiration enables the worm to
Adaptations
live inside the host’s intestine, where free oxygen is negligible.
Because the parasite remains well-protected inside the host, there is no need for
complicated sensory organs
Transfer to a new host is entirely passive, depending on ingestion of
embryonated eggs. After that it must have the adequate conditions to develop.
Resistant covering or shell provides safety to the zygotes and embryonated eggs
from unfavourable environmental factors. This way, they remain viable for
years.
Minute size and resistant nature of eggs affords far and wide dispersal of the
parasite.
Infection of a new human is direct, without an intermediate host, which makes
the process easier.
Life History

Ascariasis
Infection is caused by Ascaris following ingestion of embryonated eggs with

contaminated food and drinking water.
Symptoms: Abdominal pains, vomiting, headache, irritability, diarrhoea,
Pathogenicity
salivation
May spread to other organs and cause - Appendicitis, Gall Bladder trouble and
Liver disease. Bronchitis in lungs.
Treatment: Piperazine citrate syrup, Hexylresorcinol tablets
Wuchereria bancrofti
Life Cycle
Unique among Nematodes, because they require transmission through skin by a
blood sucking parasite
Larval Development in Man
Female is viviparous, releasing numerous juveniles called Microfilariae.

Born in a very immature state, being embryos rather than juveniles. Surrounded
by cuticular sheath
Contain rudiments of adult structures.
Important structures: Future mouth, nerve ring band, nephridiopore, darkly
staining inner mass, 4 large cells, future anus.
Microfilariae discharged into lymph vessels enter blood vessels
Ciruclate with blood and migrate to deeper blood vessels of the thorax.
Do not undergo further development till they are sucked by intermediate host
(mosquito)
In blood of man, microfilariae show day and night periodicity (diurnal rhythm).
During the day they are in large, deep seated blood vessels, but at night (when
mosquitos are active) they come to the peripheral cells.
Development in Mosquito
In stomach of mosquito, microfilariae lose their sheaths, penetrate the stomach

wall and migrate to thoracic muscles or wing musculature. Here, they undergo
metamorphosis and grow.
Infective juveniles migrate to proboscis.
Infection of new human host

When this mosquito pierces proboscis into another human, the infective
juveniles enter the human
Through the wound of mosquito bite, they can enter the blood stream
In the new human host, they travel to the lymph glands, where they develop
into adult forms.
Adults copulate and females deliver microfilariae.
Elephantiasis
Live in the lymphatic system, where they obstruct the flow of lymph and cause
a severe condition known as Elephantiasis.
Limbs or other body parts may swell up and enlarge, because lymph cannot get
back into the circulatory system, accumulates into organs and causes them to
swell.
Light infection: filarial fever, mental depression, headache
Pathogenicity Lymphatic vessels and lymphatic glands undergo inflammation
Control
Treatment focuses on reduction or elimination of microfilariae from circulation

by administering Heterazan and compounds of Antimony or Arsenic.
Modern drugs for filariasis are Albendazole, Diethylcarbamazine
ANNELIDA
General Features
Mostly aquatic, some terrestrial. Burrowing and tubicolous, Some are commensal and parasitic
Body elongated and bilaterally symmetrical. Triploblastic. True Coelom.
Metamerically segmented into similar metameres
Epidermis made from a single layer of columnar epithelial cells, covered externally by a thin cuticle
not made of chitin.
Body wall demo-muscular. Outer muscle fibres are circular, inner longitudinal.
Locomotory organs are segmentally repeated chitinous bristles, called Setae.
Coelom is mostly well developed except in Leeches.
Digestive system straight and complete.
Blood vascular system closed.
Respiration by moist skin or gills of Parapodia
Excretory consists of metamerically disposed coiled tubes, called Nephridia.
Sensory organs: Tactile organs, taste buds, statocysts, photoreceptor cells, eyes in some
Classes: Polychaeta, Oligochaeta, Hirudinea, Archiannelida
METAMERISM
Segmentation in bilateral animals (like Annelida) which involves a longitudinal division of body into a
linear series of similar sections or parts.
Each segment is called a somite or metamere.
Metamerism is only when organs of mesodermal origin are so arranged.
Metamerism is limited to the trunk. Head (Prostomium, bearing brain and sense organs) and Pygidium
represented by terminal part of body are not metameres.
New segments originate in front of the Pygidium. Oldest segments adjoin the head
Developed for the first time in Annelida.
Metameric segmentation evolved 3 times independently - Annelida-Arthropoda, Chordates, Cestodes
Metamerism in Annelida
All body organs — musculature, setae, blood vessels, nerves, ganglia, excretory organs nd gonads are
repeated segmentally.
Coelom is divided into segmental compartments by septa (intersegmental transverse mesenteries).
Complete Metamerism (Homonomous Metamerism) in Annelida. Other higher animals show
incomplete metamerism.
Unlike Arthropods and Vertebrates, metamerism persists in adult stage as well
True Metamerism Pseudo Metamerism
Number of segments is generally constant for Number of segments (proglottids) forming

each species. the body is not fixed as new segments are
New segments are not added to the body after continually added throughout life.
maturation, except in asexual reproduction. Growth occurs due to addition of new
Growth occurs by elongation of existing segments from a region of proliferation,
segments. Segments and ends of body have a just behind the scolex
fixed relationship throughout life. Proglottids differ from one another in age
All segments are of same age and at similar and in degree of development.
stage of development.
Segments are functionally interdependent and Proglottids are independent and self-
integrated. Working in coordination, they contained units, each having a full set of
preserve the individuality of body. sex organs and a portion of excretory and
e.g. In worms, during locomotion, muscles of nervous systems.
each segment contract in a sequence so that
rhythmical waves pass over the whole body
which facilitates locomotion.
POLYCHAETES
Adaptive Radiation: Evolution and spread from a single ancestral species to a variety of forms occupying
different niches.
Habitat
Live under stones, submerged vegetation

Well developed head bearing several kinds of sensory organs like eyes, paps,
antennae and cirri.
Crawling
Parapodia are large and used in crawling or swimming.
Body segments are similar.
e.g. Nereis, Aphrodite
Adapted to live in open sea and are transparent

Planktonic and Tomopteris has large parapodia, but without setae
Pelagic Longitudinal muscles are better developed than circular muscles
Septa are reduced in crawling and swimming species
Prostomium is reduced or absent.

Eyes, paps and tentacles are usually absent.
Parapodia are reduced
Circular muscles are well developed
Burrowing Coelomic fluid has a skeletal role in locomotion
Move through substratum by peristaltic contractions.
Setae are modified into hooks (Uncini) that help in gripping the wall of the
burrow)
e.g. Glycera
Tubes secreted by them or built from gathered materials

Adaptations depends on the type of tube.
Mucus lined burrows: adaptations similar to crawling polychaetes
(Perinereis)
Tubicolous Sand grain tubes: truncate head and parapodia reduced to ridges (Owenia).
Tube made from sand cemented using mucus
Parchment tubes
Calcareous tubes: Two large glands beneath the collar fold secrete the
calcium carbonate added as rings to construct the tube.
Nutrition

Most crawling, some burrowing and all pelagic polychaetes

Feed on small invertebrates including other polychaetes
Carnivores Captured by means of Pharynx or proboscis.
Pharynx have structures like chitinous jaws and teeth in various arrangements
(depending on species)
Bottom sand has bacteria, diatoms, microbes and dead organic matter
Direct deposit feeders: organic matter is digested, sand is egested as castings.
Sand and mud Include burrowing and tube dwelling species.
detritus feeders Indirect deposit feeders: lack a proboscis. Use ciliated grooved tentacles,
secreting mucus. Food particles accumulate at the base of the tentacles and are
conveyed to mouth
Proboscis is lacking
Many sedentary and tubicolous polychaetes
Filter feeders
Head has bipinnate filaments or tentacles (radides) with a ciliated groove
running along the oral surface. Used to collect food particles suspended in water
ARTHROPODA
LARVAE OF CRUSTACEA
Crustacea has both direct and indirect development
Characteristic of class Nauplius.

Simplest and commonest, found in marine crustaceans and
malacostracans.
When development proceeds through many larval forms, Nauplius is the
earliest and most basic larva.
Nauplius Single median eye
e.g. Cyclops 3 pairs of appendages
Antennules: balancing
Antennae: Locomotor, food collection
Mandibles: Food collection
In Brachiopods, it develops straight into adults, but in other crustaceans it
may go through intermediate larva forms
Moulting and growth of Nauplius

Body is divided into broad cephalothorax and elongated abdomen
Metanauplius Terminates in a pair of caudal forks
e.g. Apus 3 pairs of appendages as in Nauplius
Rudiments of 2 pairs each of maxilla and maxillipeds
Decapods, Stomatopods and Notostracans (e.g. Apus)
Protozoaea
e.g. Euphausia Marine prawns: Nauplius changes to Protozoaea

Broad segmented cephalothorax covered with a small carapace
Slender, unsegmented abdomen, bear no appendages, end in a forked
telson
Single median Nauplius eye
Antennules, Antennae, Mandible, 1st and 2nd maxillipeds
In most marine decapods (except Peneids and Sergestids), hatching takes

place at Zoaea stage
Broad cephalothorax and curved abdomen with a forked telson
Zoaea Helmet like carapace with 2 long spines: median dorsal and median
e.g True crabs rostrum
Pair of large compound movable eyes
Maxillipeds are used for swimming
Rudiments of thoracic appendages
In Cirripedia, Nauplius changes into Cypris.

Body and appendages are closed within a bi-valved shell provided with
Cypris
adductor muscle
e.g. Lepas
Modified antennules have cement glands at their bases
6 pairs of thoracic limbs
In Peneids, Zoaea is modified into Mysis

13 pairs of appendages
Mysis
In prawn it marks the end of life history
e.g. Penaeus
But in some, Nauplius and Zoaea are passed through in the egg, so Mysis
represents the first life history
In true crabs, Zoaea changes into Megalopa

Megalopa
Resembles adult crab and has 13 pairs of appendages
e.g. Crabs
Abdomen has 6 pairs of Pleopods
Modified Mysis stage.

Phyllosoma
Body is distinguished into head, a transparent thorax and abdomen
e.g. Palinurus
Compound, stalked eye.
Modified form of Zoaea found in some Malacostracan which hatches

from egg.
Alima Short and broad carapace
6 segmented abdomen with 4-5 pairs of Pleopods
Well formed second maxillipeds and armature of telson
Significance of Larval forms
In line with Biogenetic law (Successive stages of individual development corresponds to ancestral
forms), Nauplius can be considered similar to the ancestral stock from which present day crustaceans
have evolved. Zoaea, Megalopa etc. represent stages of evolution.
Finding out homologies and ancestry among different groups

Helpful in wide distribution of species
Because of a active larval stage, food reserves of eggs can be kept to a minimum
PARASITISM
Parasitism prevails in several groups of Crustacea — Copepoda, Branchiura, Cirripedia, Isopoda and
Amphipoda
Copepoda (Fish Lice): Majority of crustacean parasites. Exhibit diverse array of morphological
modifications, from free living forms to most degenerated parasites. Some are even shaped almost like
worms e.g. Ergasilus, Monstrilla, Caligus, Anthosoma
Branchiura: Ectoparasitic on the skin or in gill chambers of freshwater and marine fishes and some
amphibians. e.g. Argulus
Cirripedia: Syngoga, Laura
Isopoda: Gnathia
Amphipoda: Cyamus
Peculiarities of Parasitic Crustaceans
Degeneration: Lost organs no longer used in the adult form. Copepoda and Cirripedia look similar due
to degeneration.
Adhesive Organs: sucker and hook, for attachment externally or inside cavities
Feeding: Feeding by suction or absorption through organs that do not always represent true organs
Reproduction: Vast and wasteful to maximise survival of a few offspring
Sexual Dimorphism: Remarkable correlation between degree of parasitism and sexual dimorphism
Hermaphroditism: induced in some cases due to parasitism
Life Cycle: Compared to other parasites, there is not much complexity (transfer between hosts is
mostly non existent)

MOUTHPARTS
Insects feed on animals and plants in a variety of ways and their mouthparts have become modified for
these purposes
Mouth parts are essentially the paired appendages of mandibles and maxillary and labial segments of
the head.
Most primitive and unspecialised type,

which appeared in early insects in the
course of evolution.
e.g. Orthopteran insects like
Grasshoppers, Cockroaches and crickets,
larval forms like caterpillars of
Lepidoptera
Biting and
Maxillary Palps act as sensory feelers to
Chewing
locate the food.
Lacinia are used for grasping, cutting,
chewing.
Mandibles masticate food with teeth like
processes.
Glossa and Paraglossa help in pushing the
food into the mouth
Mouth parts of insects that feed on fluids -

modified in such a way that a tube is
formed through which liquid can be drawn
and saliva can be injected.
e.g. Blood sucking insects like Mosquito,
bed bug, Herbivirous insects like Aphids
Mandibles and Maxilla resemble fine
Piercing and needles, meant to pierce the skin or the
Sucking plant tissue.
Hollow and needle like hypo pharynx
through which saliva flows.
Labium forms a hollow grooved channel
that encloses the needle like structures
(mandibles, maxilla, hypo-pharynx)
Labellae at the tip of Labium acts as feeler
(sensory organs)
Chewing and
Lapping Honey Bees and Bumble Bees
Long tongue formed from Glossa of the
labium, ending in a spoon shaped
labellum
Maxillary palp are very small.
Temporary food channel is formed by the
Proboscis, Galeae and Labial Palps fitting
together. Through this, liquid food is
sucked up, assisted by pumping action of
the Pharynx.
Labrum and Mandibles act for chewing.
Houseflies and other flies

Suck up liquefied food. Lack cutting
weapons
Mandibles are absent. Maxillae are
represented by 2 maxillary palps.
Proboscis has 3 parts
Rostrum bearing maxillary palps
Haustellum serving as food passage
Distal labellum, underside of which
Sponging has pseudo trachea, all of which
converge in the centre into the food
groove.
Food canal is formed by the labium,
epipharynx and hypo pharynx lying in mid
dorsal groove of the Haustellum
Labellum is used to lick by contractile
activity. First collected into the
Pseudotracheae and then passed on to the
food canal.
Butterflies and Moths are adapted for

feeding on Nectar.
Maxilla form the main proboscis instead
of the labium
Mandibles and Labium are much reduced,
Siphoning
maxillary palps are rudimentary
Galeae are elongated and coiled, each
forming a half tube
When not in use, it is coiled into position
below the head.
METAMORPHOSIS
Transformation of immature larval individual into a sexually mature reproducing adult of a very different
form.
Types of Metamorphosis
Ametabolous
(No Newly hatched creature looks exactly like an adult except for size and
Metamorphosis) development of spine and setae
e.g. Silverfish and Spring Tails

Immature stages are the nymphs which are aquatic and respire by tracheal
gills.
Adults are terrestrial or aerial and respire by tracheae
e.g. Mayflies, Dragonflies, Stone-flies
Hemimetabolous
(Incomplete
Metamorphosis)
Newly hatched creature resembles an adult in general body form, but lacks
wings and external genital appendages
Undergoes several nymphal stages through successive moult to becomes adult
e.g. Grasshoppers, Aphids, Stink bug
Pauro-Metabolous
(Gradual
Metamorphosis)
Holometabolous
(Complete 4 developmental stages: egg, larva, pupa, adult
Metamorphosis)
Hormonal Control
Brain Hormone
Secreted from neuro-secretory regions of the brain.
Chemically, it is a lipid.
Activates Corpora cardiaca - component of retrocerebral complex of the stomatogastric nervous
system.
Prothoracicotropic Hormone
Secreted by Corpora cardiaca
Stimulates Prothoracic glands
Prothoracic Gland Hormone
Secreted by Prothoracic gland
Chemically Ecdysone — triggers moulting as it acts on the tissues to promote all of the changes
characterising a moult
Juvenile Hormone
Secreted by Corpora allata, another component of the retrocerebral complex.
Promotes metamorphosis
SOCIAL ORGANISATION
Social Insects
Live together in organised groups or colonies

Each individual contributes towards welfare of the entire group
Large populations — complex social aggregate called a colony
All members in a colony are offspring of a single female and have similar genotypes
Generally hostile to members of other colonies and use chemical cues to identify members of own
colony
Elaborate nests for storage of food and maintenance of broods.
Polymorphism
Division of labour into different castes, which are morphologically distinct. Each caste has its
own distinct role to play in the colony. e.g. Queen, Workers and Drones
The castes in an insect colony are subordinated to the life of the community. They are bound by
physiological and chemical mechanisms
Castes which differ in structure and physiology cannot live independently.
Success is measured in terms of the colony and not the individual.
Parental Care: Entire colony cares for the brood as a whole. Provisioning of food, cleaning and feeding
the young, removal of debris, putting eggs in proper chambers etc.
Provisioning of Food
Mass Provision: (Potter Wasps) — Lay their eggs with sufficient mass of food for complete
development of the larva
Progressive Provision: (Bees, Ants, Termites) — Feed their young on a day to day basis until
they metamorphose into adults.
Trophallaxis: Exchange of food between insects (Adult-Young or Adult-Adult). Ectohormones
containing inhibitory substances are passed on to Nymphs by reproductive classes and workers, which
prevents them from developing into the same caste.
Swarming: Occurs for feeding, migration and mating. Mating between queen and mates during
Swarming is called nuptial flight.
Queen Substance on the body of the queen inhibits workers from becoming queen when they come in
contact with this substance.
Protective Devices: Stings in Bees, Jaws in ants. Guard castes protect the nests and attack the
intruders.
Polymorphism
Genetics and Nutrition forms the basis of polymorphism in bees

Unfertilised eggs become Drones (males)
Fertilised eggs fed royal jelly form Queens
Fertilised eggs fed beeswax form Workers
Isoptera — Termites
Determination of castes is by extrinsic factors
Reproductive forms and soldiers secrete ectohormones containing inhibitory substances.
When fed to Nymphs, these substances prevent them from developing into like forms
Honey Bee
Life Cycle
Organised social insects
Species in India: Apis dorsata, Apis mellifera, Queen bee lays eggs in a wax cell
Apis cerana, Apis indica Worker bees feed hatched larva

Apis indica is the most popular species in bee Larva reaches full growth
keeping, as they can be easily domesticated. Workers seal the cell with wax
Phylum: Arthorpoda > Class: Insecta > Order: Larva spins cocoon and changes into a
Hymenoptera > Family: Apidae > Genus: Apis pupa
Polymorphism and division of labour Adult bee leaves the cell
Queen lays egg
Fertilised
Hatch — Royal jelly for few days — Honey and pre digested pollen — Pupa — Worker
Hatch — Royal jelly for few days — Royal Jelly continued feeding — Pupa — Queen
Unfertilised
Hatch — Royal jelly for few days — Honey and pre digested pollen — Pupa — Drone (Haploid
Male)
Worker Bees Drones Queen
Reared in specialised large

queen cells, which are
Genetically haploid males specially constructed for the
Weak mouthparts — cannot queen larva, and have a
forage vertical orientation.
Fertilise the queen during After nuptial flight, queen
Sterile nuptial flight stores sperms in small sac
Clean the hive and feed like organs called
the larvae (0-10 days) spermatheca.
Makes honey out of
nectar brought by
foragers (16-20 days)
Leaves the hive and
spends rest of life as
forager (after 20 days)
When old queen
dies/becomes weak,
workers construct
superseder queen cells
Physical features
Long proboscis for

sucking nectar Workers secrete pheromones from Nasonov gland, which are
Strong wings for inside the tip of the abdomen. This helps workers identify
fanning members of their colony.
Pollen baskets Pheromones produced by the queen bind the colony together.
Sting When a queen takes nuptial flight, her pheromones attract the
Wax Gland drones. Drones copulate during the flight, and die after
transferring the sperm.
Queen Substance: Licked by workers from the queen’s body.
Inhibits the ovaries of workers and makes them sterile.
Mandibular glands of workers produce an alarm pheromone.
Workers leave the sting in the body of the victim, which produces
a sting door, attracting other bees to the area for stinging.

Supersedure: When egg laying capacity of old queen is lost or it suddenly dies, a new and young
queen takes her place.
Absconding: Migration of complete colony from one place to another due to unfavourable conditions,
such as destruction of comb or scarcity of nectar producing flowers.
Swarming: Process of leaving of the colony by the queen. Queen leaves with some of the old drones
and workers and establishes a new hive at another place.
Termites
Less advanced form of social life compared to ants.

Three classes of individuals, and each class includes both sexes
Cate system of the colony is maintained by social hormone (pheromone), secreted by reproductive
castes
Fertile Castes Sterile Castes
Wingless, Eye-less and Colourless, Sex Organs

are rudimentary, Incapable of reproduction
Large Winged Forms: King and Queen, Ocelli
Workers: Dimorphic, construct and repair
are present, Duty of Queen is to lay eggs.
the nest, distribute food, take care of young
Short Winged Forms: Supplementary kings and
and eggs. Can metamorphose into winged
queens. Wings are short, pad like and vestigial.
reproductive castes
Ocelli may be present or not.
Soldiers: larger than workers. Defend the
Wingless Forms: Wings are absent, Ocelli are
colony. Have mandibles for attacking
absent.
Nasutes: Large head prolonged into a
rostrum. Secrete defensive substances.
Feeding
Feed on living as well as dead plant material

Digest cellulose with help of symbiotic protozoa
Swarming
In rainy season, the king and queen are produced in large numbers.
They leave the termitarium through holes made by the workers and fly away to new sites. (Swarming
or Dispersal flight)
Founding of New Colonies
At a new site, king and queen mate, shed wings, dig out a burrow and start a new colony.
Queen lays eggs and these eggs hatch into workers
When her fertility lessens, her feeding is suspended and she dies of starvation
MOLLUSCA
Feeding Mechanisms
May be herbivores, carnivores, filter feeders or detritivores

They have a coelom, a complete digestive system and specialised organs for excretion
Bivalve molluscs can filter-feed fine particles from the water.

Single-shelled molluscs (limpets) possess a ribbon-shaped tongue (radula), covered with rasping teeth
to scrape algae from the rock
Whelks have a radula on a stalk that can be used to bore into the shells of other molluscs and suck out
the flesh
Cone-shells have a stalked radula which is modified into a type of harpoon with which they secure their
prey before injecting it with poison
In still more active carnivores the heavy shell is reduced in size and may even be lost (slugs)
sea-slugs which have an upper surface covered with tentacles.
Locomotion
Locomotion type mostly correlates to the feeding habit. e.g. Herbivorous mollusc are slower than carnivorous
mollusc
Terrestrial Snails: Foot developed to a flat sole on the ventral side. Wave like motion of the foot carries
the snail forward. Gland at the foot produces mucus that the snail crawls on.
Aquatic Snails: Pallial cavity filled with air provides the snail buoyancy to crawl on the water’s
undersurface
Gastropods can use sabre shaped Operculum to propel themselves forward
Some marine gastropods have lost their protective shells and have developed foot like parapodia that
enable them to glide in water
Locomotion in cephalopods is facilitated by ejecting a stream of water for propulsion: “jet” propulsion.
Bivalves are largely sessile and do not move
RESPIRATION
Simplest method. Respiration by moist integument.

Usually in Mollusca that have no differentiated respiratory organs —
Scaphopoda, Aplacophora
Cutaneous
Respiration occurs through the whole body surface
Restricted when body is covered with a shell or where skin is thick and bulky
Can be used to supplement respiration by other mechanisms
Branchial True Gills (Ctenidia)
Most of the Molluscs are aquatic and respire by means of gills

Throughout the division of Mollusca, gill is a homologous organ, derived from
the gill of a common ancestral type
Structure of a Ctenidium
Projection of body surface or mantle

Gill consists of a horizontal main stem or axis attached to the body, and a two of
alternately arranged, flexible respiratory lamellae on either side.
Surface epithelium is covered by cilia, whose movement is responsible for
constant renewal of water over the gills
Gills receive blood from the body through afferent branchial vein and after
becoming oxygenated, it is sent to the body through efferent branchial vein

Counter current: water flows over the gills in a direction opposite to that taken
by flow of blood through the gills.
Gaseous exchange here is a matter of simple diffusion without any active
transport
Secondary or Adaptive Gills
True ctenidium is absent and other morphologically different structure develop

e.g. Docoglossa, Nudibranchia
Types of Adaptive Gills
Anal Gills:
Rosette of feathered, retractile secondary gills around the anus
e.g. Doris
Cerata
Simple or pinnately branched on the dorsal surface of the body.
Richly vascular. Break off and regenerate
Diverticula of the digestive glands open to the exterior at their tips
E.g. Aeolis
Pallial Gills
Series of gills in a row on each lateral side in the pallial groove
e.g. Patella
In terrestrial pulmonates, a true Ctenidium disappears and the mantle cavity is

transformed into a pulmonary sac or lung for aerial respiration
Roof of pulmonary sac is richly supplied with vessels
Pulmonate lungs are an adaptation for terrestrial existence
Pulmonary
Alternate contraction and relaxation of mantle floor, causes air to rush in and out
of the mantle cavity.
Most lower pulmonates are Amphibious (Planorbis). Mantle cavity serves for
both aerial and aquatic respiration.
SHELL DIVERSITY
Shell is a protective skeleton, which forms a characteristic feature of molluscs.

Usually external, but sometimes internal.
Derived from the mantle of the veliger larva
Structure of Shells
Periostracum: Outermost pigmented layer, made of honey organic substance called Conchiolin.
Secreted by the edge of the mantle
Prismatic Layer: Also secreted by the mantle edge. Made of crystalline calcareous plates running
vertically.
Nacreous or Pearl Layer: Made of Conchiolin and Calcareous plates running alternately and
longitudinally.

Types of Shells
8 transverse, overlapping calcareous plates, arranged in a longitudinal row.

Forms the solid armour covering the dorsal surface
Shell plates are movable on one another, to allow the animal to roll up
Cephalic and Anal (1st and 8th) plates are hemispherical
Chiton Others are somewhat rectangular and keeled mid-dorsally.
Each plate is made up of two layers
Tegmentum: Upper layer, organic conchiolin matrix
Articulamentum: Lower layer, thicker and denser, made up of Calcium
Carbonate only.
Shell is external
Cylindrical, tubular, slightly curved, tapering, open at both the ends
Dentalium
During life, shell is buried obliquely in mud, with the wider end lying closest
to substrate
Oval, rounded on the top

Cypraea Shell opening is long and narrow, toothed on both sides and channelled at each
end.
Pointed in front and rounded behind.

Two shell valves are united antero-dorsally by a hinge ligament
Hinge ligament is made up of Conchiolin and is brown, tough, elastic and non-
calcareous.
Mytilus
Umbo is a whitish knob-like swelling in each valve anteriorly. It is the thickest
and oldest portion of the shell.
Rings of growth run around Umbo as centre and run parallel to the free margin
of the shell.
Internal shell in cuttle fish.

Lies embedded in the upper side, completely enclosed in a sac of mantle.
Secreted by its own epithelial lining
Sepia Flat, broad and oval in shape, represented by Phragmocone, pro-ostracum (oral
end) and rostrum projecting into a spine, at the aboral end.
Calcareous matter is arranged in fine parallel layers called septa or laminae
enclosing space containing fluid and gas.
TORSION AND DETORSION
All molluscs, except the Gastropoda, retain ancestral bilateral symmetry of the body. Mantle cavity lies
posteriorly or laterally.
Gastropods have an asymmetrical body with mantle cavity lying anteriorly, and the shell and visceral
mass coiled spirally and directed posteriorly.
Anterior situation of the mantle cavity in gastropods is due to torsion or twisting of the visceral mass
during development.
What is Torsion?
Process during larval development of gastropods, which rotates the viscera-pallium anti-clockwise
through 180º from its initial position (w.r.t head and foot)
This results in mantle cavity and anus being brought in front of the body in adult
Only visceral mass undergoes rotation by 180º, head and foot remain fixed
Torsion starts before coiling of the shell (Coiling is achieved by more rapid growth of one side of the
visceral mass than the other. Torsion and coiling are two separate evolutionary events.)
How does Torsion occur?
Before torsion, larva is symmetrical. Mantle cavity faces downwards and backwards, alimentary canal
is straight, anus open posteriorly in the middle line.
Ventral flexure of the body results in looping of alimentary canal and approximation of mouth and
anus. The shell and visceral mass, originally saucer shaped, become cone shaped and then spirally
coiled.
Shell lies dorsally and and forms a coil on the anterior side: Exogastric shell
Ventral flexure is followed by a lateral torsion, dorsal/exogastric shell becomes ventral/endogastric
Ways in which torsion can be brought about
Growth arrest Hypothesis

Lateral torsion is probably due to arrest of growth on one side and active extension on the other.
Growth of the right side becomes retarded so that mantle cavity gradually pass around to the
right side, and to the anterior side on account o greater growth of the visceral sac toward the left.
e.g. Vivipara
Muscular Contraction Hypothesis
Asymmetrical position and pull of the larval retractor muscles running from velar lobes to the
shell.
They are present only on the right side, with no related muscles on the left
Contraction brings about torsion
Only narrow neck of the larva is twisted, and consequently, everything between head and anus
undergoes a anti clockwise rotation by 180º
e.g. Acmaea
Two stage
First 90º movement by contraction of larval retractor muscles
Then a slow 90º torsion by differential growth.
Commonest mechanism known today. e.g. Patella

Effects of Torsion
Displacement of Mantle cavity

Mantle cavity was primitively posterior in position
Increase in length of the ventral foot, tends to remove the mantle cavity and pallial complex
away from the head.
After Torsion, the mantle cavity opens just behind the head and its associated parts are shifted
forwards
Changes in relative positions
Anus, Ctenidia and renal orifices project forward
Auricles lie infant of the ventricles
Original posterior face of visceral sac becomes the actual anterior face
Right hand side organs are now placed on the left hand side
Digestive tract, which was originally in a straight path from mouth to anus, is now thrown in a loop
Pleuro-Visceral nerve connections become twisted into a figure of 8.
Coil of visceral sac and the shell changes from dorsal and exogastric to ventral and endogastric.
Loss of symmetry
Significance of Torsion
Garstang (1928)
Torsion first occurred as a larval mutation of advantage to the larva, but of little direct use to adult.
Torsion helped to increase predator evasion. After torsion, mantle cavity became anterior, so head and
velum could withdraw first before the foot. Operculum sealed the aperture and Cilia stop beating, so
that the Gastropod can fall to the sea bottom
Morton (1958)
Torsion promotes stability in the adult by placing bulky mass of animal near the substrate.
When mantle cavity containing gill is placed posteriorly, when the animal moved upstream, the water
flow and current due to movement of animal opposed the respiratory current entering the mantle
cavity. After torsion, the currents flow in same direction increasing the respiration.
Anteriorly placed chemoreceptive organs can sample the sediment and incurrent water stream and the
animal orients itself properly with the help of sense organs on the head.
Detorsion
Reversion of changes that occurred during Torsion.

Characteristic of the group Euthyneura
Pallial complex travels back towards the posterior end along the right side.
Ctenidia point backwards, auricles move behind the ventricle, visceral loop becomes untwisted and
symmetrical.
Thus a secondary external symmetry is established.

Various degrees of detorsion are met within Euthyneura.
In least specialised Opisthobranchia and Pulmonata, detorsion is not complete, so the visceral loop
remains partly twisted. Anus and Ctenidium are directed laterally.
ECHINODERMATA
LARVAL FORMS
Echinodermata represent the most complicated metamorphosis in the course of development.

Larva have bilaterally symmetry and have a free-swimming, planktonic existence.
Adults have radial symmetry.
Class I: Asteroidea
Bipinnaria Larva
After hatching, the larva develops cilia and has a free swimming life.
Median arm + 5 pairs of ciliated arms which do not have any skeletal support inside
Arms: pre-oral, anterior-dorsal, posterior-dorsal, posterior lateral, post-oral
Larval gut is divided into mouth, oesophagus, stomach and intestine
Pre-oral and post-oral ciliary bands
After free swimming existence for a few weeks, it changes into Brachiolaria larva
Seen in Starfish
Brachiolaria Larva
formed after 6-7 weeks of life and growth of bipinnaria.

Sedentary and remains attached to a hard substratum
Possesses three brachiolarian arms having adhesive discs at the tip.
Shows all the arms that are seen in the Bipinnaria, but these arms are very long and hanging
Ciliated arms get reduced and become thin and functionless
Mouth, anus and gut are well developed
Axocoel, hydrocoel and somatocoel that later on give rise to water vascular system
Development of starfish takes place inside the sedentary brachiolaria.
Ruptures and releases tiny starfish into water.
Class II: Ophiuroidea
Ophiopluteus Larva
Free swimming larva in brittle stars

Posterior-lateral arms are the longest and form earliest
Post Oral, Anterior-lateral and Posterior-dorsal develop after that
Ciliated bands on arm edges
Internally, the larva contains coelomic chambers and archenteron
Class III: Echinoidea
Echinopluteus Larva
Formed after gastrulation.

Stomodaeal invagination communicates with Archenteron

Gut is differentiated into mouth, oesophagus, stomach and intestine
Blastopore as larval anus
6 pairs of arms: Pre-oral, Antero-lateral, Antero-dorsal, Post-Oral, Postero-dorsal, postero-lateral
Post lateral arms are very short. Antero-dorsal arms may not develop.
Tips of arms are supported by calcareous rods.
Epaulettes: thickened ciliary bands that facilitate locomotion.
Hydrocoel and Vestibule form the oral side
Metamorphosis is extremely rapid, no attachment stage
Class IV: Holothuroidea
Auricularia Larva
Swims about by a ciliated band which forms pre-oral and anal loop.
Larva has a curved gut with sacciform stomach, hydrocoel and right and left somatocoels
Class V: Crinoidea
Doliolaria Larva
Body has 4-5 ciliated bands

Apical sensory plate at the anterior end, with a bunch of cilia.
Skeleton develops
After differentiation into prospective organs, larva attaches itself
Internal organs rotate from ventral to posterior (90º) after attachment
Significance of Echinoderm Larva
Common origin of classes

Except Crinoidea, which becomes sedentary
Same general fundamental plan with bilateral symmetry
Flattened body, looped ciliated bands, gut and enterocoelic coelom
Probably originate from a common ancestor which was a coelomate, bilateral and free
swimming
Taxonomic Affinities
Larval similarities do not indicate taxonomic affinities
On the basis of larval similarities, Ophiuroids and Echinoids should be clade, and Asteroids and
Holothurians should be close.
But based on paleontological and morphological evidence, asteroids and ophiuroids are closely
related. Echinoids have a different line of evolution
Phylogenetic Affinities
Similarities of Ophiopluteus and Echinopluteus due to convergent evolution
Differences between closely related groups in larval form indicates divergent larval evolution
(Asteroids and Ophiuroids)
Relationship with Chordates
Auricularia larva and Balanoglossus larva show similarities.
Cleavage is indeterminate, mesoderm and coelom have similar origin in echinoderms and lower
chordates.
Aid in Dispersal and Feeding
Larvae are the main dispersive phase
Adults are sluggish
Asterias (Sea Star)

Pentamerous radial symmetry, derived from larval bilateral symmetry

Body consists of an indistinct disc, from which radiate 5 elongated and tapering
rays or arms
Coloration is variable
General
Body strongly flattened with distinct oral and aboral surfaces
Characters
Pedicellariae: minute jaw like structures found on both the body surfaces.
Endoskeleton is mesodermal instead of ectodermal
Enterocoel Coelom
Complete digestive tract in the central disc
Voracious carnivore: clams, oysters, mussels

Prey is captured and held in position by arms and tube feet.
Cardiac stomach is everted over the captured prey
Secretions of stomach and pyloric caeca are poured on it (proteases, amylases,
lipases)
Feeding
Digestion outside the body
Digested materials are carried into digestive canal by retraction of cardiac
stomach.
Absorbed by Pyloric Caeca and distributed by coelomic fluid
Elimination of wastes by mouth. Very little from Anus.
Mainly by dermal papulae (thin walled contractile outgrowths on the skin)

Their cavities are continuous with the coelom.
Oxygen diffuses in and carbon dioxide diffuse out
Respiration Respiratory water current is set up to pass over the papulae by cilia lining the
outer surface
Cilia lining inner surface cause coelomic fluid to flow into them so that
exchange occurs
Life History


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21/08/2019 1A Non Chordata

Major and Minor Phyla

Concept of Major or Minor Phyla depends on

Acanthocephala Entoprocta Rotifera

Minute worm like Sessile Microscopic

endoparasites Body of calyx and slender Anterior end with a ciliated

Body is elongated, cylindrical and bilaterally symmetrical (5-7 cm in length)

Body wall has cuticle, epidermis, dermis, striped/circular/longitudinal muscles

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Afﬁnities with Annelida Afﬁnities with Arthropoda

Vermiform body, with truncated extremities Presence of antennae

Considered an intermediate link between Annelida and Arthropoda.

Lower Invertebrates Higher Invertebrates

Small in size Larger in size

Microscopic, unicellular animals Larger, multicellular animals

Asexual reproduction common in lower

Mesozoa Parazoa Eumetazoa

Sessile, Parasitic Mostly mobile

Body bilaterally symmetrical

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Lophophorate Coelomata: Phoronida,

Worm like unsegmented body covered by thin cuticle

Symmetry Found in animals whose body has the shape of sphere

Body is in form of a ﬂat or tall cylinder.

Variant of radial symmetry

Most higher animals

Primary Coelom Secondary Coelom

Blastocoel is obliterated by embryonic

Coelomic Division of Metazoa

Embryonic mesoderm is a solid layer, space between endoderm and ectoderm is

Body space is a true coelom, enclosed by mesoderm on both sides

Schizo Coelomata: Coelom arises by splitting of endomesodermal bands which

First metazoans were most likely radial animals

Ctenophore Ctenophores provided a bridge or intermediate forms between radiate coelenterate

Oval ﬂattened shape with dorsoventral differentiation

Centrally located ventral mouth

Cleavage is biracial in Ctenophore but spiral in Polyclad

Ludwig Von Graft formulated the theory, elaborated by Hyman

Pseudopodia Temporary structures formed by streaming ﬂow of cytoplasm (false feet)

Lobe like Pseudopodia with broad and rounded ends

Filamentous (rhizopodia or myxopodia)

Almost straight, radiating from surface of the body

Locomotion organelles of ﬂagellate Protozoa: Euglena, Trypanosoma

Resemble Flagella in their basic structure

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Contractile Contractile structures in Pellicle or Myoplasm are called Myonemes.

Formation of Pseudopodia by streaming ﬂow of cytoplasm

Sol Gel Theory (Mast and Pantin, 1925)

Flagella need liquid medium for locomotion

Sideways lash with the ﬂagellum held out rigidly

Wave like undulations

Spiral turning of ﬂagellum like a screw

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Phytoﬂagellates possessing Chloroplasts or Chromatophores synthesis their

All Sarcodina are Holozoic or Parasitic

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Absorption of food by Osmosis, through the general surface of the body

Combination of more than one mode of nutrition

Mechanisms are broadly similar to non-parasite protozoans

Division of multi-nucleate Protozoa into two or more smaller multinucleate

A variant of ﬁssion which results in a smaller small daughter individual in the

Sporulation. Common in Foraminifera, Radiolaria, Sporozoa

Two or more individuals may fuse their cytoplasm to form a Plasmodium, in

Complete fusion of two sex cells or gametes, resulting in formation of zygote.