ES3210 - Magmatic Hydrothermal Ore

Deposits (Porphyry Cu-(Mo-Au),

Granophile, and Skarn Deposits)
Stephen J. Piercey
 ES 3210 ECONOMIC MINERAL
DEPOSITS

Relevant Chapters in Mineral Deposits of Canada:

Porphyry deposits, Sinclair

This is a good, but simplified, chapter use it as a supplement

to the lecture notes
 HYDROTHERMAL PROCESSES

Almost all ore deposits have involved some form of

hydrothermal process

Understanding the behaviour of water, and water-rich

fluids, is thus key to understanding hydrothermal ore
deposits

Portions of Robb (2005)(Chapter 2) that may be helpful in

understanding this section (Figure 2.4, Sections 2.3 & 2.4)
 P-T Diagram for Pure H2O

Virtually all ore deposits form at P and T well above the triple point.
Many form in the Supercritical field.
[The low temperature behaviour of water is used in the analysis of fluid
inclusion salinity]

Robb (2005), Fig. 2.2a

P-T Diagram for Pure H2O Robb (2005), Fig.
2.2c
 Dissolved chloride salts, common in ore-forming fluids, alter the
properties of water increasing boiling point T and extending the critical
point.

Robb (2005); Fig 2.11a, after Roedder&Bodnar (1980)

 Robb (2005) 1 KPa = 10-2 bar

1 kg cm-2 = 0.901 bar

1 atm = 1.013 bar

Pressure increases with depth in the crust (or ocean).

 For regimes below the Earths
surface, pressure increases
according to a lithostatic or
hydrostatic gradient.

Hydrostatic overpressures are

common in many crustal
regimes.

Robb (2005)
Styrofoam cup after a dive in external sample carrier of Alvin

WHOI
For VMS the hydrostatic pressure of ocean depth increases the boiling
point of the ore-forming fluids

Robb (2005); Fig 2.11a, after Roedder&Bodnar (1980)

 Ocean bottom depth
determines boiling (or non-
boiling) behaviour of
hydrothermal fluids in VMS
environments.

This has consequences for

sub-seafloor deposition and
Au enrichment.

Robb (2005); Figure 3.23b

 Even at 1 kbar, a granitic melt
can dissolve > 4 wt.% H2O

Melts of natural composition can dissolve large quantities of H2O at

crustal pressures

Robb (2005); Fig 2.4a, after Burnham (1979)

 MAGMATIC FLUIDS

At some stage, a granitic magma will become water-

saturated in response to:

Decreasing pressure as the magma rises in the crust

(or chamber fails mechanically)

Progressive crystallization of predominantly

anhydrous mineral phases (quartz, feldspars etc.)
 MAGMATIC FLUIDS

This results in the formation of a discrete aqueous fluid

phase coexisting with the magma

This aqueous fluid falls in to the category of magmatic

water

At sufficiently shallow depths of emplacement, this fluid

can vapour saturate and boil
At shallow depths, magmatic fluids can also vapour saturate (boiling).

Robb (2005); Fig 2.11a, after Roedder&Bodnar (1980)

 (COLLOQUIAL) TERMINOLOGY

At some stage, a granitic magma will become water-

saturated in response to:

Decreasing pressure as the magma rises in the crust

First Boiling

Progressive crystallization of predominantly

anhydrous mineral phases Second Boiling

Water-saturation is usually a consequence of a

combination of these two processes
Fluid inclusions associated with granite-related ore deposits often display
extremely high salinities. How do these hypersaline fluids originate?

Robb (2005); Fig 2.10a, after Roedder (1984)

 MAGMATIC FLUIDS

These hypersaline brines are a consequence of two-phase

aqueous fluid exsolution

At lower pressures, and sufficient salinity, the exsolved

aqueous fluid will actually separate in to two discrete and
immiscible phases

Cl-poor vapour

Cl-rich brine
 Robbs Fig 2.11b example
considers three different
aqueous magmatic fluids:

A: 600 bars; 920C;

~7.5 wt.% NaCl

B: 1000 bars; 820C;

~10 wt.% NaCl

C: 2000 bars; 775C;

12.5 wt.% NaCl

Robb (2005); Fig 2.11b, after Roedder&Bodnar (1980)

Ridley (2012)
Ridley (2012)
 Some useful terminology
H2O Saturation - pressure release or fractionation will result in
a chemically distinct, aqueous phase in the silicate melt. Can
be liquid, vapour or homogeneous supercritical fluid. Since
this material would fill its container (i.e., less dense than
surrounding magma) then it is often referred to as a vapour
phase.

Vapor-saturation (i.e., boiling) - occurs when the equilibrium

vapour pressure of the magma equals that of the load
pressure on the system and bubbles of gas (i.e. steam or
water vapour, CO2, N2, SO2, H2S, etc.) nucleate in the magma.

First Boiling - due to pressure release either via magma

upwelling or mechanical failure of magma chamber.

Second Boiling - fluid saturation by progressive

progressive crystallization of dominantly anhydrous
minerals under isobaric conditions.

Immiscibility - refers to the tendency for brine solutions at

low pressures, or in the presence of CO2, to segregate into
two phases, one a dense, more saline brine and the other a
lower density, low salinity aqueous solution.
Magmatic Hydrothermal Deposits

Porphryry Cu-Mo-(Au) and Sn-W-(Mo) deposits

Skarn - proximal, distal +/- carbonate-replacement

deposits (mantos) +/- sediment-hosted Au (distal skarns)

Epithermal Au-Ag

Low Sulfidation

Intermediate Sulfidation

High Sulfidation
 High sulfidation epithermal
disseminated Au-(Ag-Cu)

Intermediate
sulfidation
epithermalAu-Ag

High-sulfidation
lode Cu-Au-(Ag)
Base of lithocap Carbonate-replacement
Zn-Pb-Ag-(Au-Cu)
Distal Au/Zn-Pb
skarn

Sediment-
Subepithermal hosted distal-
vein Zn-Cu-Pb- disseminated
Ag+/-Au Marble Au-As-(Sb-Hg)
front
Porphyry
Cu-(Au-Mo) Proximal
Cu-Au skarn

1km

1km

Late-mineral porphyry Lithocap Phreatic breccia

Porphyry Intermineral magmatic-hydrothermal breccia Dacite porphyry plug-dome
Stock Intermineral porphyry Lacustrine sediment
Maar-
IEarly porphyry Late phreatomagmatic breccia
diatreme
Precursor Early phreatomagmatic breccia
Equigranular intrusive rock Complex
Pluton
Dacite dome Late mineral porphyry

Felsic tuff unit

Host Andesitic volcanic unit
Rocks

Sillitoe (2010)
Carbonate units
Subvolcanic basement
 PORPHYRY DEPOSITS

Large, low- to medium-grade deposits in which primary

(hypogene) ore minerals are dominantly structurally
controlled

Spatially and genetically related to felsic to intermediate

porphyritic intrusions

Commonly show pervasive hydrothermal alteration of

host-rocks

Kirkham, 1972; Sinclair,

2007
 Chemistry of
Igneous Intrusions
Related to
Porphyry-Cu
Deposits

Misra
(2002)
 PORPHYRY DEPOSITS

The large size and structural control (e.g., veins, vein sets,
stockworks, fractures) serve to distinguish porphyry
deposits from a variety of deposits that may be
peripherally associated (ore is seldom massive)

These may include skarns, high temperature mantos,

breccia pipes, mesothermal veins, and epithermal
precious- metal deposits

after Sinclair, 2007

 Quartz-molybdenite stockwork,
Roundy Creek, BC

Typical morphology for porphyry-

type Ore

Soregaroli & Sutherland-

Brown, 1976 Kirkham & Sinclair, 1996
 J.S Vigil - USGS

MAGMATISM AT PLATE BOUNDARIES

A typical tectonic environment for porphyry-Cu deposits is that
associated with continental (Andean) subduction.

Also occur in intraoceanic arcs as well.

 Magmatic Hydrothermal
Deposit Environments

Kirkham & Sinclair, 1996

 All these potential
deposit styles are the
consequence of
granitic plutonism
most commonly in a
sub-caldera setting

Kirkham & Sinclair, 1996

 PORPHYRY-Cu DEPOSITS

Porphyry Cu deposits contain ~ the worlds known Cu

reserves

Currently account for > 50% of annual world Cu

production (2002)

Misra, 2002
Defined according to the metals essential to economics of the deposit
(byproducts/potential byproducts listed in brackets):

Cu (Au, Mo, Ag, Re, PGE)

Cu-Mo (Au, Ag)
Cu-Mo-Au (Ag)
Cu-Au (Ag, PGE)
Au (Ag, Cu, Mo)

Mo (W, Sn)
W-Mo (Bi, Sn)
Sn (W, Mo, Ag, Bi, Cu, Zn, In)
Sn-Ag (W, Cu, Zn, Mo, Bi)

Ag (Au, Zn, Pb)

after Sinclair, 2007

Global distribution of porphyry-type deposits

Sinclair, 2007
Sinclair, 2007
Most known porphyry deposits are post-Paleozoic
Sinclair, 2007
 PORPHYRY-Cu DEPOSITS

Typically:

0.2 to 1.0 % Cu

0.005 to 0.03 % Mo

0.004 to 0.35 g/t Au

0.2 to 5.0 g/t Ag

Sinclair, 2007
 Porphyry deposits are low-
grade, large tonnage targets

Misra
(2002)
 PORPHYRY-Mo DEPOSITS

Largest/Richest:

Climax, CO

907 Mt; 0.24% Mo

Henderson, CO

727 Mt; 0.17% Mo

More Typical

Endako, BC

337 Mt; 0.07% Mo

Sinclair, 2007
 ORE GRADE

There are many factors that affect the economic

viability of any given ore deposit
However, assessment of relative grade is a common
starting point
A general guideline scale of low-medium-high grade for various commodities

UnderValuedEquity.com, 2013
PORPHYRY DEPOSITS -
EMPLACEMENT
 Crystallization on the
contact margins of a
shallowly emplaced granitic
intrusion.

Produces a water-
saturated carapace.

Robb (2005); Fig 2.5, after Burnham

(1979)
 Overpressure causes failure
of the overlying host rocks.

This releases ore-forming

fluids into veins, fracture
networks and breccias above
the intrusion.

Robb (2005); Fig 2.7, after Burnham (1979)

 Crystallization of the cap
of the intrusion, and
retreat of the water-
saturated carapace can
lead to repeated cycles of
host-rock failure and
overlapping veining.

These systems also

classically show repeated
episodes of felsic dyke
formation, sometimes
cross-cutting earlier
mineralization.

Burnham (1979)
Robb (2005)
 PORPHYRY DEPOSITS

Consequences of this emplacement style:

Multiple episodes of vein-hosted ore mineralization

Pervasive, episodic alteration of host-rocks

Multiple episodes of felsic dyke-formation

 PORPHYRY DEPOSITS

Consequences of this emplacement style:

late-stage entrainment/convection of meteoric waters

mix with magmatic fluids released from the intrusion

hypogene (primary) mineralization deposited at T

>650 C to as low as 150 C.
 Typical Porphyry Mineralization

Chuquicamata, Chile
 PORPHYRY DEPOSITS

Classic scheme of alteration zone and ore shell

designations was developed by Lowell & Guilbert (1970)

Porphyry deposits of the American southwest

Provides a useful point of reference for describing and

understanding porphyry deposits, in general.
San Manuel-Kalamazoo, AZ Alteration Zones

Misra (2002) after Lowell & Guilbert (1970)

San Manuel-Kalamazoo, AZ Mineralization Zones (Shells)
NB: PERPHERAL is spelled PERIPHERAL

Misra (2002) after Lowell & Guilbert (1970)

 Note:
Sphene is an
alternative (older)
name for titanite

CaTiSiO5
Monoclinic

Key:
Take original
igneous minerals -
fluid:rock
interaction -
convert to
*
secondary minerals

Cox & Singer,

1986
 Schist Host

Aplite Host

Example parageneses from Arizona porphyry-type deposits

Key: complex fluid and

Misra (2002) after
alteration histories.
Titley (1982)
Titley, 1993; Figure 13
Titley, 1993; Figure
13
 PORPHYRY-Cu DEPOSITS

Secondary minerals may be developed in supergene-

enriched zones in porphyry Cu deposits by post-
depositional weathering of primary sulphides

Such zones typically have significantly higher Cu grades,

enhancing the potential for economic exploitation

after Sinclair, 2007

Cox & Singer, 1986
 PORPHYRY-Cu DEPOSITS

Typical minerals in supergene zones of porphyry-Cu:

Bornite Cu5FeS4

Covellite - CuS

Chalcocite Cu2S

Cuprite Cu2O

Native Cu Cu

Digenite Cu9S5
 PORPHYRY-Cu DEPOSITS

Read Box 2.1 (p. 104-105) in Robb (2005), for a description

of La Escondida, Chile Porphyry-Cu Deposit (Supplement)

Also, read Box 4.2 (p.243-244) which will give you some
appreciation of the style and possible variations of
supergene mineralization in porphyry-Cu deposits

Posted on web.
Simplified schematic Climax, CO porphyry-Mo deposit

Cox & Singer,

1986
 Misra
(2002)
 Some porphyry-type
systems show
evidence of having
been part of an
active sub-volcanic
system often with
ancillary epithermal
metal deposits
formed higher up,
within the volcanic
edifice.

Kirkham & Sinclair, 1996

Sinclair,
2007
Sinclair, 2007
 COMB-QUARTZ TEXTURE

Early stages of porphyry-type deposits are predominated

by magmatic fluids

Some intrusions associated with porphyry-type deposits

contain macroscopic textural evidence of trapped
magmatic fluids in the form of comb-quartz rocks within
the top of the intrusion

These are interpreted as a result of pulses of exsolved

magmatic fluid trapped as inter-layers in the crystallizing
magma
 Comb Quartz Texture Anticlimax Mo
Deposit, BC

Layers of coarse-grained quartz grow

perpendicular to layers of very fine-
grained granite or aplite. These
textures are good indicators of the
possibility of Porphyry-type
Growth Direction mineralization.

Comb Quartz Layer -

Granite porphyry
N. Zone, Mt. Pleasant, NB
(Photomicrograph)

Sinclair, 2007
 Comb-quartz is an
example of a
hydrothermal/
mineralizing process
occurring within the
associated intrusion

Kirkham & Sinclair, 1996

Sinclair, 2007
HYDROTHERMAL ALTERATION
 HYDROTHERMAL ALTERATION

Many metamorphic reactions are conceived as closed-

system phenomena, e.g.,

CaCO3(calcite) + SiO2(qz) CaSiO3(wollastonite) + CO2(g)

However, most ore-forming processes involve

metasomatism

Implies a change in bulk composition

 METASOMATISM

Comprehensive Definition:
is a metamorphic process by which the chemical composition of a rock
(or rock portion) is altered in a pervasive manner
involves the introduction and/or removal of chemical components
is a result of the interaction of the rock with aqueous fluids (solutions)
during metasomatism, the rock remains in a solid state

after Zharikov et al, 2007

 HYDROTHERMAL ALTERATION

Hydrothermal fluids commonly alter bulk chemical

composition & phase assemblage of the rocks they
traverse

A very simple example is the dissolution of carbonate

rocks by acidic groundwaters:

CaCO3(calcite) + 2H+ Ca2+(aq) + H2CO3(aq) + pore space

 HYDROTHERMAL ALTERATION

It is common for ore-forming (and other) fluids to alter the

source intrusion or host rocks

Along vein selvedges

or, more pervasively

There are myriad reactions that can take place, but there
are some common themes
 HYDROTHERMAL ALTERATION

Sericite refers to fine-grained white micas of the di-

octahedral structural series (muscovite, paragonite,
phengite, fuchsite)

Muscovite KAl3Si3O10(OH)2

Paragonite NaAl3Si3O10(OH)2

Phengite Si:Al > 1:1; (Mg,Fe)2+ Al3+

Fuchsite Cr-rich Muscovite

 HYDROTHERMAL ALTERATION

One of the most common hydrothermal alteration

reactions in nature is the sericitization of K-Feldspar:

3/2KAlSi3O8(Kfeld) + H+(aq)

1/2KAl3Si3O10(OH)2(Musc) + 3SiO2(Qz) + K+(aq)

Why?
 HYDROTHERMAL ALTERATION

One of the most common hydrothermal alteration

reactions in nature is the sericitization of K-Feldspar:

3/2KAlSi3O8(Kfeld) + H+(aq)

1/2KAl3Si3O10(OH)2(Musc) + 3SiO2(Qz) + K+(aq)

Sericitization is essentially proton metasomatism

 HYDROTHERMAL ALTERATION

Other minerals, including plagioclase, are also commonly

altered to sericite by hydrothermal fluids:

3/2NaAlSi3O8(Plag) + H+(aq) + 1/2K+(aq)

1/2KAl3Si3O10(OH)2(Musc) + 3/2SiO2(Qz) + 1/2Na+(aq) + 1/2O2(g)

Quartz-pyrite-chalcopyrite vein stockworks in feldspar porphyry.
Heavily overprinted by sericitic (phyllic) alteration.
Bell Deposit, Babine District, BC
Sinclair, 2007
 HYDROTHERMAL ALTERATION

The qtz+musc assemblage produced by sericitization

reactions is the phyllic alteration of porphyry-Cu deposits

It also commonly appears in

mesothermal/GQC/orogenic Au deposits

VMS deposits (esp. in felsic host rocks)

SEDEX deposits (e.g., Sullivan)

many other types of medium- to high-T hydrothermal

systems
 HYDROTHERMAL ALTERATION

Once K-feldspar is totally consumed, the hydrolysis

reaction may continue, forming kaolinite:

KAl3Si3O10(OH)2(Musc) + H+(aq) + 3/2H2O

+ 3/2Al2Si2O5(OH)4(Kaolinite) + K+(aq)

This type of reaction produces the argillic to advanced

alteration of porphyry-Cu deposits.

To get this requires abundant H+ - what does this mean for

the nature of the fluids?
Feldspar Stability
 HYDROTHERMAL ALTERATION

Hydrothermal fluids invariably carry other dissolved

cations, in addition to H+

These include, Si4+, Al3+, Fe3+, Fe2+, Ca2+, Na+ and K+

A wide variety of alteration products can therefore form

due to cation metasomatism reactions

For example.
 HYDROTHERMAL ALTERATION

The alteration of plagioclase to chlorite:

NaAlSi3O8(Plag) + 4(Mg,Fe)2+ + 2(Fe,Al)3+ + 10H2O

(Mg,Fe)4(Fe,Al)2Si2O10(OH)8(Chlorite) + 4SiO2(Qz) + 2Na+(aq) +

12H+(aq)
 HYDROTHERMAL ALTERATION

Alteration assemblages are a complex function of:

Temperature

Pressure

Host Rock Composition/Mineralogy

Fluid Composition

Fluid/Rock Ratio
 HYDROTHERMAL ALTERATION

Hydrothermal systems are dynamic by nature ( and by

definition)

Fluid/rock ratio is an expression of the time integrated volume of

fluid with which a discrete volume of rock has reacted

With long term flow in a system, fluid/rock ratio can easily reach
values of >>100

e.g., in the Stockwork/feeder zone of VMS or SEDEX

deposits.

Another example of high Fluid/Rock ratio would be MVT deposits

Ore deposits with > 1% concentrations of Pb & Zn formed

by solutions with only 10s 100s of ppm of these metals
 HYDROTHERMAL ALTERATION

Mineralization is sometimes intimately liked with the

process of alteration, e.g.;

Chalcopyrite is deposited in porphyry-Cu systems by a

generalized process involving reduced S, such as:

Cu+(aq) + Fe2+(aq) + 2H2S + 1/2O2(g)

CuFeS2(cpy) + 3H+(aq) + 1/2H2O

Beane, 1982
 HYDROTHERMAL ALTERATION

However, textural evidence often implies a direct link to

replacement/alteration of pre-existing minerals; e.g.,

2KFe3AlSi3O10(OH)2(Fe-biotite) + Cu+(aq) + 2H2S + O2(g) + H+

(aq)

Fe5Al2Si3O10(OH)8(Fe-chlorite) + CuFeS2(cpy) + 2K+(aq) +

6SiO2(qz) + 1/2H2O

Fe2+ is supplied here by the replacement of Biotite by

chlorite

Beane, 1982
 HYDROTHERMAL ALTERATION

Some (other) common terms used to describe types of

hydrothermal alteration:

Silicification

Formation of new quartz, chalcedony (or opal) during

alteration.

Implies an increase in bulk SiO2 content.

Carbonatization

Formation of carbonate minerals during alteration.

Implies reaction with a CO2-rich fluid.

GRANITE-RELATED ORE DEPOSITS
 The same type of
granitic intrusions
associated with
porphyry-type
systems may give
rise to a variety
other ore deposit
types.

This is dependent on
the local host-rocks,
and on the
surrounding
structural context,
but may include
skarns, mantos and
various styles of
vein-hosted ores.

Kirkham & Sinclair, 1996

 SKARN

Skarn is a originally a Swedish miners term for coarse-

grained calc-silicate gangue (garnet + pyroxene + epidote)
associated with some types of magnetite/chalcopyrite
deposits

In petrology, skarn refers to a diverse suite of calc-silicate

mineral assemblages that form by metasomatic
replacement of carbonate rich protoliths

Skarns may or may not contain any substantial ore

mineralization

Skarns are related to porphyries and carbonate

replacement deposits
 High sulfidation epithermal
disseminated Au-(Ag-Cu)

Intermediate
sulfidation
epithermalAu-Ag

High-sulfidation
lode Cu-Au-(Ag)
Base of lithocap Carbonate-replacement
Zn-Pb-Ag-(Au-Cu)
Distal Au/Zn-Pb
skarn

Sediment-
Subepithermal hosted distal-
vein Zn-Cu-Pb- disseminated
Ag+/-Au Marble Au-As-(Sb-Hg)
front
Porphyry
Cu-(Au-Mo) Proximal
Cu-Au skarn

1km

1km

Late-mineral porphyry Lithocap Phreatic breccia

Porphyry Intermineral magmatic-hydrothermal breccia Dacite porphyry plug-dome
Stock Intermineral porphyry Lacustrine sediment
Maar-
IEarly porphyry Late phreatomagmatic breccia
diatreme
Precursor Early phreatomagmatic breccia
Equigranular intrusive rock Complex
Pluton
Dacite dome Late mineral porphyry

Felsic tuff unit

Host Andesitic volcanic unit
Rocks

Sillitoe (2010)
Carbonate units
Subvolcanic basement
Bingham Canyon porphyry Cu-Mo deposit surrounded by Zn-Pb skarn
and CRD

From Ridley (2013)

Bingham Canyon porphyry Cu-Mo deposit Zn-Pb skarn and CRD distal
to porphyry Cu

From Ridley (2013)

 SKARN DEPOSITS

Skarn-hosted ore deposits (skarn deposits) are the

single largest source of tungsten providing >70% of
world production.

They are also substantial sources of Cu, Fe, Mo and Zn

Skarn deposits are also of interest for Au, Ag, Pb, Bi and
Sn
 Generalized Schematic Cross-
Section

Skarn Deposit

Distal skarns may form at

considerable distance (100s of m)
from an intrusive contact if
fractures or faults allow fluid
transit across a carbonate protolith

Cox & Singer, 1986

 Generalized Schematic Cross-
Section

Skarn Deposit

Skarns, and skarn deposits,

typically form immediately
adjacent to the associated
granite intrusion.

Alternatively, they form where

magmatic fluids from the
intrusion have reached carbonate
horizons via faults, breccias or
dykes.

Cox & Singer, 1986

 DEFINITIVE CHARACTERISTICS

Metasomatic replacement of carbonate protolith by

silicate/oxide mineral assemblages

Close genetic association with granitic intrusions (of

similar compositions to those associated with porphyry-
type deposits)
 DEFINITIVE CHARACTERISTICS

Early/high T (prograde) assemblage dominated by

garnet-pyroxene

andradite grossularite Ca3(Fe3+,Al)2Si3O12

hedenbergite diopside Ca(Fe,Mg)Si2O6

Garnet skarn with later epidote + calcite, Kizilkesili, Turkey

Murakami, 2005
Stollberg, Sweden

Garnet-wollastanite skarn.
Garnet + pyroxene skarn, Adirondacks,

Willsbourgh, NY
P.Valley, 2006
 DEFINITIVE CHARACTERISTICS

Subsequent (retrograde) stages of calc-silicate

mineralization may include:

Ca-amphibole

(e.g. actinolite, hastingsite)

epidote

fluorite

Fe-biotite

Fe-chlorite
 DEFINITIVE CHARACTERISTICS

Ore minerals typically include:

magnetite

pyrrhotite

chalcopyrite

scheelite-powellite (W-Mo Skarns)

cassiterite (Sn Skarns)

sphalerite (Zn Skarns)

 DEFINITIVE CHARACTERISTICS

Decarbonation of original protolith mainly during early

stage skarn formation

Early (massive) paragenetic stages commonly cross-cut &

replaced by vein-like (or patchy, or breccia-like) later
stages
Quartz-pyrite-chalcopyrite veinlets cutting fine-grained diopside-
grossularite skarn. Typical veinlet stockwork ore.

Copper Mountain Deposit, Mines Gasp, PQ

GSC, 2007
 TERMINOLOGY

Endoskarn

Skarn-like assemblages within the associated intrusion

implies recirculation of magmatic/meteoric fluids from carbonate

protolith/exoskarn back into intrusion [Ca-metasomatism of
intrusion]

Exoskarn - calc-silicate hornfels and skarnoid

Terms applied to rocks that are largely contact metamorphic or only

weakly Metasomatize

mplies that bulk rock composition is predominantly determined by

protolith composition

Manto

Metasomatic replacements of carbonate, or other calcareous sediments -

without appreciable formation of silicate gangue - are often classified as
Manto deposits
Pale diopside-rich skarn (or skarnoid) cut by stockwork of pyrite- and
molybdenite-bearing fractures and quartz veinlets.

Logtung Deposit, YT.

GSC, 2007
Mactung W skarn ore Polished Slab showing pyrrhotite within a pyroxene
skarn. Scheelite occurs as fine disseminations in within this lithology.

Govt. of Yukon: EDD&EMR (2008)

 W Deposits in YT & NWT

Recognized resource of ~1 Mt of contained W

~ 20% of known global W resource

Scheelite-bearing skarns at contacts of mid-Cretaceous

felsic plutons with Lower Paleozoic limestone horizons

Limestones occur near transition from (L. Proterozoic to

M. Devonian) Selwyn Basin to the adjacent Paleozoic
carbonate platform

Other significant deposit types include porphyries and

veins (e.g., Logtung Deposit)
 Cantung Minesite; Tungsten, NWT

Govt. of Yukon: EDD&EMR

(2008)

Dawson, 1995
Dawson,
1995
 Modern NI 43-101
compliant assessments tend
to give somewhat lower
grade estimates for some
but these are still
significant W resources

Govt. of Yukon: EDD&EMR

(2008)
Map showing close association of W deposits with Cretaceous intrusions

Govt. of Yukon: EDD&EMR (2008)

 CANTUNG W-Skarn

Located in an arcuate belt of deposits on the E and NE of

the Selwyn Basin

At times, has been the largest W producer in the Western

world

Has produced more than 9 Mt at 1.4% WO3 (as Scheelite)

Unusually large & high-grade W deposit

 CANTUNG W-Skarn

Three high-grade scheelite-bearing skarn orebodies

localized within limbs of an overturned anticline that
includes:

L. Cambrian Swiss Cheese Limestone

(Metapelite with Carbonate Pods)

L. Cambrian Ore Limestone

The associated Mine Stock intrusion:

U. Cretaceous Biotite Monzogranite

Dawson, 1995
 CANTUNG W-Skarn E Zone

Scheelite-rich zones are associated with hydrous

alteration of earliest anhydrous garnet-pyroxene skarn
to amphibole- and biotite-bearing assemblages

There also appears to be a strong association of scheelite

with pyrrhotite deposition during these later stages
Cantung E-Zone Orebody

Dawson, 1995
Cu Skarn Deposits

Dawson, 1995
 WHITEHORSE Cu BELT

Thirty-two separate Cu-Fe skarn deposits occur in both

calcareous and dolomitic units of the U. Triassic Lewes R.
Group

In total the deposits have production + reserves (as of

1986) of >10Mt at 1.4% Cu, 1.0 g/T Au 8.8 g/T Ag and minor
Mo

Skarns are localized along the irregular W contact of the

Whitehorse Batholith

Granodiorite pluton with dioritic margin

Regional Geology of the
Whitehorse Cu Belt

Dawson,
1995
 WHITEHORSE Cu BELT

Prograde/retrograde skarn mineralogy reflects protolith:

Calcareous Lewes R. hosts:

andradite, Hd37, wollastonite (prograde)

actinolite, epidote, chlorite

Magnesian Lewes R. hosts:

diopside, forsterite, andradite (prograde)

phlogopite, brucite, serpentine, talc

 WHITEHORSE Cu BELT

Distinct association of sulphide minerals with particular

skarn assemblages:

chalcopyrite & pyrite with actinolite & chlorite

bornite & chalcocite with epidote

Highest Au & Ag values are associated with these

sulphide concentrations
 Simplified Cross-Section of
the Arctic Chief Mine

Whitehorse Cu Belt

Note the persistent presence

of Endoskarn along the original
contact of granodiorite
intrusion with protolith. Also
the outer zone of Magnetite in
the Exoskarn. Magnetite is a
common constituent of many
Cu-skarns

Dawson,
1995
Simplified cross-section of
the Marmoraton mine

Hastings County, ON

This Grenville age magnetite

skarn deposit was exploited
exclusively for iron ore

Dawson,
1995
 JC Sn Skarn, YT

The largest of several stanniferous skarns associated with

the mid-Cretaceous Seagull Batholith

At JC a ridge-like lobe of Seagull Batholith (granite)

intruded a thick sequence of Mississippian quartzite
containing a 30 35m carbonate horizon

Skarn replaced the carbonate along its elongate contact

with the granite ridge for a distance of more than 850m
 JC Sn Skarn, YT

Inferred reserves at JC are 1.25 Mt at 0.54% Sn (cutoff

grade 0.30% Sn)

These reserves are largely as cassiterite associated with

magnetite and pyrrhotite-rich zones within a complex
multi-stage skarn

Sn also occurs in solid solution in several silicate phases,

including andradite and epidote but this is not
economically feasible to extract.
Layne & Spooner, 1990
 Note that the metasomatized rocks are mapped simply as skarn or calc-
silicate. This underlines the difficulty of mapping well-defined mineral zonation
in most skarn deposits.
Layne & Spooner, 1990
 JC Sn Skarn, YT

It is often difficult to spatially map mineral zonation in

skarn deposits, due to the style of progressive
overprinting and veining that often occurs as the
hydrothermal system evolves.

However, it is possible to characterize the successive

episodes of mineralization by careful examination of the
paragenetic sequence
 The JC Skarn shows a
complex series of mineral
assemblages.
However, the essential
mineralogies are quite
typical of the general
paragenetic progression of
many skarns, i.e;

Andradite + Hedenbergite

Amphibole + Magnetite

Epidote-Quartz-Calcite

Biotite-Quartz-Fluorite

Chlorite-Calcite

Layne & Spooner, 1990

Cassiterite occurs with Stage IV mineralization, concentrated within
the dashed grade outline boundary at > 0.30 % Sn. Zones of earlier
Stage IIB pyrrhotite-rich mineralization contain sphalerite and
chalcopyrite.
Layne & Spooner, 1990
Stage I: >650C; 100%
Magmatic

Stage III: 350500C;

55% Magmatic 45%
Meteoric

Stage IV: 430560C;

100% Magmatic

Layne & Spooner, 1990

 Stage III shows evidence of CaCl2-enrichment of the fluids by exchange
with pre-existing calcite & calc-silicate minerals.
Stage IV shows a return to more NaCl-rich compositions as the fluids were
again predominantly magmatic.
Layne & Spooner, 1990
 Genetic Model(s)

Skarns generally carry fluids from 450-650oC (prograde) down

to 300oC (retrograde). Key is high temperature transport.

Metals transported mostly as chlorite complexes (e.g., ZnCl,

SnCl2, CuCl2).

Fluids react with carbonates - carbonates act as a buffer to

neutralize the fluids (H2O added from carbonate dissolution):

CaCO3 + 2H+ -> Ca2+ + CO2 + H2O

Precipitation:

ZnCl + H2S = ZnS + 2H+ + Cl-

Mixing from meteoric waters can also be important (e.g.,

retrograde skarn).
Genetic Models

Robb (2007)