CHAPTER 7

ATTITUDES

Multiple Choice

1. A(n) ________ is a lasting, general evaluation of people (including oneself), objects,

advertisements, or issues.
a. principle
b. belief
c. personality trait
d. attitude

Answer: (d) Difficulty: (E) Fact Page: 224

2. Ruby believes that ice cream is fattening and therefore tries to avoid the temptation
of eating it. Which of the following best describes the relationship between Ruby and
ice cream?
a. The ice cream is purely a product (P1).
b. The ice cream is an attitude object (Ao) because of Rubys feelings toward the
product.
c. The ice cream is a fantasy (F1) for Ruby.
d. The ice cream is matched to a personality trait (Pt) of Ruby and this is what causes
her difficulties in rejecting the product.

Answer: (b) Difficulty: (H) Application Page: 224

3. Which of the following statements with regard to an attitudes relationship to time is

most correct?
a. Attitudes endure over time.
b. Attitudes tend to be irrelevant with respect to time.
c. Attitudes fade over time.
d. Attitudes tend to be strong during ones youth and then fade in ones older years.

Answer: (a) Difficulty: (H) Fact and Application Page: 224

4. The functional theory of attitudes was initially developed to explain how:

a. people buy products.
b. people reject certain classes of products without rational reasons.
c. attitudes facilitate social behavior.
d. global marketing can deal with cultural changes around the world.

Answer: (c) Difficulty: (M) Fact Page: 224

5. Attitudes exist because they serve some function for the person. This statement is

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 representative of which of the following theories of attitudes?
a. ABC model of attitudes
b. functional theory of attitudes
c. low-involvement hierarchy
d. latitude of rejection model

Answer: (b) Difficulty: (M) Fact and Application Page: 224

6. Daniel Katz described a variety of functions of attitudes. Which of the following is

NOT one of those functions?
a. The knowledge function.
b. The utilitarian function.
c. The value-expressive function.
d. The gender placement function.

Answer: (d) Difficulty: (M) Fact Page: 224-225

7. Which of the following general attitude functions is most closely related to the basic
principles of reward and punishment?
a. Utilitarian function.
b. Value-expressive function.
c. Ego-defensive function.
d. Knowledge function.

Answer: (a) Difficulty: (M) Fact and Application Page: 224-225

8. Sarah sees an ad for a popular deodorant. In the ad, a young girl is embarrassed on
prom night because of a perspiration stain on her pink prom dress. The punch line of
the ad says, Is yours strong enough when you really need it? Sarah thinks about her
own product, an upcoming date with a new guy, and decides to switch to the
advertised brand. Which of the following attitude functions most closely matches the
above decisions made by Sarah?
a. Utilitarian function.
b. Value-expressive function.
c. Ego-defensive function.
d. Knowledge function.

Answer: (c) Difficulty: (H) Application Page: 225

9. Kanisha is confronted with a strange set of products during her most recent visit to the
cosmetics counter at her favorite department store. Urban Grunge nail polish is hot,
hot, hot according to recent ads. Kanisha likes the idea of a new nail polish but is
unsure about the image that might be projected by the dull colors of the nail polish
line. With such names as Street Slime, Garbage Goo, and Trash Can, caution might
be the right move. Which of the following attitude functions is probably in play with
Kanisha and her purchase decision?

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 a. Utilitarian function.
b. Knowledge function
c. Ego-defensive function.
d. Camaraderie function.

Answer: (c) Difficulty: (M) Application Page: 225

10. Most researchers agree that an attitude has three components. Which of the following
lists most accurately describe these three components?
a. Value, ego, and intellect.
b. Positive, negative, and neutral.
c. Affect, behavior, and cognition.
d. Local, social, and cultural.

Answer: (c) Difficulty: (M) Fact Page: 227

11. From the basic ABC model of attitude components, ______________ refers to the
way a consumer feels about an attitude object.
a. affect
b. behavior
c. cognition
d. affinity

Answer: (a) Difficulty: (E) Fact Page: 227

12. According to the basic ABC model of attitude components, the component that refers
to the beliefs a consumer has about an attitude object is called:
a. affect
b. behavior
c. affinity
d. cognition

Answer: (d) Difficulty: (M) Fact Page: 227

13. Attitude researchers have developed the concept of a hierarchy of effects to explain
the relative impact of the three components of an attitude. All of the following are
possible hierarchies EXCEPT:
a. Standard Learning Hierarchy.
b. Low-Involvement Hierarchy.
c. Experiential Hierarchy.
d. Habit Hierarchy.

Answer: (d) Difficulty: (H) Fact and Application Page: 227, Figure 7.1

14. If a consumer approaches a product decision as a problem-solving process (based on

cognitive information processing, then he or she will use a(n)

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 ___________________________ to proceed with their decision.
a. Standard Learning Hierarchy
b. Low-Involvement Hierarchy
c. Experiential Hierarchy
d. Habit Hierarchy

Answer: (a) Difficulty: (M) Fact Page: 227-228, Figure 7.1

15. Kelly is considering purchasing a new car. To do so, she reviews how she has bought
cars in the past, what her preferences (brand loyalty) are, any new information that
might have come her way, and what friends have told her about various models. She
is highly involved in this decision, she has carefully weighed alternatives, and has
come to what she perceives to be a thoughtful decision. Kellys decision making is an
example of which of the following hierarchies?
a. Habit Hierarchy.
b. Low-Involvement Hierarchy.
c. Experiential Hierarchy.
d. Standard Learning Hierarchy.

Answer: (d) Difficulty: (H) Fact and Application Page: 227-228

16. In the __________________, the consumer does not initially have a strong preference
for one brand over another. Instead he acts on the basis of limited knowledge and then
forms an evaluation only after the product has been purchased or used.
a. Standard Learning Hierarchy
b. Low-Involvement Hierarchy
c. Experiential Hierarchy
d. Habit Hierarchy

Answer: (b) Difficulty: (M) Fact Page: 228

17. Simi Ghandi is never quite sure which brand of gum to buy. She tries some, likes
some, rejects some. However, through a process of behavioral learning she does
remember those brands that taste good and make her mouth fresh. The problem is that
she cannot often remember the brands that are not so good and often repeats
purchasing mistakes. Oh well, says Simi, gum buying is not that big a deal
anyway. Which of the following hierarchies would most appropriately describe
Simis situation?
a. Standard Learning Hierarchy.
b. Experiential Hierarchy.
c. Low-Involvement Hierarchy.
d. Habit Hierarchy.

Answer: (c) Difficulty: (M) Application Page: 228

18. In the ______________, the consumer considers purchasing based on an attitude of

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 hedonic consumption (such as how the product makes them feel or the fun its use will
provide).
a. Standard Learning Hierarchy.
b. Low-Involvement Hierarchy.
c. Experiential Hierarchy.
d. Habit Hierarchy.

Answer: (c) Difficulty: (M) Fact Page: 228-230

19. Samuel buys a new brand of cologne based on the fact that it is a unique sensory
experience. Samuels decision based on emotional response and intangible attributes,
is most closely associated with which of the following hierarchies?
a. Standard Learning Hierarchy.
b. Low-Involvement Hierarchy.
c. Experiential Hierarchy.
d. Habit Hierarchy.

Answer: (c) Difficulty: (H) Application Page: 228-230

20. The ___________________ is defined as a predisposition to respond in a favorable

or unfavorable manner to a particular advertising stimulus during a particular exposure
occasion.
a. attitude toward the object (Ao).
b. attitude toward the advertisement (Aad).
c. attitude toward the event (Ae).
d. attitude toward the cognition (Ac).

Answer: (b) Difficulty: (E) Fact Page: 230-231

21. Research has shown that at least three emotional dimensions have been identified
in commercials. Two of these emotional dimensions are pleasure and arousal. What
is the third emotional dimension?
a. Pain.
b. Pride.
c. Social connection.
d. Intimidation.

Answer: (d) Difficulty: (H) Fact Page: 231

22. An attitude can form in several ways. For example, a teenager may come to model
the behavior of friends and media figures who drink Pepsi because he or she believes
that this act will allow him or her to fit in with the desirable images of the Pepsi
Generation. Which of the following would the above example be most closely
associated with?
a. The attitude occurred because of classical conditioning.
b. The attitude occurred because of instrumental conditioning.

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 c. The attitude occurred because of a complex cognitive process.
d. The attitude occurred because of a geodemographic process.

Answer: (c) Difficulty: (H) Fact and Application Page: 231

23. Researchers agree that there are various levels of commitment to an attitude. The
highest level of involvement is:
a. compliance.
b. identification.
c. information acquisition.
d. internalization.

Answer: (d) Difficulty: (M) Fact Page: 231-232

24. A person may eat Snickers candy bars because this brand is sold in the company
cafeteria, and it is too much trouble to go elsewhere for a preferred brand. This would
be an example of which kind of attitude involvement based on degree of commitment?
a. Compliance.
b. Identification.
c. Information acquisition.
d. Internalization.

Answer: (a) Difficulty: (H) Application Page: 232

25. Roger was really angry when Coca-Cola attempted to switch from its older formula
to New Coke. He wrote letters to Coca-Cola, talked to friends, called the local bottler,
attempted to hoard old Coke, and complained to the local grocery store manager. In
this example, which of the following kinds of attitude involvements (based on degree
of commitment) is at work in Rogers case?
a. Compliance.
b. Identification.
c. Information acquisition.
d. Internalization.

Answer: (d) Difficulty: (H) Application Page: 232

26. Consumers value harmony among their thoughts, feelings, and behaviors; they
are motivated to maintain uniformity among these elements. This statement
illustrates which of the following theories?
a. Self-perception theory.
b. Balance theory.
c. Principle of cognitive consistency.
d. Social judgment theory.

Answer: (c) Difficulty: (E) Fact and Application Page: 232-233

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27. A smoker is faced with a problem. He likes to smoke, but he knows that smoking
has been linked to cancer. His solution to this dilemma is to find a middle ground
by smoking a low tar and nicotine cigarette. This example illustrates
consumer response based on which of the following theories?
a. Self-perception theory.
b. Theory of cognitive dissonance.
c. Social judgment theory.
d. Balance theory.

Answer: (b) Difficulty: (H) Application Page: 233-234

28. Which of the following theories states that we maintain behavior consistency by
inferring that we must have a positive attitude toward an object if we bought or
consumed it (assuming that we made this choice freely)?
a. Self-perception theory.
b. Theory of cognitive dissonance.
c. Cognitive judgment theory.
d. Balance theory.

Answer: (a) Difficulty: (M) Fact Page: 234-235

29. Tim Roberts is a great car salesman. He knows people accept and buy expensive
products gradually. To make a sale, Tim tries to get consumers in a car for a test
drive. He knows that once the customer has complied with the small request, the
probability of an actual car sale will increase. Tims technique is an example of which
of the following sales strategies or techniques?
a. Follow my orders strategy.
b. Show me the money strategy.
c. Foot-in-the-door technique.
d. Never stop selling technique.

Answer: (c) Difficulty: (M) Application Page: 235-236

30. ____________________ assumes that people assimilate new information about

attitude objects in light of what they already know or feel.
a. Social judgment theory
b. The theory of relational objects
c. Balance theory
d. The theory of cognitive dissonance

Answer: (a) Difficulty: (E) Fact Page: 236

31. In accepting or rejecting products based on social judgment theory, choosy

mothers choose JIF peanut butter is an illustration of which of the following?
a. Latitude of advertising.
b. Latitude of perception.

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 c. Latitude of least resistance.
d. Latitude of acceptance.

Answer: (d) Difficulty: (M) Fact and Application Page: 236

32. _________________ considers relations among elements a person might perceive as

belonging together.
a. Social judgment theory
b. The theory of relational objects
c. Balance theory
d. The theory of cognitive dissonance

Answer: (c) Difficulty: (M) Fact Page: 236-237

33. Balance theory perspective involves relations among three elements (a triad). Which
of the following is not part of that triad?
a. A person and his or her perceptions.
b. The marketer and their strategy of image building.
c. An attitude object (the object to be perceived).
d. Some other person or object.

Answer: (b) Difficulty: (E) Fact Page: 236-237

34. Henry would like Phil for a roommate. They seem to get along fine and have
many common interests. However, Phil smokes and Henry does not. The eventual
solution to this potential problem is that Phil agrees to smoke outside the apartment
and tries to quit through a nicotine patch. Henry agrees not to complain about the
smell on Phils clothes and to be supportive of his attempts to quit smoking. This
illustration is an example of which of the following?
a. Social judgment theory.
b. The theory of relational objects.
c. Balance theory.
d. The theory of cognitive dissonance.

Answer: (c) Difficulty: (M) Application Page: 236-237

35. Sometimes consumers are just not sure about a purchase and need a nudge to
move forward and complete a transaction. Marketers often use a celebrity pitch-
person to provide the needed nudge. By using this technique, marketers are hoping
that the stars popularity will transfer to the product. Which of the following theories
is most closely associated with the above statements?
a. Personal relevance theory.
b. The theory of relational objects.
c. The theory of cognitive dissonance.
d. Balance theory.

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Answer: (d) Difficulty: (M) Fact and Application Page: 238

36. A simple response does not always tell us everything that we need to know about
why the consumer feels a certain way toward a product or about what
marketers can do to change the consumers attitude. For this reason and because
attitudes can be complex, in recent years _______________ have become popular.
a. multi-attribute attitude models
b. demographic attitude models
c. single-attribute attitude models
d. psychographic attitude models

Answer: (a) Difficulty: (M) Fact and Application Page: 239

37. All multi-attribute attitude models specify three elements. Two of those elements are
attributes and beliefs. What is the third element?
a. Action variables.
b. Motivations.
c. Recency of data.
d. Importance weights.

Answer: (d) Difficulty: (M) Fact Page: 239

38. Kenneth is using a multiattribute model to make a decision on which college to

attend. Scholarly reputation, friendliness of students, and the adequacy of the
college placement division are the most important areas that Kenneth is using
to measure his list of colleges. Which of the following elements is Kenneth
primarily using in his multi-attribute model to make his decision?
a. Attributes.
b. Beliefs.
c. Importance weights.
d. Goals.

Answer: (a) Difficulty: (H) Application Page: 239

39. Samantha is using a multi-attribute model to make a decision on which college to

attend. She has evaluated that scholarly reputation is more important than whether the
the college has a good sports program. Which of the following elements is Samantha
primarily using in her multi-attribute model to make her decision?
a. Attributes.
b. Beliefs.
c. Importance weights.
d. Goals.

Answer: (c) Difficulty: (E) Application Page: 239

40. Which of the following is most closely associated with the Fishbein model?

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 a. It is the most influential multi-attribute model.
b. It is the only model to combine the Koontz and Krantz models.
c. It is widely used in Europe but has a substantially reduced following in the United
States.
d. It has been replaced by the Holmes model because of its failure to account for the
effect of the Internet on attitude formulation.

Answer: (a) Difficulty: (M) Fact Page: 240

41. The Fishbein multi-attribute model measures three components of attitude. All of the
following are among those elements EXCEPT:
a. importance of cells.
b. salient beliefs.
c. object-attribute linkages.
d. evaluation of each of the important attributes.

Answer: (a) Difficulty: (M) Fact Page: 240

42. Strategy can be developed using information from a Fishbein multi-attribute attitude
model. All of the following are strategic opportunities and applications cited by the
text EXCEPT:
a. capitalize on relative advantages.
b. strengthen perceived product/attribute linkages.
c. add a new attribute.
d. subtract an attribute.

Answer: (d) Difficulty: (M) Fact and Application Page: 241-242

43. Using the Fishbein multi-attribute attitude model, which of the following strategies
associated with the model provides the rationale for examining attributes based on
perceived strengths of the attribute(s)?
a. Capitalize on relative advantages.
b. Strengthen perceived product/attribute linkages.
c. Add a new attribute.
d. Influence competitors ratings.

Answer: (a) Difficulty: (H) Fact and Application Page: 241-242

44. Researchers have added to the original Fishbein multi-attribute model. The name of
this extended Fishbein model is:
a. the linked Fishbein model.
b. the theory of reasoned action.
c. the Phillips model.
d. the theory of social motivation.

Answer: (b) Difficulty: (M) Fact Page: 242

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45. The theory of reasoned action is most closely associated with which of the following
models?
a. The Freudian psychoanalytic model.
b. The Fishbein multi-attribute model.
c. The Coward social dynamic model.
d. The Northland central theorem model.

Answer: (b) Difficulty: (E) Fact Page: 242

46. Which of the following theoretical models measures attitude toward the act of buying
(Aact), rather than only the attitude toward the product itself?
a. The theory of cognitive dissonance.
b. The theory of reasoned action.
c. The theory of attribute justification.
d. The simplex theory.

Answer: (b) Difficulty: (H) Fact Page: 242-244

47. Despite improvements to the Fishbein model, all of the following are considered to be
obstacles to predicting behavior using this model EXCEPT:
a. the model does not consider social pressure.
b. the model was developed to deal with actual behavior, not with the outcomes of
behavior.
c. some outcomes are beyond the consumers control.
d. measures of attitude often do not really correspond to the behavior they are
supposed to predict.

Answer: (a) Difficulty: (H) Fact and Application Page: 244-245

48. Which of the following theories states that the criterion of behavior in the reasoned
action model should be replaced with trying to reach a goal?
a. Theory of cognitive pressure and discontent.
b. Theory of failure.
c. Theory of action and reason.
d. Theory of trying.

Answer: (d) Difficulty: (E) Fact and Application Page: 245

49. All of the following factors might be important to the theory of trying EXCEPT:
a. attitudes toward success.
b. expectation of success.
c. attitude toward failure.
d. attitude toward power and control.

Answer: (d) Difficulty: (M) Fact and Application Page: 246, Figure 7.3

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50. Attitude tracking helps to increase the predictability of behavior by allowing
researchers to analyze trends over an extended period of time. All of the following
are changes that researchers look for over time EXCEPT:
a. changes in different age groups.
b. scenarios about the future.
c. heredity.
d. identification of change agents.

Answer: (c) Difficulty: (M) Fact Page: 247-248

True/False

51. Motivation is a lasting, general evaluation of people (including oneself), objects,

advertisements, or issues.

Answer: (False) Difficulty: (E) Fact Page: 224

52. An attitude is lasting because it tends to endure over time.

Answer: (True) Difficulty: (E) Fact Page: 224

53. The functional theory of attitudes was initially developed by Daniel Katz.

Answer: (True) Difficulty: (M) Fact Page: 224

54. According to the functional theory of attitudes, attitudes exist because they are
hereditary.

Answer: (False) Difficulty: (M) Fact Page: 224

55. The value-expressive function of attitudes is related to the basic principles of reward
and punishment.

Answer: (False) Difficulty: (M) Fact Page: 224-225

56. If Lana wears red, flashy dresses because it says something about her lifestyle, then
Lana is exhibiting the ego-defensive function of attitudes.

Answer: (False) Difficulty: (M) Application Page: 224-225

57. Attitudes that are formed to protect the person, either from external threats or internal
feelings, are said to perform the knowledge function of attitudes.

Answer: (False) Difficulty: (M) Fact Page: 224-225

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58. Attitudes only serve one function at a time. This is what makes them easy to study
and chart.

Answer: (False) Difficulty: (E) Fact Page: 226

59. Affect, behavior, and cognition are the elements that form the ABC model of attitudes.

Answer: (True) Difficulty: (E) Fact Page: 227

60. In the ABC model of attitudes, affect refers to the way a consumer feels about an
attitude object.

Answer: (True) Difficulty: (E) Fact Page: 227

61. Jason believes that dressing formally (e.g., a coat and tie) marks him as a man who is
dressed for success; therefore, Jason dresses formally even in class or for casual
occasions. Jason is basing this decision on the cognition part of the ABC model of
attitudes.

Answer: (True) Difficulty: (H) Application Page: 227

62. In the standard learning hierarchy model, the consumer approaches a product decision
as a problem-solving process.

Answer: (True) Difficulty: (E) Fact Page: 227-228

63. In the standard learning hierarchy model, attitude is based on behavioral learning
processes.

Answer: (False) Difficulty: (M) Fact Page: 227, Figure 7.1

64. Carter does not look at many of the ads for new brands of mustard. His all-time
favorite is Frenchs mustard and he sees no reason to change. Carter is exhibiting
behavior consistent with the standard learning hierarchy model.

Answer: (False) Difficulty: (H) Application Page: 227-230

65. The experiential hierarchy model of attitudes highlights the idea that attitudes can be
strongly influenced by what might be called the involvement paradox.

Answer: (False) Difficulty: (H) Fact and Application Page: 227-230

66. At least three emotional dimensions have been identified in commercials: pleasure,
arousal, and intimidation.

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Answer: (True) Difficulty: (M) Fact Page: 231

67. One of the ways an attitude can form is through classical conditioning. An example
of this formulation would be when the Pepsi name is repeatedly paired with a catchy
jingle such as Youre in the Pepsi Generation.

Answer: (True) Difficulty: (E) Application Page: 231

68. Based on information provided in the text, identification is the lowest level of
involvement where an attitude is formed because it helps in gaining rewards.

Answer: (False) Difficulty: (M) Fact Page: 232

69. Many consumers reacted negatively when Coca-Cola attempted to replace the
standard Coke product with New Coke. These consumers had a very strong allegiance
to old Coke. This is an illustration of the compliance function as related to
involvement with an attitude object.

Answer: (False) Difficulty: (H) Application Page: 232

70. The theory of cognitive dissonance states that when a person is confronted with
inconsistencies among attitudes or behaviors, he or she will take some action to
resolve this dissonance.

Answer: (True) Difficulty: (E) Fact Page: 233

71. Self-perception theory helps to explain the effectiveness of a sales strategy called the
foot-in-the-door technique.

Answer: (True) Difficulty: (E) Fact Page: 234-236

72. Morris is considering joining the Marine Corps. However, he knows the Corps has
changed since his father joined. Women in the Marine Corps is a new idea that Morris
will have to think about. He realizes that to join the Corps he will have to accept this
idea. Morriss situation is an example of social judgment theory in action.

Answer: (True) Difficulty: (M) Application Page: 236

73. Balance theory reminds us that when perceptions are balanced, attitudes are likely
to be less stable because of boredom.

Answer: (False) Difficulty: (M) Fact Page: 238

74. Basic multi-attribute models specify three elements as being important. They are
attributes, beliefs, and relative advantage of competitive messages.

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Answer: (False) Difficulty: (M) Fact Page: 239

75. According to the Fishbein model, salient beliefs are those beliefs about an object that
are considered during evaluation.

Answer: (True) Difficulty: (M) Fact Page: 240

Essay Questions

76. Identify and describe the functional theory of attitudes and its component parts
(functions).

Answer:
According to Daniel Katz, he originally developed his functional theory to explain how
attitudes facilitate social behavior. Attitudes exist because they serve some function for
the individual; that is, they are determined by a person's motives. The following are key
functions identified by Katz:

Utilitarian function - This is related to the basic principle of reward and

punishment. We develop some attitudes toward products simply on the basis
of whether they provide us with pleasure or pain. Ads stressing straightforward
product benefits appeal to this function.
Value-expressive function - Attitudes that perform a value-expressive function are
central to the person's self-concept or central values. Ads that stress how using a
product makes a statement about him or her as a person appeal to this
function.
Ego-defensive function - The function of this attitude is to protect a person from
real or imagined, internal or external, threats to perceived security. Ads
that stress how product usage avoids the threat (often only implicitly) appeal to
this
function.
Knowledge function - Attitudes are formed to address the individual's need for
order, structure, meaning, and control over one's environment. Ads that
stress the power of product information, especially when a person is in an
ambiguous situation or is confronted with a new product, appeal to this
function.

In functional theory, an attitude can serve more than one function; however, in many
cases, a particular function will be dominant for the consumer in terms of consumption
motivation.

Difficulty: (M) Fact Page: 224-227

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77. Most researchers agree that an attitude has three components. List and briefly
describe those three components. Hint: this has been described as the ABC model of
attitudes.

Answer:
(a) Affect--refers to the way a consumer feels about an attitude object.
(b) Behavior--involves the persons intentions to do something with regard to an attitude
object (however, an intention does not always result in an actual behavior).
(c) Cognition--refers to the beliefs a consumer has about an attitude object.

Difficulty: (E) Fact Page: 227

78. Attitude researchers have developed the concept of a hierarchy of effects to explain
the relative impact of the ABC model on attitudes. List and briefly describe each of the
three hierarchies that were presented in the chapter. Be explicit with your description. If
you wish, you may provide examples to aid your discussion.

Answer:
The three hierarchies are (a) the standard learning hierarchy, (b) the low-involvement
hierarchy, and (c) the experiential hierarchy.
(a) The standard learning hierarchy--in this form, a consumer approaches a product
decision as a problem-solving process. The sequence of events is beliefs to affect
(feeling) to behavior to an attitude (the attitude is based on cognitive information
processing). The standard learning hierarchy assumes that a consumer is highly involved
in making a purchase decision. The person is motivated to seek out a lot of information,
carefully weigh alternatives, and come to a thoughtful decision.
(b) The low-involvement hierarchy--in this form, the consumer does not initially have a
strong preference for one brand over another, but instead acts on the basis of limited
knowledge and then forms an evaluation only after the product has been purchased or
used. The attitude is likely to come about through behavioral learning; the consumers
choice is reinforced by good or bad experiences with the product after purchase. The
sequence is beliefs to behavior to affect to attitude (based on behavioral learning
processes.
(c) The experiential hierarchy--this perspective highlights the idea that attitudes can be
strongly influenced by intangible product attributes (such as packaging). The sequence is
affect (feelings) to behavior to beliefs to attitude (based on hedonic consumption).

Difficulty: (H) Fact and Application Page: 227-230, Figure 7.1

79. It is generally felt that a hierarchy of effects describes the relative affect of ABC
model of attitudes. Which hierarchy would be most appropriate for a consumer who is a
loyal Coca-Cola consumer and drinks Coca-Cola for the "pleasure of it?" Cite the
hierarchy and briefly describe its order and function.

Answer:

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The correct answer is the experiential hierarchythis perspective highlights the idea that
attitudes can be strongly influenced by intangible product attributes (such as packaging).
The sequence is affect (feelings) to behavior to beliefs to attitude (based on hedonic
consumption). In this model, consumers act on the basis of their emotional reactions.

Difficulty: (H) Fact and Application Page: 227-230, Figure 7.1

80. How strongly or weakly a consumer is committed to a specific attitude relates to the
level of involvement they have with the attitude object. Describe the strength of
commitment involved in each of the following and give an example:
- compliance
- identification
- internalization

Answer:
(a) Compliance: At the lowest level of involvement is compliance, an attitude formed
because it helps in gaining rewards or avoiding punishment from others. This attitude is
very superficial. It is likely to change when the person's behavior is no longer monitored
by others or when another option becomes available. (Example: A person may drink
Pepsi because this brand is sold in the cafeteria; it is too much trouble to go elsewhere for
a Coca-Cola.)
(b) Identification: A process of identification occurs when attitudes are formed in order
to be similar to another person or group. Advertising that depicts the social consequences
of choosing some products over others is relying on the tendency of consumers to imitate
the behavior of desirable models. (Example: Selection of Budweiser beer gains social
acceptance at the nearby pub.)
(c) Internalization: At a high level of involvement, deep-seated attitudes are internalized
and become part of the person's value system. These attitudes are very hard to change.
(Example: Many consumers reacted quite negatively when the company attempted to
switch to the New Coke formula. This allegiance to Coke was obviously more than a
minor preference for these people; the brand had become intertwined with their social
identities, taking on patriotic and nostalgic properties.)

Difficulty: (H) Fact and Application Page: 231-232

81. Why should marketers be aware of consumers' cognitive consistency and dissonance?
How can dissonance be reduced?

Answer:
According to the principle of cognitive consistency, consumers value harmony among
their thoughts, feelings, and behaviors, and they are motivated to maintain uniformity
among these elements. If necessary, consumers will change their thoughts, feelings, or
behaviors to make them consistent with their other experiences.

Cognitive dissonance theory is one of the most influential approaches to attitudes based
upon the consistency principle. The theory focuses on situations where two cognitive

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elements are inconsistent, creating a feeling of discomfort that the consumer is motivated
to reduce by making things fit with one another. Dissonance can be reduced by
eliminating, adding, or changing elements. The pressure to reduce dissonance is more
likely to be observed in high-involvement situations where the elements are important to
the individual.

An application of dissonance theory is that evaluations of a product tend to become more

positive after the product has been purchased. Consumers find even more reasons to like
something after it becomes theirs. An implication of this phenomenon is that consumers
actively seek support for their purchase decisions; marketers should supply them with
additional reinforcement to build positive brand attitudes.

Difficulty: (M) Fact and Application Page: 232-234

82. Briefly explain self-perception theory and relate how it might be useful to a sales
strategy.

Answer:
Self-perception theory provides an alternative explanation of dissonance effects. It
assumes that people use observations of their own behavior to determine what their
attitudes are, just as we assume that we know the attitudes of others by watching what
they do. The theory states that we maintain consistency by inferring that we must have a
positive attitude toward an object if we have bought or consumed it (assuming that we
freely made this choice). Self-perception theory is relevant to the low-involvement
hierarchy.
Self-perception theory helps to explain the effectiveness of a sales strategy called the
foot-in-the-door technique. It is based on the observation that a consumer is more likely
to comply with a request if he or she has first agreed to comply with a smaller request
(such as a free sample or a test drive).

Difficulty: (M) Fact and Application Page: 234-236

83. With respect to self-perception theory, compare the "foot-in-the-door" technique with
"door-in-the-face" technique.

Answer:
The foot-in-the-door technique is based on the observation that a consumer is more likely
to comply with a request if he or she has first agreed to comply with a smaller request
(such as a free sample or a test drive). The opposite is true for the door-in-the-face
technique. Here a person is asked to do something extreme (a request is usually refused)
and then is asked to do something smaller. People tend to go along with the smaller
request. For example, a young couple are shown a $40,000 engagement ring, but they
settle on a $5,000 ring. If the $5,000 ring had been shown first, the couple might have
downgraded to a $3,000 ring.

Difficulty: (E) Fact and Application Page: 234-236

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84. Identify the elements of balance theory. Discuss possible interaction effects between
unit relation and sentiment relation and how they can be applied to marketing strategy.

Answer:
The elements of a triad in balance theory are:
-a person and his/her perception of
-an attitude object, and
-some other person or object.

These perceptions can be either positive or negative. The theory specifies that people
desire relations among elements in a triad to be harmonious or balanced. If they are not,
a state of tension will result. People will somehow alter these perceptions in order to
make them consistent and restore balance. Elements can be perceived as belonging
together in one of two ways:

- Unit relation in which one element is seen as somehow belonging to or being

part of another element.
- Sentiment relation in which two elements are linked because one has expressed
a preference (or dislike) for the third.

Applications to marketing strategy:

- Forming a perception of a unit relation between consumers and usage of a
product to create the opportunity for developing new sentiment relations.
- Creating a sentiment relation between consumers and products by depicting unit
relations between product and celebrity endorsers.

Difficulty: (M) Fact Page: 236-237

85. Why have multi-attribute attitude models become so popular among marketing
researchers? What three elements are specified in such models?

Answer:
A simple response from a consumer does not always give enough information about why
a consumer feels a certain way about a product nor about what marketers can do to
change the consumer's attitude. The models assume that a consumer's attitude or
evaluation of an attitude object will depend upon the beliefs s/he has about several
attributes of the object. The use of a multi-attribute model implies that an attitude toward
a product or brand can be predicted by identifying these specific beliefs and combining
them in an appropriate manner to derive a better measure of the consumer's overall
attitude.

Basic multi-attribute attitude models specify three elements:

- Attributes are characteristics of the attitude object. Most models assume that

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 the relevant characteristics can be identified; that is, the researcher can include
those attributes that consumers take into account when they are evaluating
the attitude object.
- Beliefs are cognitions about the specific attitude object. A belief measure
assesses the extent to which the consumer perceives that a brand has a
particular attribute.
- Importance weights reflect the relative priority of an attribute to the consumer.
Some attributes are more important than others to the consumer. These
weights are likely to differ across consumers.

Difficulty: (M) Fact Section: Multi-attribute Attitude Models

86. Briefly explain the Fishbein model.

Answer:
The most influential multi-attribute model is the Fishbein model.
It attempted to measure:
a) Salient beliefs people have about an Ao (i.e., those beliefs about the object that are
considered during the evaluation.)
b) Object-attribute linkages or the probability that a particular object has an important
attribute.
c) Evaluation of each of the important attributes.

By combing these three elements, a consumer's overall attitude toward an object can be
computed. This computation was eventually modified (see the Extended Fishbein
model). The basic formula is:
i = attribute
j = brand
k = consumer, where
I = the importance of weight given attribute i by consumer k
= consumer k's belief regarding the extent to which brand j possesses attribute i
A = a particular consumer's (k's) attitude score for brand j

Difficulty: (H) Fact Page: 240-241

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