Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Tutorials PDF
Tutorials PDF
Table of Contents
I Introduction
II Properties and Concepts of Light and Color
II.1 The wavelength range of optical radiation
II.2. Velocity, amplitude, wavelength, and frequency - the measures of a wave
II.3. Spectra of various light sources
II.4. Basic radiometric quantities
II.4.a. Definition of solid angle
II.4.b. Radiant power or radiant flux e
II.4.c. Radiant intensity Ie
II.4.d. Radiance Le
II.4.e. Irradiance Ee
II.4.f. Radiant exitance Me
II.4.g. Spectral radiant power (), spectral radiant intensity I(), spectral radiance L(), spectral irradiance E(), and spectral radiant
II.5. Calculation of radiometric quantities - Examples
II.5.a. Example 1: Isotropic point source
II.5.b. Example 2: Spot source
II.5.c. Example 3: The Lambertian surface
II.6. Spectral sensitivity of the human eye
II.7. Basic photometric quantities
II.7.a. Luminous flux v
II.7.b. Luminous intensity Iv
II.7.c. Luminance Lv
II.7.d. Illuminance Ev
II.7.e. Luminous exitance Mv
II.7.f. Conversion between radiometric and photometric quantities
II.8. Reflection, Transmission, and Absorption
II.8.a. Reflectance , Transmittance , and Absorptance
II.8.b. Radiance coefficient qe, Bidirectional reflectance distribution function (BRDF)
II.9. The perception of color
II.9.a. Physiological background
II.9.b. Color addition
II.9.c. Color subtraction
II.10. Colorimetry
II.10.a. RGB and XYZ color matching functions
II.10.b. The (x,y)- and (u,v)-chromaticity diagrams
II.10.c. Correlated color temperature
III. Measurement of light with integral detectors
III.1. The detectors input optics and its directional sensitivity
III.1.a. Integrating spheres used with integral detectors
III.1.b. Measurement of radiant power and luminous flux
III.1.c. Measurement of irradiance and illuminance
III.1.d. Measurement of radiant and luminous intensity
III.1.e. Measurement of radiance and luminance
III.1.f. Measurement of reflection and transmission properties
III.2. Spectral sensitivity of an integral detector
III.2.a. Monochromatic radiometry
III.2.b. Polychromatic radiometry
III.2.c. Photometry
III.2.d. Colorimetry
III.3. The detectors time behaviour
III.4. The detectors dynamic range
III.5. Calibration of integral Detectors
III.5.a. Traceability: an Unbroken Chain of Transfer Comparisons
III.5.b. ISO/IEC/EN 17025 (formerly ISO Guide 25 and EN45001)
III.5.c. Calibration Quantities
III.5.d. Calibration Standards
IV. Detector Signal Measurement
V. Theory and applications of integrating spheres
V.1. Theory of the ideal integrating sphere
V.2. Real integrating spheres
VI. Applications for Light Measurement in Medicine, Technology, Industry and Environmental Science
VI.1. Phototherapy and Radiation Protection
VI.2. Plant physiology
VI.3. UV-Disinfection and Lamp Control
VI.4. UV Curing and UV Processing
VI.5. Colorimetry
VI.6. Photostability
VI.7. Telecommunication
VI.8. Lasers & LEDs Measurements
VI.9. Nondestructive testing
VII. Appendix
VII.2. Summary of radiometric and photometric quantities
VII.3. Sources and references for figures
VII.4. Most relevant CIE- DIN- and ISO-publications and regulations
VII.4.a. DIN Publications
VII.4.b. CIE Publications
VII.5. National Calibration Laboratories
Page 158 - Tutorials
Introduction, Properties and Concepts of Light and Color
I. Introduction
Light, or the visible part of the ments in image processing and optics. tions, detectors, electronics and
electromagnetic radiation spec- pattern recognition. In fact a major Radiometry deals with the meas- calibration are included. A list of
trum, is the medium through which part of the information flow from urement of all optical radiation reference sources is provided for
human beings receive a major external stimuli to our brain is inclusive of the visible portion of future study.
portion of environ- transferred visually. Photometry this radiant energy. SI (Systme International) units are
mental information. Evolution has deals with the measurement of this used throughout these tutori-
optimized the human eye into a visible light energy. This tutorial is an introduction als. Many international organiza-
highly sophisticated sensor for However, optical radiant en- to the basic nature of light and t i on s inc ludin g th e C IE
electromagnetic radiation. Joint ergy not only encompasses visible color, radiometric, photomet- (Commission Internationale de
performance between the human 'light' but radiation invisible to the ric, colorimetric, reflection and l'Eclairage) have adopted this sys-
eye and visual cortex, a large part human eye as well. The term opti- transmission principles, quantities, tem of units exclusively. The termi-
of the human brain, dwarfs recent cal is used because this radiation symbols and units. Sections cover- nology used follows that of the CIE
technical and scientific develop- follows the laws of geometrical ing a sampling of current applica- International Lighting Vocabulary.
= A / r
Equ. II.2
As the area A is proportional to r, this fraction is independent of the actual
choice of r.
If we want to calculate the solid angle determined by a cone, as shown in
Fig.II.area A is the area of a spherical calotte. However, as the solid angle
is not only defined for conical parts of the full visual field, area A can be
any arbitrary shape on the spheres surface.
Although is dimensionless, it is common to use the unit steradian (sr).
The observers total visual field is described by the whole surface of the
sphere, which is given by 4r, and thus covers the solid angle
Fig.II.6. The solid angle quantifies a certain part of the visual field, seen
total = 4r / r = 4 sr = 12.57 sr by an observer located at P
Tutorials - Page 161
Properties and Concepts of Light and Color
d e = Ie d
and thus
e = I d
e
4
Fig. II.8. Typical directional distribution of radiant intensity for an incandescent bulb.
II.4.d. Radiance Le
Radiance Le describes the intensity the (differential) solid angle ele- From the definition of radiant whereby is the angle between the
of optical radiation emitted or ment d is given by intensity I e it follows that the dif- emitting surface element dA and
reflected from a certain location on ferential radiant intensity emitted the direction for which I e is calcu-
an emitting or reflecting surface in d e = Le cos() dA d by the differential area element dA lated.
a particular direction (the CIE in a certain direction is given by
definition of radiance is more gen- Equ.II3 The unit of radiance is W/(m2.s r).
eral. Within the frame of this tuto- dIe = Le cos() dA
rial, the most relevant application In this relation, is the angle be-
of radiance describing the spatial tween the direction of the solid Thus,
emission characteristics of a source angle element d and the normal
is discussed ). The radiant power d
e emitted by a (differential) sur-
of the emitting or reflecting surface Ie = L cos( )dA
e
element dA. emitting
surface
face element dA in the direction of Equ.II.4
II.4.e. Irradiance Ee
Irradiance Ee describes the Note that the corresponding area
amount of radiant power impinging element dA n orm al, which is oriented
upon a surface per unit area. In perpendicular to the incident beam,
detail, the (differential) radiant is given by de
power d e upon the (differential)
surface element dA is given by
dA normal = cos() dA
d e = Ee dA with denoting the angle between
the beam and the normal of dA, we dA
Generally, the surface element can get
be oriented at any angle towards
the direction of the beam. How- dAnormal
ever, irradiance is maximised when Ee = Ee,normal cos() Equ.II.5
the surface element is perpendicu-
lar to the beam: The unit of irradiance is W/m.
Fig. II.9 Irradiance is defined as incident radiant power d e per surface
d e = Ee,normal dA normal area element dA.at P
Page 162 - Tutorials
Properties and Concepts of Light and Color
II.4.g. Spectral radiant power ( ), spectral radiant intensity I( ), spectral radiance L( ), spectral irradiance E( ),
and spectral radiant exitance M( )
The radiometric quantities dis- area describes the contribution of UVA irradiance is defined as as the UVA range is defined from
cussed above are defined without this very wavelength interval to the 400 nm = 315 nm to = 400 nm.
any regard to the wavelength(s) of total value of radiant power e,
the quantified optical radiation. In which is graphically represented by
E e ,UVA = E ( )d
315 nm
order to quantify not only the abso- the total area under the graph of
lute amount of these quantities but spectral radiant power ().
also the contribution of light from
SPECTRAL RADIANT POWER
Mathematically, this can be ex-
different wavelengths, the respec- pressed by the integral 14
tive spectral quantities are defined.
12
Spectral radiant powe r is defined
as a sources radiant power per e = ( ) d 10 d
[mW/nm]
II.5. Calculation of radiometric quantities - Examples II.5.a. Example 1: Isotropic point source
A small source emits light equally b/ An infinitesimal surface element passes through the surface of a for distances much larger than the
in all directions (spherical symme- dA at distance r and perpendicular sphere with radius r, which is given geometric dimens ions of the
try). Its radiant power equals to the beam occupies the solid by 4r. As the light source emits source, which allows the assump-
e,source=10 W. angle light symmetrically in all direc- tion of a point source. In other
If we are interested in the charac- d = dA / r tions, the irradiance has the same cases, a source with considerable
teristics of this source in a distance value at every point of this sphere. geometric dimensions might possi-
r that is much larger than the geo- and thus the infinitesimal radiant Thus, irradiance E of a surface at a bly be replaced by a virtual point
metric dimensions of the source power d e,imp impinging onto dA certain distance r and oriented source, and then the inverse
itself, we can neglect the actual can be calculated by perpendicular to the beam can be square law still holds true when
size of the source and assume that calculated from its definition: distance r is measured from this
the light is emitted from a point. As d e,imp = I d = e,source / 4 sr virtual point source (see Example
a rule of thumb, this approximation dA / r = e,source / 4r dA Ee = radiant power impinging upon 2). However, when the source
is justified if distance r is at least a surface / area of this surface = cannot be assumed point like and
10 times larger than the dimensions Thus, the irradiance at distance r e,source / 4r
every point of the source emits
of the light source. amounts to light in more than a single direc-
tion , the inverse square law no
which is identical with the result
a/ As the source emits light sym- Ee = e,sou rce / 4r longer holds true. As an example,
above.
metrical in all directions, its radiant this is the case for fluorescent
intensity is equal for all directions This result can also be obtained by tubes.
Remark: The fact that E is propor-
and amounts to Ie = e,source / 4 sr the following argument: tional to r- is generally known
= 10 W / 4 sr = 0.796 W / sr. At distance r, all the radiant power under the name inverse square
e,source emitted by the source law. However, it only holds true
Tutorials - Page 163
Properties and Concepts of Light and Color
II.7.c. Luminance Lv
Luminance Lv describes the meas- ticular direction (the CIE definition In detail, the (differential) lumi- with denoting the angle between
urable photometric brightness of a of luminance is more general. nous flux dv emitted by a the direction of the solid angle
certain location on a reflecting or Within the frame of this tutorial, (differential) surface element dA in element d and the normal of the
emitting surface when viewed from the most relevant application of the direction of the (differential) emitting or reflecting surface ele-
a certain direction. It describes the luminance describing the spatial solid angle element d is given by ment dA.
luminous flux emitted or reflected emission characteristics of a source The unit of luminance is
from a certain location on an emit- is discussed). dv = Lv cos() dA d
ting or reflecting surface in a par- 1 lm m-2 sr-1 = 1 cd m-2
II.7.d. Illuminance Ev
Illuminance Ev describes the lumi- dv = Ev dA with arbitrary orientation is related
nous flux per area impinging upon to illuminance Ev,normal upon a with denoting the angle between
a certain location of an irradiated Generally, the surface element can surface perpendicular to the beam the beam and the surfaces normal.
surface. In detail, the (differential) be oriented at any angle towards by The unit of illuminance is lux (lx),
luminous flux dv upon the the direction of the beam. Similar and
(differential) surface element dA is to the respective relation for irradi- Ev = Ev,normal cos()
given by ance, illuminance Ev upon a surface
Example: An LED (light emitting As V() changes very rapidly in In general, a photometric quantity Xv is calculated from its spectral radio-
diode) emits nearly monochromatic this spectral region (by a factor of 2 metric counterpart X() by the relation
radiation at = 670 nm, where V within a wavelength interval of 10
() = 0.032. Its radiant power nm), for accurate results the LEDs X v = K m X ( ) V ( ) d
amounts to 5 mW. Thus, its lumi- light output should not be consid-
nous flux equals ered monochromatic. However,
using the relations for monochro- with X denoting one of the quantities , I, L, or E.
v = e * V() * 683 lm / W =
0.109 lm = 109 mlm matic sources still results in an
approximate value for the LEDs
luminous flux which might be
a b c
Quantities such as reflectance and are not a constant since they are temperature The measurement of optical prop-
transmittance are used to describe dependent on many parameters the spectral composition of the erties of materials using integrating
the optical properties of materials. such as: radiation (CIE standard illumi- spheres is described in DIN 5036-3
The quantities can apply to either nants A, B, C, D65 and other and CIE 130-1998.
complex radiation or to monochro- thickness of the sample illuminants D) Descriptions of the principle meas-
matic radiation. surface conditions polarization effects urements are presented in para-
The optical properties of materials angle of incidence graph III.1.f below.
II.10. Colorimetry
The basic problem of colorimetry quantity, such as radiant intensity coefficient or its spectral transmit- Illuminant D56 is representative of
is the quantification of the physio- or radiance). When the color of a tance. As colors of reflecting or average daylight with a correlated
logical color perception caused by reflecting or transmitting object transmitting objects depend on the color temperature of 6500 K (for
a certain spectral color stimulus (for example a filter) has to be objects illumination, the CIE has the definition of color temperature,
function ( ). When the color of characterised, () equals the defined colorimetric standard illu- see below).
a primary light source has to be incident spectral irradiance imping- minants. The CIE Standard Illumi-
characterised, () equals the ing upon the objects surface, mul- nant A is defined by a Planckian
sources spectral radiant power tiplied by the objects spectral blackbody radiator at a temperature
() (or another spectral radiometric reflectance, its spectral radiance of 2856 K, and the CIE Standard
Page 168 - Tutorials
Properties and Concepts of Light and Color
RELATIVE SENSITIVITY
ers had to combine light at 435.8 certain color perception, the XYZ
nm, 546.1 nm and 700 nm in such a color matching functions are pre-
way that the resulting color percep- ferred as y() they have positive 1,5
tion matched the color perception values for all wavelengths (Fig. z ( )
produced by monochromatic light II.21). In addition, is equal to the
at a certain wavelength of the visi- CIE spectral luminous efficiency
1 y ( )
ble spectrum. Evaluation of these function V() for photopic vision.
experiments resulted in the defini- The XYZ tristimulus values of a 0,5 x ()
tion of the standardised RGB color cer- tain
matching functions r ( ) g ( ) X = k () x ( )d spec-
and b ( ) which have been trans- tral color 0
formed into the CIE 1931 XYZ
Y = k ( ) y ( )d 350 400 450 500 550 600 650 700 750
color matching functions x()
y ( ) z ( ) These colour matching
WAVELENGTH [nm ]
functions define the CIE 1931
standard colorimetric observer
Z = k ( ) z ( ) d
and are valid for an observers field Fig. II.21 - XYZ color matching functions as defined by the CIE 1931 stan-
of view of 2. Practically, this stimulus function () are calcu- dard colorimetric observer. x ( ) (solid black line) consists of a
observer can be used for any field lated by short- and a long-wavelength y ( ) part, and (solid gray line) is
of view smaller than 4. For a field identical with the CIE spectral luminous efficiency function V().
consequence, the lamp itself and its the integrating sphere. It must be X : luminous flux of the test
detector accessories interfere with the baffled against direct irradiation by lamp
baffle spheres internally reflected radia- the lamp. N : luminous flux of the calibra-
tion and thus causes a source of For precise measurements, the tion lamp
spot measurement error, which can be YX : measurement signal of the
lamp must be aged before testing.
source accounted for by use of an auxil- test lamp (with auxiliary lamp
The burn-in time depends on the
iary lamp (see below). lamp type. The burn-in time for switched off)
integrating Integrating spheres used to measure tungsten lamps should be 2-5 hours YN : measurement signal of the
sphere the radiant power or luminous flux (IEC 64) and for arc lamps about calibration lamp (with auxiliary
of lamps must be well suited for 100 hours (IEC 81) is recom- lamp switched off)
Fig. the lamp under test to reduce meas-
III.2. Integrating sphere used for mended. YHN : measurement signal of the
urement uncertainty. One important In precise luminous flux measure- auxiliary lamp (with calibration
radiant power and luminous flux design parameter is that the diame- ment applications an auxiliary lamp lamp switched off)
ter of the hollow sphere should be with baffle(s) is recommended. The YHX : measurement signal of the
As an alternative, radiant power about ten times (twice for tube diffuse illumination generated by auxiliary lamp (with test lamp
and luminous flux of collimated lamps) the maximum dimension of the auxiliary lamp can be used to switched off)
(parallel) beams can be directly the lamp. For example, an integrat- reduce the negative effects of the
measured by flat field detectors as ing sphere set-up to measure the lamp under test and its accessories
long as the detectors active area luminous flux of fluorescent lamps according to the relation
exceeds the beams cross section. with 120 cm (47 in) length should
Despite the simple measurement be at least 2 m (79 in) in diameter. Y X YHN
X = N
setup, this method has significant Furthermore, the diameter of the YN YHX
disadvantages in comparison to the sphere limits the maximum power
use of an integrating sphere: of the lamp.
The detector might be possibly In actual measurements, the lamp
sensitive to the beams polarisa- must be placed in the centre of the
tion. hollow sphere. This is typically
The detectors active area might accomplished using a tube holder,
be possibly inhomogeneous in its which carries the power and meas- test lamp
sensitivity. In this case, it is urement leads into the sphere. A
important to ensure equal illumi- socket at the end of the tube holds detector
nation during calibration and and connects the lamp. To get the
measurement. lamp in the centre position, hinged baffle
auxiliary lamp
Alignment of the detector rela- integrating spheres that open and
tive to the beam is critical. have large diameters of more than
50 cm (20 in) are used. Spheres
integrating sphere
with smaller diameters may offer a
Radiant power and luminous flux
large diameter port to mount the
of lamps Fig. III.3. Experimental setup for radiant power and luminous flux meas-
lamp in the centre of the sphere.
Lamps emit radiation in all direc- The port is normally closed with a urements of a lamp. The auxiliary lamp is used to reduce measurement
tions of the full (4 steradian) solid cap during the measurement. The uncertainties caused by the interference of the lamp under test and its
angle. Therefore, a lamp has to be port caps inside surface should be accessories with the spheres internally reflected radiation.
placed inside an integrating sphere coated with the same diffuse coat-
in order to determine its total radi- ing as the hollow sphere surface.
ant power or luminous flux. As a The detector is placed at a port on
8
Ratio of the reflected radiant or = ------------------ N o
8
luminous flux to the incident flux I(N) I(stray)
in the given conditions.
The measurement of reflectance is I(X): signal with sample irradiation
made in comparison to a reflection I(N): signal with standard irradia-
standard (reflectance N) with a tion
1200nm
1400nm
1600nm
1800nm
200nm
400nm
600nm
800nm
rel. sensitivity
Gigahertz Optik offers absolutely
calibrated irradiance and radiant
power meters equipped with a 0,5
cosine diffuser or an integrating
sphere, whose spectral sensitivity is
optimised for UVA, UVB, UVC,
visible (VIS) and near infrared Fig. III.12. Spectral sensitivity of Giga-
hertz Optiks RW-3703 VISIBLE400-800 0
(NIR) ranges. 380 430 480 530 580 630 680 730 780 830
nm Irradiance detector closely matches
the ideal rectangular shape. wavelength ( nm )
III.2.c. Photometry
For photometric measurements, the where SA() is the spectral distribu- 3% for Class A instruments
detectors relative spectral sensitiv- s () V( ) d
r
tion of the CIE standard Illuminant and f1 6% for Class B instru-
f1 =
ity sr() has to match the CIE spec- A (see II.10.), which is the rec- ments. Gigahertz Optik offers high
tral luminous efficiency function V
V ( ) d ommended photometric calibration
quality illuminance, luminance and
() as close as possible. In order to where s*r() is given by source. High quality photometric luminous flux detectors meeting
quantify a detectors inevitable detectors show a value for f1 be- Class A level (f1 = 3%) and, as an
spectral mismatch, the CIE recom- ( ) V ( ) d low 3%, whereas a value of f1 economical alternative, detectors
mends the evaluation index f1,
S A
above 8% is considered as poor meeting class B level (f1 = 5%).
sr ( ) =
s r ( )
which is defined by ( ) s r ( ) d quality. The DIN 5032, part 7
S
A
requires a spectral mismatch of f1
III.2.d. Colorimetry
For the determination of a color ing function y() is identical with
stimulus X, Y and Z values as the CIE spectral luminous effi-
defined by the CIE 1931 standard ciency function V(), the respec- x short
colorimetric observer, the same tive detector can be absolutely 1,5
stimulus has to be measured by calibrated for simultaneous photo- x long
rel. sensitivity
SI-Uni t
( defini tion )
nat.
insti tut
for
metrology
National Labora tory Primary
Primary Stan dard
national Stan dard
standard (A)
( realization )
accredited
Calibration Labora tory
calibration laboratory
Reference Stan dard Reference Standard Reference Standard
Reference Stan dard
(1. Level ) (B)
Internal Calibration Labora tory
Illuminance Sensitivity detector spectral response does not to a narrow angle so that the detec- Irradiance Sensitivity
lux / foot-candles match the CIE photopic curve too a tion area is overfilled with a sample W/m2 & W/cm2
Calibration of the illuminance high degree, measurement errors of the uniform luminance field. Broadband irradiance detector
response of photopic detectors is will occur when measuring differ- Luminance detectors are calibrated calibrations are performed by trans-
normally performed as a transfer ent type sources. to measure in the optical units of fer comparison to reference stan-
comparison from a photopic refer- candela per square meter and foot- dards with consideration to the
ence standard. The photometric Luminance Sensitivity lamberts. spectral characteristics of the detec-
responsivity of the reference stan- cd/m2 & fL tor to be tested. Reference detectors
dard can be qualified through ra- Luminance responsivity of pho- Color Sensitivity are calibrated against spectral
diometric measurement using red, topic detectors equipped with field Broadband colorimetric detectors are irradiance measurements using a
blue and green filtered photodetec- limiting input optics is accom- calibrated by comparison to reference double monochromator spectrora-
standards based on CIE tristimulus
tors. However this is a complicated plished by comparison to a lumi- values using a light source of known
diometer, itself calibrated using
procedure left to advance radiome- nance reference standard detector. color temperature. Color temperature, traceable spectral irradiance stan-
try labs. Illuminance sensitivity A uniform field of luminance is luminance and illuminance calibrations dards. Irradiance detectors are
calibrations allow direct reading of produced as the calibration source may be included depending on the color calibrated to read out in the optical
the photopically corrected detector using an integrating sphere or a meters capability. The color meter is units of watts per square meter or
in lux or foot-candles. Very often a source with an optically diffuse calibrated to display the color chroma- watts per square centimeter over a
tungsten source is used for illumi- material in front of it. Luminance ticity coordinates x,y and /or u, v of specific wavelength range.
the light source under test.
nance calibrations. If the photopic detectors field of view is confined
1,0
0,9 1
x short
0,8 1,5
0,7
x long
rel. responsivity
rel. sensitivity
rel. responsivity
0,6 y
0,5 1 z 0,5
0,4
0,3
0,5
0,2
0,1
0
0,0
380 430 480 530 580 630 680 730 780 0 300 320 340 360 380 400 420 440 460 480 500 520 540
wavelength (nm) 380 430 480 530 580 630 680 730 780 wavelength ( nm )
wavelength ( nm )
Fig. III.21. BLUE Spectral Response Irradi-
Fig. III.19. CIE Scotopic and Photopic Function Fig. III.20. Color Detector Tristimulus Functions ance Detector
Spectral Reflectance tometer measures the normal Spectral Transmittance regular reflectance component only.
Calibration of the spectral reflec- specular reflectance component Calibration of the spectral transmit- Calibration is performed as percent
tance of materials is accomplished only. tance of materials is accomplished transmission versus wavelength.
by comparison to reference reflec- by comparison to reference trans-
tance standards which themselves mission standards which themselves
are used to set-up calibration of the are used to set-up calibration of the
spectrophotometric instrument spectrophotometric instrument
which actually performs the meas- which actually performs the meas-
urement. Single or double beam urement. Single or double beam
spectrophotometers can spectrally spectrophotometers can spectrally
range from 250 to 2500 nm, with range from 250 to 2500 nm, with
adjustable wavelength increments. adjustable wavelength increments.
When coupled to an integrating When coupled to an integrating
sphere; total hemispherical, diffuse sphere; total hemispherical, diffuse
and specular reflectance can be and regular (specular) transmittance
separately measured with the spec- can be separately measured with the
trophotometer. Without the sphere spectrophotometer. Without the
the in-line set-up of the spectropho- Fig. III.22. 8 Degree Reflectance sphere the in-line set-up of the Fig. III.23. Transmission Meas-
Measurement Set-up spectrophotometer measures the urement Set-up
this period. The calibrated tungsten Fig. III.26. Lamp Spectral Distribution
reference source provides spectral
irradiance data from 250 to 2500
nm covering many typical UV-Vis-
IR radiometric and photometric
applications.
The lamp is normally provided in a
housing and socket made from
Fig. III.25. FEL Calibration Standard Lamp
Page 178 - Tutorials
Measurement of Light
Luminance Standards
Reference sources of luminance are chined from optically diffuse plas-
1,01
used to calibrate the uniformity of tics. Seasoned tungsten halogen
imaging systems and the luminance sources are typically used with
output of luminance meters, spot lamp power supplies and tempera-
exposure meters and other photo- ture stabilized photometric refer-
1,00
metric equipment. ence detectors to form the complete
rel luminance
The standard is constructed around system. Control feedback loop
the integrating sphere of various techniques control the luminance
diameters which provide the highly output intensity and help prolong
0,99
uniform diffuse luminance at the the useable lifetime of the system.
exit port required for these types of Any change in ambient and sphere
calibrations. The spheres may be body temperature affecting the
coated with barium sulfate or ma- output signal is eliminated through
0,98
the temperature stabilized reference
-50 -40 -30 -20 -10 0 10 20 30 40 50
detector. This also reduces system
warm-up time. luminous area diameter ( mm )
An optimally designed sphere
layout is capable of less than Fig. III.28. Typical Luminance Uniformity Response Plot
0.7% non-uniformity over 90% the
port opening which can be as large
as 100 mm in diameter. Angular dards may offer a variable lumi- tion facility. Luminance output,
uniformity of less than 5% within nance output requiring more so- uniformity and angular uniformity
40 enables luminance output phisticated electronics, multiple must be measured and certified.
calibration of detection systems lamps and exhaust fans.
with wide acceptance angles. Lu- In order to qualify as a calibration
minance outputs can range from standard the system itself must be
Fig. III.27. Luminance Standard 0.5 to 35000 cd/m2. Some stan- calibrated by a competent calibra-
Fig. III.29. Variable Radiance Standard Fig. III.30. Typical Spectral Radiance Plot
Reflectance Standards
White optically diffuse reflectance tance over the spectral range of
standards traceably calibrated for interest. Processed PTFE machined
spectral reflectance over a spectral and cut into various shapes and
range from 250 to 2500 nm are thicknesses is currently used for
used in the calibration of reflec- reflectance standards. High reflec-
tance meters, optical distance tance white, black and gray shades
measurement systems, densitome- at varying reflectance values are
ters, spectrophotometers and other available.
optical and imaging systems. To maintain the quality of a cali-
Qualifications of a reflectance brated standard it is normally
standard include light and tempera- mounted into a protective housing
ture stability and durability, near with a removable lid to keep the
Lambertian diffuse reflectance and material clean and covered when
up to 98% spectrally neutral reflec- not in use.
interval (Pulse Measurement Time). The energy is calculated by integrating Manual Range: with autorange disabled, the measurement range can be
these samples. manually fixed to a certain value. The device is not allowed to switch meas-
Pulse Measurement-Time: Measurement interval for I-Effective and urement ranges automatically. Manual range adjustment can be useful in
Pulse Energy measurements. cases where input signals are changing rapidly.
Remote RS232: enables RS232 interface of the device. RS232 is a stan- Calibration Factor: Optical sensors transform optical signals into current.
dard for Asynchronous Transfer between computer equipment and accesso- This current is measured by the device. The calibration factor determines the
ries. Data is transmitted bit by bit in a serial fashion. The RS232 standard relationship between the measured current and the calculated and displayed
defines the function and use of all 25 pins of a DB-25 type connector. measurement result (optical signal).
Minimally configured, 3 pins (of a DB-9 type connector) are used, namely: Offset: The Offset value is subtracted from the measured signal to calculate
Ground, Transmit Data and Receive Data. On PCs, the RS-232 ports la- the result. Offset can be set to zero or to the measured CW-value. Offset is
beled as "serial" or "asynch" and are either 9 or 25 pin male type. useful to compensate for the influence of ambient light or if the measure-
Remote IEEE488: Interface IEEE488 of the device enabled. IEEE488 is a ment value is very small relative to the adjusted measurement range.
standard for Parallel Transfer between computer equipment and measure- Integration Time: Time period for which the input signal is sampled and
ment instruments. Data is transmitted in parallel fashion (max. speed the average value of the sampled values is calculated (>CW). Integration time
1MByte/s). Up to 31 devices (with different addresses) can be connected to should be selected carefully. For example, if multiples of 20 ms (50 Hz) are
one computer system. selected as the integration interval, errors produced by the influence of a
USB: a communication standard that supports serial data transfers between 50Hz AC power line can be minimized.
a USB host computer and USB-capable peripherals. USB specifications Sampling Rate: The rate which specifies how often the input signal is meas-
define a signaling rate of 12 Mbs for full-speed mode. Theoretically 127 ured (sampled). The CW-value is calculated using the average value of all
USB-capable peripherals are allowed to be connected to one USB host samples of one measurement interval (integration time). A sampling rate of
computer. The connected devices may be powered by the host computer. 100ms means that 10000 samples per second are taken. If the measurement
Auto Range: when activated, the measurement range is switched by the interval (integration time) is 0.5 s, there are 5000 samples used to get the CW
device automatically to the optimal value (depending on the input signal). value.
Specifications:
Slew-rate: how fast a signal changes. For example, a rate of 5 Volt/ms Some errors cannot be compensated because they are produced by the
means that the signal changes with a value of 5 Volts every ms. nonlinearity of the ADC (Analog Digital Converter) and the display resolu-
Rise-time: Time needed for a signal to change from 10% to 90% of its tion.
final value. Maximum Detector Capacitance: The input current-to-voltage ampflifier
Fall-time: Time needed for a signal to change from 90% to 10% of its is sensitive to input capacitance. If the input capacitance is too large, the
start value. amplifier may oscillate. The maximum detector capacitance is the largest
Input Ranges / Measurement Range: To achieve a dynamic measure- value of capacitance for which the amplifier will remain out of oscillation.
ment capability greater than six decades, different levels of measurement Measurement Range: The measurement range is typically specified by the
ranges (Gains) for the current to voltage input amplifier are necessary. resolution and the max. reading value. But the user should note that for a
Gains can span from 1V/10pA to 1V/1mA (depending on the device). measurement with a max. measurement uncertainty of 1%, the min. meas-
Linearity: The linearity of an optometer can be described as follows: urement value should be a factor of 100X higher than the resolution. On
Reading a value of 10nA, with a max. gain error of 1%, the possible error the other hand, the max. value may be limited by the detector specifica-
is +/-0.1nA. Together with an additional offset error of 0.05nA, the total tions such as max. irradiation density, max. operation temperature, detector
measurement uncertainty would be 10nA +/-0.15nA or 1.5%. saturation limits, etc., and therefore the manufacturers recommended
At a reading of only 1nA in the same gain range, the gain error would be measurement values should be adhered to.
1% of 1nA or 0.01nA. The offset error would still be 0.05%. The total
measurement uncertainty would be 1nA +/-0.06nA or 6%. The offset error
is minimal with our optometers since these meters offer an internal offset
compensation or allow an offset zero setting from the menu. Here the only
offset error is from the display resolution or the nonlinearity of the analog-
digital converter (ADC).
Measurement Accuracy / Linearity: The max. possible error of a meas-
urement result can be calculated as follows:
Total Error: Gain Error + Offset Error
Gain Error: Displayed (or readout) result X (Gain Error (in percent) /
100 )
Offset Error: Constant value depending on measurement range
The Offset Error can be nearly eliminated be using offset compensation.
Fig. IV.1. Radiometer Schematic
Tutorials - Page 181
Integrating Spheres
B: E1 1 2 0
Fig.V.2. Geometry of an ideal M1 = L1 E2 = dA = E1 dA = E 4 R 2 = E1 =
4 R2 4 R2 4 R2 1 4 R2
integrating sphere of radius R. inner
surface
inner
surface
Page 182 - Tutorials
Integrating Spheres
tions in the same way, we get In this expression, only E0 actually ance is proportional to the total reflecting sphere, it is called
depends on the respective location amount of radiant power 0 reach- sphere multiplier and, for an
Formula B on the spheres inner surface. As a ing the spheres inner surface di- ideal sphere, solely depends on the
consequence, Etotal is independent rectly from the source: coating materials reflectance .
Generally, the irradiance of the from the actual location of the
spheres inner surface caused by spheres inner surface as long as 0 0
E total = = K
the sources radiation after k reflec- we assure that E0 = 0 at this loca- A sphere 1 A sphere
tions is given by tion. This means that no direct
radiation from the source reaches As the constant K describes the
k 0 the location, which can be obtained enhancement of irradiance relative
Ek =
4 R2 by baffles. In this case, total irradi- to the average irradiance of a non-
100
Sphere Multiplier
80
a=1%
60
a=3%
40 a=5%
20 a=10%
0
0,8 0,82 0,84 0,86 0,88 0,9 0,92 0,94 0,96 0,98 1
Reflectance
Fig. V.3. Dependence of the sphere multiplier K on reflectance for different values of the share of non-reflecting
areas on the spheres total inner surface.
Tutorials - Page 183
Light Measurement Applications
VI. Applications for Light Measurement in Medicine, Technology, Industry and Environmental Science
For most technical applications of measurement instruments. Many of States or the Physikalisch- based on customer requirements.
light, authorities like the Interna- these instruments must be specially Technische Bundesanstalt (PTB) in Gigahertz Optiks accredited cali-
tional Commission on Illumination designed and manufactured for the Germany. bration facility provides accurate,
(CIE) or the Deutsche Industrienor- specific application. Moreover, Gigahertz Optik not only offers a state of the art absolute calibration
men (DIN) have developed well- these instruments must be cali- wide variety of absolutely cali- of instruments and secondary stan-
defined standards regarding its brated against national standardiza- brated light detectors, but also dard light sources (see III.5).
measurement. In virtually all areas tion authorities, such as the Na- offers its experience in light meas-
connected with light, there is a tional Institute of Standards and urement technology for the devel-
strong demand for high quality Technology (NIST) in the United opment of specialized solutions
rel. sensitivity
2)
Dominance of blue light hazard
10 t 10s
1
For RTH IR-A evaluation ANSI/
Lhaz 50/( *t 0,25) (kW*m-2*sr-1 ) IESNA RP-27.1-96 recommends a
Lhaz = effective radiance for the field of view of 11 mrad, and of 0,1
RTH function, 100 mrad for very large radiation
a = size of the light source ex- sources.
pressed in radians /1/ ICNIRP: Guidelines of limits of 0,01
For t < 10 s the limit must not be exposure to broad-band incoherent
any greater than Lhaz for t= 10 s. 300 400 500 600 700 800 900 1000 1100 1200 1300 1400
optical Radiation (0,38m to 3
For t > 10 s the limit must not be m) (September 1997)(0,38m to wavelength
any greater than Lhaz for t= 10 s. 3 m) (September 1997)
Metrological Considerations Fig. VI.6. Retinal Thermal & Blue Light Hazard Spectral Functions
UV-Erythema
The typical symptom of UV ery- received in the first years of life,
thema is acute skin inflammation and this can be an important factor 1
caused by UV radiation (sunburn). in the development of skin tumors
It used to be thought that erythema in later years.
was only caused by radiation com- Sunburn occurs in fair-skinned
rel. sensitivity
Bilirubin Phototherapy
Newborn jaundice or neonatal in a bilibed or protected isolette
hyperbilirubinaemia, a yellowish and exposed to fluorescent lights
appearance of the skin and whites designed or filtered to emit in the 1
of the eyes, is present to some blue spectrum. A recent develop-
degree in almost all newborn in- ment is the biliblanket that deliv-
fants. This is caused by an elevated ers blue light through fiber optics
rel. sensitivity
Photosynthesis
Photosynthesis is one of the most radiation energy to build sugar, The occurrence of photosynthesis tion energy in the chlorophyll
important biochemical processes releasing oxygen and water into the in plants is characterized by the molecules raises the electrons to a
on the planet. In the process of atmosphere. This process can bede- green color of their leaves. This is higher energy state. As they return
photosynthesis green plants absorb scribed by the following assimila- due to chlorophyll which is ab- to their initial state, the energy
carbon dioxide from the atmos- tion formula: sorbed with the photosynthetically released is converted into chemical
phere and water from the soil, h.v active radiation. Accordingly, the energy.
combining them with the aid of 6 CO 2 + 12 H 2 O C 6 H 12 O6 + 6O2 + 6 H 2 O absorption of the quanta of radia-
674 kal
Tutorials - Page 187
Light Measurement Applications
Photosynthesis
In general plant physiology, the morphogenetic effect thetic process, and therefore is of Classical investigations into plant
term Photosynthetically Active - 510 nm to 610 nm: weak light minor importance. Just the contrary physiology have indicated that
Radiation (PAR) refers to the absorption by chlorophyll, no has been demonstrated by experi- photosynthetic bacteria possess
radiation in the range of wave- morphogenetic effect ment. It is precisely this green special pigments with strong ab-
lengths between 400 nm and - 610 nm to 720 nm: strong light radiation that yields the greatest sorption bands in vivo at 750 nm
720 nm. This is the energy that is absorption by chlorophyll, high productivity and efficiency in (chlorobium chlorophyll in the
absorbed by the assimilation pig- morphogenetic and ontogenetic densely populated arrangements of green chlorobacteria) or at 800,
ments in blue-green algae, green effect plants or in thick suspensions of 850, 870 and 890 nm. In contrast to
algae and higher order plants. The micro-organisms. This discovery is the blue-green algae, green algae
wavelengths for the lower limit This response function can be important for investigations into and the higher plants, the absorp-
(400 nm) and an upper limit considered as a mean spectral the yields of plants in the lower tion spectrum of the photosynthetic
(720 nm) are not entirely rigid. response function. A number of layers of wooded areas or of green- bacteria also extends into the UV
Photosynthetic reactions have, for different investigations have shown house stocks, or in deep water (e.g. region as far as about 300 nm.
example, been established in some that the spectral absorption spectra in sea plants).
algae at wavelengths shorter than of various plant types can be very
400 nm. In general, the lower limit different. These differences can
depends on the structure and the also occur, in a single plant, e.g. in 1 Phototropism
thickness of the leaf as well as on leaves of different ages or with
the chlorophyll content. Some different thicknesses, chlorophyll
research projects have shown content, etc.. It should also be
rel. sensitivity
700 nm as the upper wavelength noted that the spectral response
limit. function for photosynthesis is 0,5
In DIN 5031, Part 10 (currently in defined with avoidance of mutual
the draft phase) the spectral re- cell shading, experimenting with a
Photosynthesis
sponse function for photosynthesis young, thin leaf or with a thin layer
is defined, and this is illustrated of algae suspension.
graphically below. For plant physi- The spectral distribution of the
0
ology, this range can be divided response function for photosynthe-
into three narrower bands: sis might give the impression that 380 420 460 500 540 580 620 660 700 740
visible radiation in the green range wavelength ( nm )
- 400 nm to 510 nm: strong light centered around 550 nm contrib-
absorption by chlorophyll, high utes very little to the photosyn- Fig. VI.10. Phototropism (blue) & Photosynthesis (green)
Phototropism
Phototropism describes the effect of plant growth. The regions of range between 380 nm and 520 nm the effect of causing parts of plants
of optical radiation on the direction maximum effect lie in the blue (see Fig.VI.10). Radiation can have to move.
Photomorphogenesis
Photomorphogenesis describes the of the spectrum encourages linear intensities in the range of wave- 680 nm (short wavelength red) is of
way in which plants are formed growth, while blue radiation yields lengths from 690 nm to 780 nm great importance for the plant's
under the influence of optical ra- small, strong plants. To be more (long wavelength red) to the range biological processes.
diation. Radiation in the red region precise, the ratio of the radiation of wavelengths from 560 nm to
occur. These effects not only can Active Range It should be noted that information
change the detectors absolute for on the spectral response function of
sensitivity but can also change its UV-Curing the detector in use should be pro-
spectral sensitivity. On recalibra- vided along with any statement of
tion a change in absolute sensitivity measured magnitude to properly
may be noted and adjusted but frame the results. UV detectors
unless a complete spectral test is from different manufacturers can
perfomed a change in spectral have very different spectral re-
sensitivity can go undetected. So sponses.This means that they will
200nm
1,6m
what is thought to be a newly re- not read the same under the same
calibrated detector very often will test conditions.
produce erroneous readings when Fig. VI.13. UV Curing Spectral Region Due to the many errors involved
returned to the end user. with UV measurement, even two
A new detector design has been Thermal isolation by detectors from the same manufac-
developed based on the integrating a flexible light guide. turer can read much differently.
Detector
element RADIN, which is not Normally in the field, readings
UV - Filter
only able to withstand the high UV low profile within 10% are considered ac-
and temperature conditions of the ceptable in the UV-A range.
UV-curing process but also main- High UV attenuation Uncertainties get progressively
tain stability and measurement worse as you move to the shorter
accuracy over long term use. Criti- wavelengths.
cal components in the detector are Temperature and UV Low UV- and thermal-radiation
stable radiation integrator intensity at the detector reduces
not exposed to direct irradiation but It is important to remember that the
(RADIN) drift, ageing, and saturation effects
only see a fraction of it. UV meter is after all a scientific
RADIN is a trade name of Giga- Fig. VI.14. Horizontal UV Detector Design instrument which is asked to per-
hertz-Optik. form reliably and repeatably in
Temperature and UV very hostile environments.
The detector response which best stable radiation integrator Maintaining calibration cycles at
matches the absorption spectrum of (RADIN) the manufacturer recommended
the photocureable chemical in use interval is necessary. If unaccept-
is selected. This way the detector Thermal isolation by able levels of change are seen on
spectrally emulates the product to a flexible light guide. recalibration, the cycle time should
be cured. low profile be shortened (staircase method).
The lamp(s) used in the system This way you end up with a recali-
were selected by the equipment bration program tailored to your
manufacturer for optimal curing specific requirements.
within this active bandpass. Also consider having a second
When lamp replacement becomes Low UV- and thermal-radiation instrument on hand which is used
necessary the replacement lamps intensity at the detector reduces only for an in-house calibration
should be the same in spectral and drift, ageing, and saturation effects check of the working production
absolute output as the old ones so unit(s).
that the established process pa-
rameters are not invalidated. Fig. VI.15. UV Curing Detector
VI.5. Colorimetry
Color is the attribute of visual brown, red, pink, green, blue, pur- Perceived color depends on the on the persons experience of pre-
perception consisting of any com- ple, etc., or by achromatic color spectral distribution of the color vailing and similar situations of
bination of chromatic and achro- names such as white, grey, black, stimulus, on the size, shape, struc- observation. For more details about
matic content. This attribute can be etc., and qualified by bright, dim, ture and surroundings of the stimu- theory, see paragraph II.9 of this
described by chromatic color light, dark or by combinations of lus area, on the state of adaptation tutorials.
names such as yellow, orange, such names. of the observers visual system, and
VI.6. Photostability
The current ICH (International Gigahertz-Optik flat UV-A detec- equipped with internal light sensors Without proper protection engi-
Conference for Harmonization) tor is only 14%. to continuously monitor the light neered into the detector, changes
guidelines specify that drug and The guidelines also state that to and UV-A output. due to solarization, temperature
drug products must be phototested ensure spectral conformity of the Maintaining accuracy and reliabil- effects and ensuing calibration drift
to ensure that exposure to light light source(s) a phototester may ity in on-line continuous monitor- can occur. It is advisable to do a
does not cause photochemical rely on the spectral distribution ing of UV applications is a daunt- third party check using a qualified
degradation of the product or pack- specifications of the light source ing challenge. radiometer/photometer.
aging. The product under test must manufacturer. It has been found in
receive a measured dose of both actual practice that either the spec-
UV-A (200 watt-hours per square tral data is not available or typical
meter) and Visible (1.2 million lux- data is not reliable due to ageing
hours) optical radiation exposure. effects of the source and other
This requires both radiometric and factors. This is another important
photometric measurements in terms reason for using photodetectors
of illuminance in lux and UV-A with the best spectral match to the
(315 to 400 nm) irradiance in W/m ideal functions.
multiplied by exposure time in
hours. Most often the phototesting is
It is important to note that total or performed in a photostability
absolute UV-A is implied. No chamber with long fluorescent light
effective UV-A spectral function is sources mounted above the prod-
specified. Ideally for total UV-A ucts under test. For larger profile
measurements, the perfect broad- products, light sources may also be
band UV-A detector would have a mounted along the sides of the
flat square-wave spectral shape chamber to fully immerse the tar-
starting at 315 to 400 nm for 100% get. Since this is an extended
response at each wavelength across source type of measurement rather
this spectrum with no response than a point source configuration,
outside this bandpass. Most cur- the detector angular responsivity
rently available UV-A detectors should be cosine corrected using a Fig. VI.19. Typical UV-A Spectral Function
have a bell shaped spectral re- diffuser. This way the incoming
sponse which, if uncorrected light signals are properly weighted
through calibration or redesign of according to the cosine of the angle
spectral function, will read >25% of incidence.
too low on the UV-A fluorescent Then the detector properly emu-
source, and >40% too low for lates the target in the way the light
Xenon + glass ID65 type light signal is received.
sources.
Note that UV-A fluorescent and Profiling the photostability cham-
Xenon or Metal Halide simulated ber for uniformity over the expo-
ID65 light sources are the only sure plane is an important proce-
sources specified in the ICH guide- dure since products placed in dif-
lines. ferent areas inside the chamber
A closer approximation to an ideal should be uniformly exposed to the
UV-A broadband detector has same light levels. Moving the
recently been developed for photo- detector or using multiple detectors
biological and photostability appli- in multiplex mode maps the expo-
cations by Gigahertz-Optik. sure levels at various locations
Compared to the ideal UV-A spec- across the exposure plane.
tral function the typical detector Some of the photostability cham-
total area error is 34% while the bers manufactured today are Fig. VI.20. Flat UV-A Spectral Function
VI.7. Telecommunication
An ongoing revolution occurring in the tion, signal bounce-back and of the incoming signal is captured
field of telecommunications is the beam misalignment. Also, the use and reflected inside the sphere
development of small laser diodes and of large size photodiodes required multiple times before reaching the
high capacity optical fibres. Without
optical fibre telecommunication devices
to reduce source to detector mis- baffled detector mounted to it, the
the highly convenient availability of alignment, increases cost. adverse effects of polarization,
huge amounts of information at com- A welcome alternative is the inte- local saturation, signal bounce-
paratively low costs, as provided by the grating sphere which is able to back and beam misalignment are
Internet, would not be possible. collect all of the source optical reduced.
The measurement of the power radiation output independent of
output of laser diodes or fibers is a beam geometry. In the world of
daily routine in the field of tele- photonics, the integrating sphere is Fig. VI.21. During the last two
communication components test- well known for its ability to relia- decades, optical fibre capacity has
ing. Optical power meters using a bly and accurately measure total increased by a factor of about
bare detector claim high sensitivity flux from fibers, laser diodes, la- 1000. For comparison, commercial
but at a cost of potential measure- sers, LEDs and any other optical state of the art wire connections
ment inaccuracies caused by the radiation or light source. Since all range in the region of about 0.1
effects of polarization, local satura- Gigabit per second (Gb/s).
Page 192 - Tutorials
Light Measurement Applications
DIN EN 1956, ASTM and MIL Many of the UV-A radiometers Spectral errors when measuring lux a flat surface does, so in effect the
Standards exist that describe the used in this application are cali- or foot-candles can occur when detector emulates the sample under
general conditions and standard brated at a single point at the peak testing light sources different from test. If the detector spatial response
practices for the penetrant test of the detector spectral response, the source used for calibration. A does not closely match the true
examinations, including the proce- typically 360 nm or simply ad- detector that very closely matches cosine function, significant errors
dures to be followed. The mini- justed to some reading on a particu- the CIE photopic function is re- in readings will result
mum requirements for the illumina- lar light source. To reduce meas- quired for accurate photometry.
tion or irradiation conditions, test urement errors due to light sources The Gigahertz-Optik photopic UV sources pose a potential
procedures to be used for checking with different spectral outputs, sensors spectral function is within health hazard risk to the skin
these levels and suitable measure- Gigahertz-Optik uses the integral DIN Class B limits of <6% fidelity and eye. UV-A sources used in PT
ment equipment specifications are calibration method where the de- to the CIE photopic curve. emit some levels of the most harm-
also covered. tector is calibrated to a measured The detector spatial response ful UV-C and UV-B rays. The UV-
It is particularly emphasized in UV-A integrated spectral irradi- (angular response) is another im- A rays are considered less of a risk,
these standards that the calibration ance standard. portant factor and potential error but the ACGIH/ICNIRP guidelines
of the radiometer and photometer To reduce spectral errors even source. do state Threshold Limit Values for
used to measure the illuminance further, the Gigahertz-Optik UV-A Since the detector is fully im- UV-A at 1 mW/cm for an eight-
and irradiance must be carried out detector exhibits a nearly flat re- mersed in light from all directions, hour exposure period. For UV-B,
with the aid of calibration stan- sponse across the UV-A bandpass including any ambient contribution, the TLV is much less at 0.1 Effec-
dards that can be traced back to with a sharp cut-off at 400 nm to it should be cosine corrected, using tive W/cm. So UV exposure of
national standards. The test certifi- eliminate visible stray light from a diffuser. This way the incoming workers in PT environments should
cate must document the calibration contaminating the UV reading. light signals are properly weighted be tested to ensure safety as well as
testing. The spectral response function of according to the cosine of the inci- for quality control..
The calibration method must also the photometric sensor is very dent angle. The detector receives
be considered. important for the same reasons. the light signals in the same way as
TEST OBJECT
TEST OBJECT
Fig. V.23. Penetrant Testing Schematic
... emitted by a source in total radiant power spectral radiant power luminous flux -
e () v
W W nm-1 lm (lumen)
... emitted in a certain direction radiant intensity spectral radiant intensity I() luminous intensity direction
Ie W sr-1 nm-1 Iv
W sr-1 lm / sr = cd
... emitted by a location on a surface radiant exitance spectral radiant exitance luminous exitance position on sources surface
Me M() Mv
W m-2 W m-2 nm-1 lm m-2
... emitted by a location on a surface radiance spectral radiance luminance position on sources surface
in a certain direction Le L() Lv and direction
W sr-1 m-2 W sr-1 m-2 nm-1 lm sr-1 m-2 = cd m-2
... impinging upon a surface irradiance spectral irradiance illuminance position on irradiated surface
Ee E() Ev
W m-2 W m-2 nm-1 lm m-2 = lx
Table VII.V Radiometric and photometric quantities
Radiometric quantities:
In the following relations, X has to be replaced by one of the symbols , I, L or E:
2
X e ,range = ( ) d
Xe =
0
X ( ) d or
X
1
with 1 and 2 denoting the lower and the upper limit of the respective wavelength range (for instance, UVA)
Photometric quantities:
In the following relations, X has to be replaced by one of the symbols , I, L or E:
Photopic vision: X v = K m X ( ) V( ) d with Km = 683 lm / W Scotopic vision: X v = K' m X ( ) V'( ) d with Km = 1700 lm / W
0
0
x = I d
x Ix = L x cos( ) dA Mx = L x cos( ) d
4 emitting 2
surface
51-1981: Virtual metamers for retinal hazard 142-2001: Improvement to indus- CIE Draft Standard DS
assessing the quality of simulators 138/2: Action spectrum for photo- trial colour difference evaluation 012.2:2002: Standard method of
of CIE illuminant D50 carcinogenesis (non-melanoma 148:2002: Action spectroscopy of assessing the spectral quality of
135/4: Some recent developments skin cancers) skin with tunable lasers daylight simulators for visual ap-
in colour difference evaluation 138/3: Standardized protocols for 149:2002: The use of tungsten praisal and measurement of colour
135/5: Visual adaptation to com- photocarcinogenesis safety testing filament lamps as secondary stan- CIE Draft Standard DS
plex luminance distribution 138/4: A proposed global UV dard sources 013.2:2002: International standard
135/6: 45/0 spectral reflectance index 151:2003: Spectral weighting of global UV index
factors of pressed polytetrafluoro- 139-2001: The influence of day- solar ultraviolet radiation CIE Draft Standard DS
ethylene (PTFE) powder light and artificial light on diurnal CIE Draft Standard DS 010.3- 015:2002: Lighting of work places
138-2000: CIE Collection in and seasonal variations in humans - 2002: Photometry - The CIE sys- - outdoor work places
Photobiology and Photochemistry, a bibliography (also available as tem of physical photometry
2000 disk)
138/1: Blue light photochemical
The NPL is UKs National Stan- industrial and academic measure- xAll types of optical radiation the highest accuracy optical meas-
dards Laboratory for Physical ment requirements throughout the sources urement references in the world as
Measurements. NPL's Optical IR, Visible, and UV spectra, pro- well as to enable the fostering of
xOptical radiation detectors and new ideas and techniques. Areas in
Radiation Measurement (ORM) viding a comprehensive range of
associated devices which NPL is a recognized world
Group provides services which are Measurement and Calibration
the backbone for optical radiation Services, Instrumentation Products, xOptical properties of materials leader include the development of
measurements in the UK and inter- Training and Consultancy. and components the first cryogenic radiometer and
nationally. xAspects of appearance including the use of lasers for radiometry.
Here the UK's Primary Standards Some of the range of Measurement colour, haze and gloss NPL ORM Introduction Web Page:
and scales are maintained, and and Calibration Services, traceable http://www.npl.co.uk/
pioneering research in measure- to national standards, available in The development of NPL's Primary o p t i c a l _ r a d i a t i on /
ment science is carried out. this field, includes the characteriza- Standards and Measurement Crown Copyright 2002
ORM anticipates and responds to tion and calibration of: Scales, enables the UK to maintain
Page 198 - Tutorials
Appendix