48 DIAMETERS. an angle @ with the axis of x, if, when we transform to polar co- ordinates by substituting p cos 8, p sin (or, in case of oblique axes, mp, np), for « and y, 8 be such as to cause the coefficient of p*! to vanish. If we seck then the condition that any other point a'y should be the centre of mean distances for a parallel chord, we must examine what relation should exist between ay, in order that when we transform the axes to this point the new coefficient of p*! should vanish for the same value of . But when the given equation U=0 is transformed to parallel axes by substituting a+a, y+y, for a and y, it becomes (Lacroix’s Differential Cal- culus, p. 54) aq .du 2fU &U &U Ui nty a Bale et oa y ay only the three - terms can contain powers of the variables as high as the (n—1)*, and since these involve a’y only in the first degree, the required locus must be a right line. Its equation is, in fact, eee “EE + ty = 0, where in wp, %n-1, C08 9 and sin 8 (or, if the axes be oblique, m and n) have been substituted for # and y. Ge)teee 0; 52. Newton has also remarked that if any chord cut the curve and its asymptotes, the same point will be the centre of mean dis- tances for both, and that therefore the algebraic sum of the inter- cepts between the curve and its asymptotes=0. This is the extension of the well-known theorem (Contes, p.172). ‘The truth of it follows at once from the equation of a diameter given in the last Article, and from what was proved (Art. 43) that the terms Un; Una» ave the same in the equation of the curve and in that of its n asymptotes. 53. We may in like manner seck the locus of a point such that the sum of the products in pairs of the intercepts, measured in a given direction between it and the curve, should vanish. The origin would be such a point if the coefficient of p"? vanished for the given value of 0, and the locus is found, as in Art. 51, by exa- mining what relation should exist between a’ and y/ that the co- efficient of p"? in the transformed equation should vanish. ButDIAMETERS. 49 since the terms of the (n- 2)" degree in « and y involve no powers higher than the second of «’ and y/, the locus will be a conic section, which we shall call the diametral conte. Its equation is readily seen to be Dy = 1 + Bary Pn Puy nat MEL ey 4 aa Fo + tay Foe a yh TE) = 0, where, in t%m.2, &c., cond and sin@ have been substituted for # and y. The distance of any point from either point on the diametral conic being y, and from the curve y1, ys &e., we have by the definition E(y- 1) (y~ ys) = 0 ‘The number of terms in this sum is the same as the number of n(n-1) a. This, therefore, will be the coeflicient of y? when we multiply out each of these products, and add them together. In the same 1) combinations in pairs of n things, and is therefore case the coefficient of y will consist of terms, each of the 2 form - (yy + ys), and since it must involve the n quantities yi, y2, &c., symmetrically, it must be ~(m - 1) Sy. Hence =(y-m) (y- 4) ROD ye 1) y(n) + By) = 0. This quadratic gives the distances of any point from the diame- n(n-1) 2 tral conic when we know its distances from the curve. times the product of these two distances = E(yi ye), or the product of the distances from the diametral conic is equal to the mean product in nine » pairs of the distances from the curve, since there are “= *) such products. The sum of the distances from the diametral conic 2 . : o ala Zy. The mean distance is then the same for both curves, since there are two such distances in the one ease, and n in the other ; and the two curves have the same diameter. 54, There is no difficulty in seeing that a curve of the n‘* de- gree may have other curvilinear diameters of any degree up to the (n- 1)". Thus the locus ofa point such that the sum of the pro- ducts in threes of its distances from the curve should vanish, is H50 DIAMETERS. found by putting the coefficient of p*® in the transformed equa- tion = 0; and since this coefficient involves no higher than the third powers of the variables, the locus will be of the third degree. We may sec too, in like manner, that =I) @-2 Sym) og e ea NG=2) ZO PTY) + 2? 2.9) Z(yiyoys)s and we ean seal infer hence that the curve and its eubical dis- meter will have the same mean distance, mean produet in pairs, and mean product in threes of the-distances. So in like manner for diameters of higher dimensions. More light will be thrown on the subject of these curvilinear diameters by considerations which we shall explain presently. 55, To the mention we have made of diameters, we may add some notice of centres. If all the terms of the degree n- 1 were wanting in the equation, then the algebraic sum of all the radii yectores through the origin would vanish, and the origin might in one sense be called a centre. ‘The name centre, however, is ordinarily only applied to the case where every value of the radius vector is accompanied by an equal and opposite one. In this case, if the equation be trans- formed to polar co-ordinates, it must be a function of p?only. If the curve then be of an even degree, its equation in # and y, re- ferred to the centre, can contain none of the odd powers of the va- riables, and must be of the form. thy + + uy + Ke. = 0. If the curve be of an odd degree, its polar equation must be re- ducible to a function of p? by dividing by p; and the « andy equation can contain none of the even powers of the variables, but must be of the form m + U3 + Us + &e. = 0. It is plain (from Art. 42) that if'a curve of an odd degree have a centre, that centre must be a point of inflexion. Itis also evident that it is only in exceptional cases that a curve of any degree above the second will have a centre; since it is not generally pos-POLES AND POLARS. 51 sible, by transformation of co-ordinates, to remove so many terms from the equation as to bring it to either of the forms given above. POLES AND POLARS. 56, We pass now to an important theorem, first given by Cotes in his Harmonia Mensurarum: Jf on each radius vector, through a fiwed point O, there be taken a point R such that n 1 eo 1 OR OR: OR, then the locus of R will be a right line. For, making O the origin, the equation which determines OR), &e. is of the form A+ 4 Beos0 + Gsind) 4, p P + (Dcos? @ + Ecos 0 sin + F sin?) Hence n _ (Boos + Csin 0) oR--C—C—S~“‘i‘s‘P or, returning to # and y co-ordinates, Be + Cy +nA=0. This line, being analogous to the polar in the case of conics, which has been proved to be the locus of harmonic means of radii veetores drawn from a given point (Conics, p. 134), we shall ex- tend the use of the words pole and polar, and call this the polar line of the origin. 57. We may form the equations of polar curves of higher or= ders just as we formed the equations of diametral curves. ‘Thus we may form the equation 2¢-1) (-2)-0 p pi] \p pa, which (as at Art. 53) we can see is equivalent to 2@-D1 agit () ( z )- ar (a Dae 5 +3 AD 0, and represents a conic such that the harmonic mean of the dis- tances of the origin from the conic is equal to the harmonic mean.52 POLES AND POLARS. of its distances from the curve; and the reciprocal of the produet of its distances from the conic is equal to the mean product in pairs of the reciprocals ofits distances from the curve. ‘This eonie wve shall call she polar conie of the origin, Its equation, found by putting in, for =(2) z (=) their values from the equation p pips of the curve, is no=1) 1&4) Beos§ + CsinO1 a ee ee A Pp Dcos?@ + Esin 0 cos0 + F sin? F/O which is equivalent to ODay (a-Du su=0 58. And so in like manner we can obtain the polar curve of any higher order, k, by forming the equation 2(1-2) 2-2) 0) (#-2)-0, p pi] \p pa P Pk which is equivalent to n(n-1 k+1) () . Gy"=s P. pe] “pe ke (F)"2a te =0, p] ~ prp2 a curve of the h degree, which possesses the property (if OR de- note a radius vector to the curve, and Or to the polar curve), lol ica 20R-% 7 Or 1.2 3 7 7 ees 3. 7 aQiad) 2 OR, OR * HE=1) 2 On OF 1.2.3 1 n@=ly @3) = OR, OR, OR; _ 1.2.3 = 1 “ EE-N 2) * On. Om. On be.POLES AND POLARS. 53 The equation of the polar curve is obtained by putting in the values for 35 ey and is 1\ k/1\" (Boos + Csin 0 Gy)" csstesie «MEL (1) Poot 0+ Reosdsind + Fein, go 29; P. A Cree tere A(h eek (ee Ae) ree na * nal) * n@=l) @ It is plain, from the manner in which the equations of these polar curves have been formed, that the polar line of the origin is the same with regard to all these polar curves, for the harmonic mean of the radii vectores is the same for all the curves; that the polar conic of the origin is the same for all these curves which are above the second degree, since the mean value of the product in pairs of the reciprocal of the distances from the origin is the same for all these curves; and, generally, that any of the polar curves of the origin is also its polar curve with regard to the other polar curves of higher degree. 59. Let us trace now the forms which the relations just given. assume when the point O-is at an infinite distance. The equa- tion which determines the polar line, Ji 1 2(3-2)-0, © 2(GR-om)=% where R is the point on the polar, Ry one of the points on the curve, is equivalent to RR, \_,. : (oncR,) aa but if O be at an infinite distance, OR = OR; = OR; = &e., and the denominators in all the fractions may be considered as the same}; the condition then becomes &(RRj) = 0; the sum vanishes of the intercepts between the polar and the curve, on the parallel chords which meet at O; and we learn that the polar of a point at an infinite distance is the diameter of the system of parallel chords which ave directed to that infinitely distant point.54 POLES AND POLARS. And so for the polar conic. The equation which determines it, (i Ay/i ly. “olen 6, or 2 (GR -om)(on-om)=° becomes RR RR) _ 9 OR-OR,' OR-OR, and when O is infinitely distant, reduces to SRR.RR2 = 0, or =(y~- 1) (y-y2) = 0, the very equation which determines the diametral conic, And so, in general, the curvilinear diameter of any order is identical with the polar curve of the same order, of the infi- nitely distant point on the system of parallel chords to which the given diametral curve corresponds. 60. Mac Laurin has given a theorem, which is the extension of Newton's theorem (Art. 52): “If through any point O a line be drawn meeting the curve inn points, and at these points tangents be drawn, and if any other line through O cut the curve in Ry, Ra, &e., 1 1 OR 707 It is evident that two points determine the polar line; that, therefore, if two lines through O meet two curves in the same points, OR, ORs, &e., OSi, OS,, &e., the polar of O, with regard to both curves, must be the same, since two points of it, Rand S, are the same for both. This will be equally true if the two lines OR, OS coincide, that is to say :—“ If two curves of the n degree touch each other at » points in a right line, then the polar of any point on that right line will be the same for both curves; and therefore if any radius ar through such a point meet both and the system of n tangents in 71, 72, §¢., then & curves, we must have 2oR7 -sde Or 61. We have hitherto only showed how to form the equations of the polar curves of the origin; we proceed now to show how to form the equations of the polar curves of any given point. We might obtain them by transformation of co-ordinates, from those already given, but we prefer the following method, as more sym- metrical, and more convenient for future applications. We shall use ‘trilinear co-ordinates, @, y, 2. We have seen that the equation of the polar line is found byPOLES AND POLARS. 55 forming the equation 3 ( - 5) =0, or putting p= OR, p= OR, ; and suppressing the factor OR, which occurs in all the denomina- wots, (Get * “\ ORL forming the equation 1_1)(1_ 2), (HR, Rie). =(F- app)” 2(on one) -° and so for the rest. If then we could form the equation whose OR)’ OR,’ cut at the x points where the curve meets it, the coefficient of the second term of this equation, being equal to the sum of these ratios, when put = 0, would give the equation of the polar line; the coefficient of the next term, being equal to the sum of the products in pairs, would give the equation of the polar conic; and so on. But such an equation can readily be formed; for we have seen (Conics, p. 5) that if the co-ordinates of O be #,y,2, of R, wyz (both being for the present supposed known), the co-ordi- nates of the point R, cutting the line joining them in the ratio as4( 2-2) are RENO wy, Dy pe, 4 22 ) =0. The equation of the polar conie is found by &c., viz., the ratios in which the line OR is OR 72) per? wed? pea’ Now by hy- pothesis, the point R, is on the curve; these values of the co-ordi- nates must then satisfy the equation of the curve. And since the equation in zyz is homogeneous, we may suppress the com- mon denominator +X, and we learn that if in the equation of a curve ¢ (2,y,2) = 0 we substitute for 2, y, 2, ma,+de, wy, + AY, pz, + Xz, we shall have an equation of the n' degree in pid, the roots of which give the ratios in which the line OR is cut at each of the n points, where it meets the curve; and these n values for :X, being substituted in the co-ordinates of Ri just given, give the co-ordinates of the x points where OR meets the curve. But if now we suppose a,y,z, the co-ordinates of R, to be variable, the coefficients of the equation in w:), put = 0, give the equations of the several polar curves of the point O. 62. The differential calculus enables us simply to write down.56 POLES AND POLARS. the result of this substitution. If there be any function of three variables, then, by Taylor's theorem, bth yth e4D= ocernays (age + nies) opa(e Gh +e Ths ng She one Ft +20 +20 iat) + &e. The result then of substituting Aw + ux, &e. for 2, y, 2, is found by d. writing “for h, MH for &, for J, in the preceding equation. If sy x x P ig eg the equation of the curve be U~=0, the transformed equation [U] = 0, we have wget, (,d0, a, av [U]=.U +» ‘ule oy Bae) w4e/ .@U .eU aU ‘Tr ae ae we au e 420g, Eo +2 et 8, ) wre po /@U aU aU oy (eae) (Ge) +8 (a) aU @u aU +2ay (=m), + 2ye (=) es «(Fe } ve) (s(t We have added the closing terms of the expansion, which must evidently be symmetrical with the commencing terms. denotes the result of substituting 2 y,z, for «yz in aed &e. This expansion may be written in an abbreviated form by the use of symbols of operation. Thus if A denote the operation wf ly de? then this operation, twice repeated, a 4,,4 Ge Vay*POLES AND POLARS. 57 oye F py? et da) 7 age 0 ape Ta 49a "4 9y¢ 4 995 + Ys Tady * 4% Gyde * 8 Tada: In like manner we ean form : ad oda.ia‘ = (sz +4at a) ke. In order to distinguish the co-ordinates of the points which enter into these formule, we shall use the following notation. We shall write aw, av Ww AUn 2, tug tage av, ~ «() +(e) +#(), where the suffix attached to A refers to the co-ordinates which multiply the differential coefficients ; but the suffix attached to U denotes that the co-ordinates a, y, 2, are to be substituted in i , be, So Ai Uz would denote 2; (3), mn (@), + a() ,orthe 2 Js result of substituting the co-ordinates ayoze in A,U. Ay Ur would denote the result of substituting the same co-ordinates for ayz in SU,. The reader will have no difficulty in seeing what meaning is to be attached to the symbols A®U) and A*,U, &c. The result of the substitution may then be written 2 ae ATTN (OD) + HE (ae, Ue ME (aU) +. + ph Ur + pt (ATi) + wer a? U,) oO art )+d0.=0. ‘This equation, then, if the points O (wyz) and R (aye) be Imown, gives us the co-ordinates of the m points, where OR meets M+ me where 2, ty, is NH any of the roots of the equation just written. I the curve, viz.,58 POLES AND POLARS. 68, Since & « ae and since the product of all the roots fr ® we have RR,.RR.RR; &e._ U, OR, OR, OR, &. ~ Th? or “the continued product of the distances measured on a given line of any point from the curve is proportional to the result of substituting the co-ordinates of that point in the equation of the curve.” We are thus led again to the theorem proved already (Art. 46). Since by the theory of equations 3 (§ = AU Land since (as x) ati we showed, Art. 61) the equation of the polar line is found by putting 2OR a = 0, the equation of the polar line of the point a) (a) fat Bi ae) ol). +(e). Similarly the equation of the polar conic of the same point is @U) .,/@U) _(@U wenn )rG) “(c), Frey ON entaye (oo) tara Ares a ccaleare | ded) ~ And so in like manner we ean write down the equations of the polar curves of higher dimensions. Since we have written down the closing terms of the expan- sion, which must be symmetrical with the commencing terms, it appears that the equation of the polar curve of the (n -1)* degree may be written at pleasure in either of the forms ee oreo. foe gee dete So the polar curve of the (n - 2)" degree may have its equation writtén in either of the forms A"®U, = 0, or AU = 0; and the polar line itself may have its equation written in the form AU =0. #,y, 2,18 A" 1U, =0, or AU