Lecture 2 Perturbation Theory PDF

Contents
Time-independent nondegenerate perturbation theory

Time-independent degenerate perturbation theory
Time-dependent perturbation theory
Literature
Perturbation theory
Quantum mechanics 2 - Lecture 2
Igor Lukačević
UJJS, Dept. of Physics, Osijek
17. listopada 2012.
Igor Lukačević Perturbation theory

Contents
Literature
1 Time-independent nondegenerate perturbation theory

General formulation
First-order theory
Second-order theory
2 Time-independent degenerate perturbation theory

General formulation
Example: Two-dimensional harmonic oscilator
3 Time-dependent perturbation theory
4 Literature

Contents
Time-independent nondegenerate perturbation theory General formulation
Time-independent degenerate perturbation theory First-order theory
Time-dependent perturbation theory Second-order theory
Literature
Contents

General formulation
First-order theory
Second-order theory

General formulation
4 Literature

Contents
Literature
Do you remember this?

Contents
Literature
Do you remember this?
H 0 ψn0 = En0 ψn0

hψn0 |ψm
0
i = δnm → complete set

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Literature
Now, let us kick the potential bottom a little...

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Now, let us kick the potential bottom a little...
What we’d like to solve now is...
Hψn = En ψn
A question
Does anyone have an idea how?

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Assume
H = H 0 + λH 0

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Assume
H = H0 + λH 0
unperturbed Hamiltonian
perturbation Hamiltonian
small parameter

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Assume
H = H 0 + λH0
small parameter

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Assume
H = H 0 + λH 0
small parameter

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Literature
Name Description Hamiltonian
L-S coupling Coupling between orbital and H = H0 + f (r )~L · ~

S
spin angular momentum in a H 0 = f (r )~L · ~
S
one-electron atom H0 = p 2 /2m − Ze 2 /r
Stark effect One-electron atom in a constant H = H0 + eE0 z
uniform electric field ~
E = e~z E0 H 0 = eE0 z
H0 = p 2 /2m − Ze 2 /r
Zeeman effect One-electron atom in a constant H = H0 + (e/2mc)~J · ~ B
uniform magnetic field ~
B H 0 = (e/2mc)~J · ~B
H0 = p 2 /2m − Ze 2 /r
Anharmonic Spring with nonlinear restoring H = H0 + K 0 x 4
oscilator force H0 = K 0x 4
H0 = p 2 /2m + 1/2Kx 2
Nearly free Electron in a periodic lattice H = H0 + PV (x)
electron V (x) = n Vn exp[i(2πnx/a)]
model H0 = p 2 /2m

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Assume
] H’ is small compared to H0
] eigenstates and eigenvalues of H do not differ much from those of H0
] eigenstates and eigenvalues of H0 are known

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Assume
expand
ψn = ψn0 + λψn1 + λ2 ψn2 + . . . ,

En = En0 + λEn1 + λ2 En2 + . . .

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Assume
expand
ψn = ψn0 + λψn1 + λ2 ψn2 + . . . ,

En = En0 + λEn1 + λ2 En2 + . . .
and sort
(λ0 ) . . . H 0 ψn0 = En0 ψn0 ,

(λ1 ) . . . H 0 ψn1 + H 0 ψn0 = En0 ψn1 + En1 ψn0 ,
(λ2 ) . . . H 0 ψn2 + H 0 ψn1 = En0 ψn2 + En1 ψn1 + En2 ψn0 ,
..
.

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.
Making hψn0 | (λ1 ) and using the normalization property of ψn0 , we get
First-order correction to the energy For calculation

details, see Refs
En1 = hψn0 |H 0 |ψn0 i [2], [3] and [4].

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First-order correction to the energy
En1 = hψn0 |H 0 |ψn0 i
Example 1
Find the first-order corrections to the energy of

a particle in a infinite square well if the “floor”
of the well is raised by an constant value V0 .

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Example 1

r
2 nπ
Unperturbed w.f.: ψn0 (x) = sin x
a a

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Example 1

r
2 nπ
a a
Perturbation Hamiltonian: H 0 = V0

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Example 1
r
2 nπ
a a
First-order correction:
En1 = hψn0 |V0 |ψn0 i = V0 hψn0 |ψn0 i = V0
⇒ corrected energy levels: En ≈ En0 + V0

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Example 1
r
2 nπ
a a

Compare this result with an exact solution
⇒ for a constant perturbation all the
higher corrections vanish

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Example 1
r
2 nπ
a a

Compare this result with an exact solution
⇒ for a constant perturbation all the
higher corrections vanish

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Example 1 (cont.)
Now, cut the perturbation to only a half-way

across the well

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Example 1 (cont.)

across the well
2V0 a/2 2 nπ
Z
V0
⇒ En1 = sin x dx =
a 0 a 2

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Example 1 (cont.)

across the well
2V0 a/2 2 nπ
Z
V0
⇒ En1 = sin x dx =
a 0 a 2
HW. Compare this result with an exact one.

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Now we seek the Xfirst-order correction to the wave function.

(λ1 ) and ψn1 = cmn ψm0
give
m6=n
First-order correction to the wave

function For calculation
X hψm 0
|H 0 |ψn0 i 0 details, see Refs
ψn1 = ψm [2], [3] and [4].
m6=n
0
(En − Em0 )

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First-order correction to the wave

function For calculation
X hψm 0
|H 0 |ψn0 i 0 details, see Refs
ψn1 = ψm [2], [3] and [4].
m6=n
(En − Em0 )
0
In conclusion
First-order perturbation theory gives:
often accurate energies
poor wave functions

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Literature
Example 2
Compute the first-order corrections for a

harmonic oscilator with applied small
perturbation W = ax 3 .

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Literature
Example 2

~ 2 d2 1
Hamiltonian: H = − + kx 2 + ax 3
2m dx 2

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Example 2
~ 2 d2 1
2mdx 2
0 0 1
H eigenenergies: En = n + ~ω
2

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Example 2
perturbation W = ax 3 . Don’t forget...
2 2
~ d 1 n Hn (ξ)
2mdx 2 0 1
1 2ξ
0 0 1 2 4ξ 2 − 2
2 3 8ξ 3 − 12ξ
4 16ξ 4 − 48ξ 2 + 12
H0 eigenfunctions:
s 5 32ξ 5 − 160ξ 3 + 120ξ
√
r
0 1 α − αx2 2
ψn (x) = n
e Hn (x α)
2 n! π

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Example 2
Don’t forget...
~ 2 d2 1
2mdx 2 n Hn (ξ)
0 1
0 0 1 1 2ξ
2 2 4ξ 2 − 2
3 8ξ 3 − 12ξ
H0 eigenfunctions:
s 4 16ξ 4 − 48ξ 2 + 12
√ 32ξ 5 − 160ξ 3 + 120ξ
r
0 1 α − αx2 2 5
ψn (x) = n
e Hn (x α)
2 n! π
⇒ En1 = hψn0 |ax 3 |ψn0 i = 0

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Example 2
~ 2 d2 1
Hamiltonian: H = − + kx 2 + ax 3 Don’t forget...
2mdx 2
n Hn (ξ)
1
H0 eigenenergies: En0 = n + ~ω 0 1
2 1 2ξ
2 4ξ 2 − 2
H0 eigenfunctions:
s 3 8ξ 3 − 12ξ
√ 4 16ξ 4 − 48ξ 2 + 12
r
0 1 α − αx2 2
ψn (x) = e Hn (x α) 5 32ξ 5 − 160ξ 3 + 120ξ
2n n! π
⇒ En1 = hψn0 |ax 3 |ψn0 i = 0

For ψn1 we need expressions hψm
0
|H 0 |ψn0 i

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Example 2
~ 2 d2 1
2mdx 2 Don’t forget...
0 0 1 n Hn (ξ)
2 0 1
1 2ξ
H0 eigenfunctions:
s 2 4ξ 2 − 2
√ 3 8ξ 3 − 12ξ
r
0 1 α − αx2 2
ψn (x) = e Hn (x α) 4 16ξ 4 − 48ξ 2 + 12
n
2 n! π 5 32ξ 5 − 160ξ 3 + 120ξ
⇒ En1 = hψn0 |ax 3 |ψn0 i = 0

0
|H 0 |ψn0 i
↔ for m = n ± 2k , k ∈ Z these are zero

Contents
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Example 2
~ 2 d2 1
2mdx 2
0 0 1 Don’t forget...
2
n Hn (ξ)
H0 eigenfunctions:
s 0 1
1 2ξ
√
r
0 1 α − αx2 2 2 4ξ 2 − 2
ψn (x) = e Hn (x α)
n
2 n! π 3 8ξ 3 − 12ξ
4 16ξ 4 − 48ξ 2 + 12
⇒ En1 = hψn0 |ax 3 |ψn0 i = 0 5 32ξ 5 − 160ξ 3 + 120ξ

0
|H 0 |ψn0 i
↔ for m = n ± 2k , k ∈ Z these are zero
⇒ so, we’ll, for example, take only these:

m = n + 3, n + 1, n − 1, n − 3
Contents
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Example 2
Don’t forget...
s
3 (n + 1)(n + 2)(n + 3)
hn|ax |n + 3i = a· n Hn (ξ)
(2α)3
0 1
1 2ξ
s
(n + 1)3 4ξ 2 − 2
hn|ax 3 |n + 1i = 3a · 2
(2α)3 3 8ξ 3 − 12ξ
s 4 16ξ 4 − 48ξ 2 + 12
n3 5 32ξ 5 − 160ξ 3 + 120ξ
hn|ax 3 |n − 1i = 3a ·
(2α)3
s
n(n − 1)(n − 2)
hn|ax 3 |n − 3i = a·
(2α)3

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Example 2
s
3 (n + 1)(n + 2)(n + 3) Energy differences
hn|ax |n + 3i = a·
(2α)3
s m En − Em
n+3 −3~ω
3 (n + 1)3 n+1 −~ω
hn|ax |n + 1i = 3a ·
(2α)3 n-1 ~ω
s n-3 3~ω
n3
hn|ax 3 |n − 1i = 3a ·
(2α)3
s
n(n − 1)(n − 2)
hn|ax 3 |n − 3i = a·
(2α)3

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Example 2
Compute the first-order corrections for a harmonic oscilator
with applied small perturbation W = ax 3 .
s
3 (n + 1)(n + 2)(n + 3)
hn|ax |n + 3i = a· Energy differences
(2α)3
s
3 (n + 1)3 m En − Em
hn|ax |n + 1i = 3a · n+3 −3~ω
(2α)3
s n+1 −~ω
n3 n-1 ~ω
3
hn|ax |n − 1i = 3a · n-3 3~ω
(2α)3
s
3 n(n − 1)(n − 2)
hn|ax |n − 3i = a·
(2α)3
" r r
a 1 n(n − 1)(n − 2) 0 n 0
⇒ ψn1 = ψn−3 + 3n ψn−1
2~ωα 3 2α 2α
r r #
n+1 0 1 (n + 1)(n + 2)(n + 3) 0
−3(n + 1) ψn+1 − ψn+3
2α 3 2α

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.
Making hψn0 | (λ2 ), using the normalization property of ψn0 and orthogonality
between ψn0 and ψn1 , we get
Second-order correction to the

energy For calculation
details, see Refs
0
X |hψm |H 0 |ψn0 i|2
En2 = [2], [3] and [4].
m6=n
En − Em0
0

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Now we seek the Xsecond-order correction to the wave function.

(λ2 ) and ψn1 = 0
cmn ψm give
m6=n
Second-order correction to the wave function

"
X hψn0 |H 0 |ψn0 ihψm 0
|H 0 |ψn0 i For calculation
ψn2 = − 0 0 2
m6=n
(En − Em ) details, see Refs
# [2], [3] and [4].
X hψm 0
|H 0 |ψk0 ihψk0 |H 0 |ψn0 i 0
+ ψm
k6=n
(En0 − Em0 )(En0 − Ek0 )

Contents
General formulation
Literature
Contents

General formulation
First-order theory
Second-order theory

General formulation
4 Literature

Contents
General formulation
Literature
Symmetry Degeneracy Perturbation

Contents
General formulation
Literature
Symmetry Degeneracy Perturbation

Contents
General formulation
Literature
A question
What’s wrong with
0
X |hψm |H 0 |ψn0 i|2
En2 = , m, n ≤ q
m6=n
En − Em0
0
if unperturbed eigenstates are degenerate E10 = E20 = · · · = Eq0 ?

Contents
General formulation
Literature
Construct
q
1m
X 0
0 ϕn = anm ψm
H = H0 + H
H0 ψn0 = En0 ψn0 - i=1
which diagonalizes submatrix
E10 q-fold degenerate
of H 0 :
hϕn |H 0 |ϕk i = E 0 δnk
2m

Nondegenerate q 3m
detH 0 − En0 I = 0
X
perturbation theory (H 0 − E 0 δ)a = 0
-
with basis B
XXX
y
6m XX
6m 5m XXXX 4m
XX
8
? X?
7m
{ϕn } {ani } E10 , E20 , . . . , Eq0
Gives new basis B
Contents
General formulation
Literature
Matrix H 0 in basis B
 0 0

H11 H1,q+1 ...
..
0
 

 . 

0
Hq/2,q/2
 
 
..
 
0

H =
 0 .
0




 0 Hqq 

 Hq+1,1 
 
 .. 
 . 

Contents
General formulation
Literature
Construct
q
1m
X 0
0 ϕn = anm ψm
H = H0 + H
H0 ψn0 = En0 ψn0 - i=1
of H 0 :
2m

Nondegenerate q 3m
detH 0 − En0 I = 0
X
-
with basis B
XXX
y
6m XX
6m 5m XXXX 4m
XX
8
? X?
7m
{ϕn } {ani } E10 , E20 , . . . , Eq0
Gives new basis B
Contents
General formulation
Literature
q
X 0
For n = 1, (Hpm − En0 δpm )anm = 0 appear as
m=1
0
− E10 0 0 0
  
H11 H12 H13 ... H1q a11
0 0
 H21 H22 − E10 H230
... H2q0  a12 
=0
  
 .. .. .. .. ..  ..
 . . . . .  . 
0
Hq1 a1q

Contents
General formulation
Literature
Construct
q
1m
X 0
0 ϕn = anm ψm
H = H0 + H
H0 ψn0 = En0 ψn0 - i=1
of H 0 :
2m

Nondegenerate q 3m
detH 0 − En0 I = 0
X
-
with basis B
XXX
y
6m XX
6m 5m XXXX 4m
XX
8
? X?
7m
{ϕn } {ani } E10 , E20 , . . . , Eq0
Gives new basis B
Contents
General formulation
Literature
The q roots of secular equation detH 0 − En0 I = 0 are the diagonal elements of

the submatrix of H 0 .

Contents
General formulation
Literature
Construct
q
1m
X 0
0 ϕn = anm ψm
H = H0 + H
H0 ψn0 = En0 ψn0 - i=1
of H 0 :
2m

Nondegenerate q 3m
detH 0 − En0 I = 0
X
-
with basis B
XXX
y
6m XX
6m 5m XXXX 4m
XX
8
? X?
7m
{ϕn } {ani } E10 , E20 , . . . , Eq0
Gives new basis B
Contents
General formulation
Literature
Construct
q
1m
X 0
0 ϕn = anm ψm
H = H0 + H
H0 ψn0 = En0 ψn0 - i=1
of H 0 :
2m

Nondegenerate q 3m
detH 0 − En0 I = 0
X
-
with basis B
XXX
y
6m XX
6m 5m XXXX 4m
XX
8
? X?
7m
{ϕn } {ani } E10 , E20 , . . . , Eq0
Gives new basis B
Contents
General formulation
Literature
Construct
q
1m
X 0
0 ϕn = anm ψm
H = H0 + H
H0 ψn0 = En0 ψn0 - i=1
of H 0 :
2m

Nondegenerate q 3m
detH 0 − En0 I = 0
X
-
with basis B
XXX
y
6m XX
6m 5m XXXX 4m
XX
8
? X?
7m
{ϕn } {ani } E10 , E20 , . . . , Eq0
Gives new basis B
Contents
General formulation
Literature
Construct
q
1m
X 0
0 ϕn = anm ψm
H = H0 + H
H0 ψn0 = En0 ψn0 - i=1
of H 0 :
2m

Nondegenerate q 3m
detH 0 − En0 I = 0
X
-
with basis B
XXX
y
6m XX
6m 5m XXXX 4m
XX
8
? X?
7m
{ϕn } {ani } E10 , E20 , . . . , Eq0
Gives new basis B
Contents
General formulation
Literature
Construct
q
1m
X 0
0 ϕn = anm ψm
H = H0 + H
H0 ψn0 = En0 ψn0 - i=1
of H 0 :
2m

Nondegenerate q 3m
detH 0 − En0 I = 0
X
-
with basis B
XXX
y
6m XX
6m 5m XXXX 4m
XX
8
? X?
7m
{ϕn } {ani } E10 , E20 , . . . , Eq0
Gives new basis B
Contents
General formulation
Literature
ψn = ϕ n +λϕ1n +λ2 ϕ2n +... n≤q

ψn = ψn0 +λψn1 +λ2 ψn2 +... n>q
En = En0 +λEn01 +λ2 En02 +... n≤q (E10 = · · · = Eq0 )
En = En0 + λEn1 + λ2 En2 + . . . n>q
En0 = hϕn |H 0 |ϕn i n≤q
En1 = hψn0 |H 0 |ψn0 i n>q

Contents
General formulation
Literature
ψn = ϕ n +λϕ1n +λ2 ϕ2n +... n≤q

ψn = ψn0 +λψn1 +λ2 ψn2 +... n>q
En = En0 +λEn01 +λ2 En02 +... n≤q (E10 = · · · = Eq0 )
En = En0 + λEn1 + λ2 En2 + . . . n>q
En0 = hϕn |H 0 |ϕn i n≤q
En1 = hψn0 |H 0 |ψn0 i n>q
So, what do we get from degenerate perturbation theory:

1st-order energy corrections
corrected w.f. (with nondegenerate states they serve as a basis for
higher-order calculations)

Contents
General formulation
Literature
Two-dimensional harmonic oscilator Hamiltonian:

px2 + py2 K
H0 = + (x 2 + y 2 )
2m 2
ψnp = ϕn (x)ϕp (y ) |npi

Contents
General formulation
Literature
Two-dimensional harmonic
oscilator Hamiltonian:
px2 + py2 K
H0 = + (x 2 + y 2 )
2m 2
Enp = ~ω(n + p + 1) is
(n + p + 1)-fold degenerate.
What’s the degeneracy of |01i
state?

Contents
General formulation
Literature
Two-dimensional harmonic
oscilator Hamiltonian:
px2 + py2 K
H0 = + (x 2 + y 2 )
2m 2
Enp = ~ω(n + p + 1) is
(n + p + 1)-fold degenerate.
What’s the degeneracy of |01i
state?
E10 = E01 = 2~ω0 .

Contents
General formulation
Literature
Now, turn on the perturbation: H 0 = K 0 xy

Contents
General formulation
Literature

find w.f. which diagonalize H 0
ϕ1 = aψ10 + bψ01
ϕ2 = a0 ψ10 + b 0 ψ01

Contents
General formulation
Literature

ϕ1 = aψ10 + bψ01
ϕ2 = a0 ψ10 + b 0 ψ01
calculate the elements of submatrix of H 0 in the basis {ψ10 , ψ01 }

h10|xy |10i h10|xy |01i 0 1
H0 = K 0 =E
h01|xy |10i h01|xy |01i 1 0
K0 mω0
E= , β2 =
2β 2 ~

Contents
General formulation
Literature

ϕ1 = aψ10 + bψ01
ϕ2 = a0 ψ10 + b 0 ψ01
calculate the elements of submatrix of H 0 in the basis {ψ10 , ψ01 }

h10|xy |10i h10|xy |01i 0 1
H0 = K 0 =E
h01|xy |10i h01|xy |01i 1 0
K0 mω0
E= , β2 =
2β 2 ~
solve the secular equation
E+ = E10 + E
−E 0

E E10
= 0 ⇒ E 0 = ±E
−E 0
@
E
@@ E− = E10 − E

Contents
General formulation
Literature
obtain the new w.f. from

−E 0

E a
=0
E −E 0 b
E 0 = +E ϕ1 = √1 (ψ10
2
+ ψ01 )
=⇒
E 0 = −E ϕ2 = √1 (ψ10
2
− ψ01 )

Contents
General formulation
Literature
obtain the new w.f. from

−E 0

E a
=0
E −E 0 b
E 0 = +E ϕ1 = √1 (ψ10
2
+ ψ01 )
=⇒
E 0 = −E ϕ2 = √1 (ψ10
2
− ψ01 )
HW
How does the threefold-degenerate energy
E = 3~ω0
of the two-dimensional harmonic oscilator separate due to the perturbation
H 0 = K 0 xy ?

Contents
Literature
Contents

General formulation
First-order theory
Second-order theory

General formulation
4 Literature

Contents
Literature
Problem
If the system is initially in H0 , what is the probability that, after time t,
transition to another state (of H0 ) occurs?

Contents
Literature
Problem
Let us assume:
H(~r , t) = H0 (~r ) + λH 0 (~r , t)
ψn (~r , t) = ϕn (~r )e −iωt
H0 ϕn = En0 ϕn
X
Ψ(~r , t) = cn (t)ψn (~r , t) , t > 0
n
∂Ψ
i~ = (H0 + λH 0 )Ψ
∂t

Contents
Literature
Problem
Let us assume:
H(~r , t) = H0 (~r ) + λH(~r , t)
ψn (~r , t) = ϕn (~r )e −iωt
H0 ϕn = En0 ϕn
X
Ψ(~r , t) = cn (t)ψn (~r , t) , t > 0
n
∂Ψ
i~ = (H0 + λH 0 )Ψ
∂t
Can you remember the meaning of these coefficients?

Contents
Literature
Inserting Ψ(~r , t) and cn (t) = cn0 + λcn1 (t) + λ2 cn2 (t) + . . . into time-dependent
S.E. and factorizing the perturbation Hamiltonian as H 0 (~r , t) = H0 (~r )f (t) gives
Probability that the system has undergone a transition from state ψl to state
ψk at time t
0 2 Z t 2
H 0
Pl→k = Plk = |cn |2 = kl e iωkl t f (t 0 )dt 0

~ −∞
For calculation details, see Refs [2] and [3].

Contents
Literature
Contents

General formulation
First-order theory
Second-order theory

General formulation
4 Literature

Contents
Literature
Literature
1 I. Supek, Teorijska fizika i struktura materije, II. dio, Školska knjiga,

Zagreb, 1989.
2 D. J. Griffiths, Introduction to Quantum Mechanics, 2nd ed., Pearson
Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ, 2005.
3 R. L. Liboff, Introductory Quantum Mechanics, Addison Wesley, San
Francisco, 2003.
4 A. Szabo, N. Ostlund, Modern Quantum Chemistry, Introduction to
Advanced Electronic Structure theory, Dover Publications, New York,
1996.
5 Y. Peleg, R. Pnini, E. Zaarur, Shaum’s Outline of Theory and Problems of
Quantum Mechanics, McGraw-Hill, 1998.

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Contents

Time-independent nondegenerate perturbation theory

UJJS, Dept. of Physics, Osijek

17. listopada 2012.

Igor Lukačević Perturbation theory

1 Time-independent nondegenerate perturbation theory

2 Time-independent degenerate perturbation theory

3 Time-dependent perturbation theory

Igor Lukačević Perturbation theory

1 Time-independent nondegenerate perturbation theory

2 Time-independent degenerate perturbation theory

3 Time-dependent perturbation theory

Igor Lukačević Perturbation theory

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Igor Lukačević Perturbation theory

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H 0 ψn0 = En0 ψn0

Igor Lukačević Perturbation theory

Now, let us kick the potential bottom a little...

Igor Lukačević Perturbation theory

Now, let us kick the potential bottom a little...

What we’d like to solve now is...

Igor Lukačević Perturbation theory

Igor Lukačević Perturbation theory

Igor Lukačević Perturbation theory

Igor Lukačević Perturbation theory

Igor Lukačević Perturbation theory

Name Description Hamiltonian

L-S coupling Coupling between orbital and H = H0 + f (r )~L · ~

Igor Lukačević Perturbation theory

Igor Lukačević Perturbation theory

ψn = ψn0 + λψn1 + λ2 ψn2 + . . . ,

Igor Lukačević Perturbation theory

ψn = ψn0 + λψn1 + λ2 ψn2 + . . . ,

(λ0 ) . . . H 0 ψn0 = En0 ψn0 ,

Igor Lukačević Perturbation theory

First-order correction to the energy For calculation

Igor Lukačević Perturbation theory

First-order correction to the energy

En1 = hψn0 |H 0 |ψn0 i

Find the first-order corrections to the energy of

Igor Lukačević Perturbation theory

First-order correction to the energy

En1 = hψn0 |H 0 |ψn0 i

Find the first-order corrections to the energy of

Igor Lukačević Perturbation theory

First-order correction to the energy

En1 = hψn0 |H 0 |ψn0 i

Find the first-order corrections to the energy of

Igor Lukačević Perturbation theory

First-order correction to the energy

En1 = hψn0 |H 0 |ψn0 i

⇒ corrected energy levels: En ≈ En0 + V0

Igor Lukačević Perturbation theory

⇒ corrected energy levels: En ≈ En0 + V0

Igor Lukačević Perturbation theory

⇒ corrected energy levels: En ≈ En0 + V0

Igor Lukačević Perturbation theory

Now, cut the perturbation to only a half-way

Igor Lukačević Perturbation theory

Now, cut the perturbation to only a half-way

Igor Lukačević Perturbation theory

Now, cut the perturbation to only a half-way