Journal of Physical Education, Recreation & Dance

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What Can Professionals Qualitatively Analyze?

Duane Knudson

To cite this article: Duane Knudson (2000) What Can Professionals Qualitatively
Analyze?, Journal of Physical Education, Recreation & Dance, 71:2, 19-23, DOI:
10.1080/07303084.2000.10605997

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Published online: 22 Feb 2013.

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 What Can Professionals Qualitatively
Downloaded by [University of Nebraska, Lincoln] at 11:16 09 October 2015
hysical education teachers and
P coaches use qualitative analysis
to help people improve their
performance in many activities. The
accuracy and consistency of qualita-
tive analysis is therefore vitally impor-
tant to the teaching and learning of
physical skills. Accurate qualitative
analysis helps students improve their
motor skills and gain confidence in
the analyst and in themselves. Unfor-
tunately, inaccurate or inconsistent
qualitative analysis can just as easily
lead to frustration and poor perfor-
mance. Coaches and physical educa-
tors need to know which approaches
to qualitative analysis are likely to pro-
vide consistent, accurate results.
This article will examine how quali-
tative analysis of human movement
can be made more accurate (valid)
and consistent (reliable). This exami-
nation will yield three fundamental
guidelines for improving qualitative
analysis. First, the analyst must use a
comprehensive vision of qualitative
analysis rather than the traditional er-
ror-correction approach. Second, the
validity of qualitative analysis can be
improved by careful preparation and
the use of an appropriate observa-
tional strategy. Third, the reliability of
qualitative analysis can be acceptable
if the analyst employs multiple obser-
vations, well-defined critical features,
and a simple method for evaluating
critical features.
February 2000. JOPERD• Vol. 71 No.2
Analyze?
DUANE KNUDSON
A Comprehensive Vision
of Qualitative Analysis
The first requirement in making accu-
rate qualitative analyses is an under-
standing of the comprehensive nature
of the process. Unfortunately, many
physical education professionals have
outdated views on how to qualitatively
analyze movement. Many tend to rely
on the visual identification of errors
and provision of corrections as their
primary method ofanalysis. While this
approach has the advantage of sim-
plicity, the potential for mistakes is
great. Many novice instructors are on
a mission to identify errors and tend
to overemphasize corrective feedback
(a correction complex). This will usu-
ally have a negative effect on the learn-
ing and performance of students. For
example, in training a young gymnast
to perform a back handspring, a coach
may be mistaken to focus solely on
correcting a particular error (e.g., legs
apart). Instead, the student might
need praise for the bravery and effort
required to try the new skill, as well as
a cue for the "blocking and arch" that
create the body rotation off the mat.
The model below suggests a more com-
prehensive approach than traditional
error detection and correction. A
more holistic and interdisciplinary
view of qualitative analysis is needed if
teachers and coaches are to appropri-
ately intervene in the complicated
world of real human movement.
A comprehensive vision recognizes
that qualitative analysis is an interdis-
ciplinary skill, requiring the simulta-
neous application of knowledge from
all the subdisciplines of kinesiology.
Knudson and Morrison (1997) de-
fined qualitative analysis as "the sys-
tematic observation and introspective
judgment of the quality of human
movement for the purpose of provid-
ing the most appropriate intervention
to improve performance" (p. 4). Their
model of qualitative analysis includes
four tasks (figure 1) that require ana-
lysts to integrate information from all
the sport sciences and from their own
professional experience in order to
insure accurate analysis. In the evalua-
tion/diagnosis task, for example, the
analyst strives to identify both the
strengths and weaknesses of a perfor-
mance based on predefined critical
features. Traditional error correction
is replaced by intervention, which re-
fers to all available prescriptions (e.g.,
conditioning, cueing, modified prac-
tice) in order to improve movement.
Accuracy
An important aspect of qualitative
analysis is its accuracy or validity. The
literature shows that it is possible to
accurately evaluate some aspects of
human movement, and there are many
steps that professionals can take to in-
crease their skill in qualitative analysis.
Continual Preparation. In preparing
19
 for qualitative analysis, an analyst must
gather information about the move-
ment to be analyzed, the performers,
and the observation site. True profes-
sionals are continuous students ofhu-
man movement who integrate a wide
variety of sources of knowledge. Edu-
cators who teach and qualitatively ana-
lyze movements based solely on les-
sons from old books are overlooking
important contemporary research and
changes in equipment and in the stu-
dents themselves. Unfortunately, it is
often difficult to effectively weigh the
evidence of conflicting expert opin-
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ions, professional experience, and the
rapidly expanding body of related lit-
erature. The occasional abstracting of
single research studies in professional
newsletters is insufficient if significant
improvements are to be made in physi-
cal educators' preparation for qualita-
tive analysis; professional publications
need to make a greater effort to pro-
vide more comprehensive summaries
that weigh the merits of all current
sport-science research. In reality, sci-
entific proof of correct professional
practice is based on the careful evalu-
ation of a large number of studies.
Deeper knowledge of the "how and
why" of human movement is neces-
sary for accurate qualitative analysis.
Analysts also need to account for
limitations in the range of human
movements that are observable. Tra-
A£:curate analysis requires the integrated use of all subdisciplines of knowl-
edge in all four tasks.
Preparation
Intervention
Evaluation/Diagnosis
20
ditionally, studies of qualitative analy-
sis have used panels of instructional
experts to provide logical validity
for subsequent ratings of other ana-
lysts. There are fewer studies of the
criterion-referenced validity of quali-
tative analysis to tell us what aspects
of human movement can be accu-
rately observed. Studies have docu-
mented poor to good criterion-refer-
enced validity of visual ratings of
static postures or slow movements
(Bernhardt, Bate, & Matyas, 1998; De
Looze, Toussaint, Ensink, Mangnus,
& Van der Beek, 1994; Painter, 1990;
Spencer, Goldie, & Matyas, 1992),
while faster-moving movements are
not rated as accurately (Mosher &
Schutz, 198~; Kilani, Too, & Adrian,
1989; Knudson, 1999; Patla & Clouse,
1988). Studies of visual perception of
movements also show that analysts
must combine their knowledge of
the kinematics of movements with
their observational experience in or-
der to accurately perceive key features
of movements (Scully, 1986; Kilani et
al., 1989). Recent studies of the valid-
ity ofvisual ratings ofthe verticaljump
(Knudson, 1999; Knudson & Morrison,
in press) have shown that very few
observers can estimate discrete body
angles at the bottom of the jump,
but about 40 to SO percent of un-
trained observers can make accurate
holistic evaluations of overall range
Observation
of motion. These studies suggest that
a visual accuracy of about ± 5 degrees
in evaluating posture in a golf set-up
probably deteriorates to very poor
levels during the swing itself, with
a IS- to ~O-degree margin of error.
Since the visual demands of accurate
perception of fast movement often
exceed the observer's ability (Knudson
& Kluka, 1997), analysts need to take
advantage of slow-motion and stop-
action videotape replay in order
to gather sufficient information on
such movement.
Critical Features. Another important
issue in improving the accuracy of
qualitative analysis is the selection
of critical features of a movement.
For any given skill, instructional
experts will likely have different, even
conflicting advice on the important
points of the movement. Yet good
qualitative analysis necessitates a
focus on these critical features of
the movement because they are nec-
essary for optimal performance
(Knudson & Morrison, 1997). Critical
features are the most invariant tech-
nique points of a movement: they de-
termine whether a movement is effec-
tive, efficient, and safe. This new
vision of critical features requires
the consideration of many interdisci-
plinary sources of knowledge. The
science of biomechanics is most help-
ful in determining which technique
points really contribute to successful
execution and injury prevention.
Some scholars have advocated that
critical features be customized for
the age or developmental level of
performers (Abendroth-Smith, Kras,
& Strand, 1996; Abendroth-Smith &
Kras, 1999).
Svstematir Observational Strategy.
Accurate qualitative analysis necessi-
tates the gathering of all of the rel-
evant sensory information about a
performer's movement. The speed
and complexity of human movement
makes it difficult for casual visual
observation to gather enough infor-
mation on the critical features
of a given movement. A systematic ob-
servational strategy can help increase
the accuracy of qualitative analysis,
Vol. 71 No.2. JOPERD • February 2000
 and several effective strategies have
already been developed (Knudson
& Morrison, 1997). Though this sec-
tion will focus on visual observation,
professionals need to use all other
relevant senses during the observa-
tion of human movement in order to
gather sufficient information.
The article by Morrison (2000) in
this feature illustrates how the differ-
ent perceptual styles of observers
affect their interpretations of visual
information. Whatever our perceptual
style, we must plan our observations
of movement in order to ensure that
Downloaded by [University of Nebraska, Lincoln] at 11:16 09 October 2015
our limited perceptual resources
are used effectively. The traditional
approach is to plan to observe specific
critical features that are based on the
temporal phases of the movement
(usually preparation, action, and fol-
low-through). While this structured
approach is effective, some analysts
prefer less structure. For all its limita-
tions, simple visual perception is
often all that is needed to recognize
underlying patterns or differences
in movements (Johansson, 1975;
Thornton, Pinto, & Shiffrar, 1998).
This fact might account for those ana-
lystswho prefer an observational strat-
egy of first watching a few trials for
overall impressions, then watching
specific foci related to critical features.
For these analysts, observation may
be more accurate if they get an overall
impression of critical features before
attempting to analyze discrete body
positions that are difficult to perceive
in fast movements (Knudson, 1999;
Knudson & Morrison, in press). What-
ever the case, it is important that
physical educators be aware of the
critical features ofvarious movements
and develop a preferred strategy for
observing them.
Planfor Diagnosis. Accurate qualita-
tive analysis also requires appropriate
diagnosis of movement. Diagnosis is
the determination of the underlying
causes of the strengths and weaknesses
identified in evaluation. Well-planned
diagnosis can help performers achieve
greater improvement with less frustra-
tion. By focusing a performer's atten-
tion on one technique point or inter-
February 2000 • JOPERD. Vol. 71 No.2
vention, the analyst can usually pre-
vent the "paralysis by analysis" that
often results from a multiple-eorrec-
tion strategy (see cartoon).
There are several strategies for the
diagnosis of performance (Knudson
& Morrison, 1997). Although there is
very little research on what diagnostic
approaches create the most improve-
ment in performance, the most logi-
cal approach is a two-step prioritization
of critical features: relate the critical
features of the performance to previ-
ous performances and decide which
intervention is least difficult for the
performer to implement. For ex-
ample, a tennis player who shows con-
sistent weaknesses in court movement
and racket preparation, a cramped
arm position, and a late contact in the
forehand must be carefully diagnosed.
If the player can demonstrate a good
forehand from a dropped ball, it is
likely that the poor contact and
cramped stroke are related to poor
footwork or racket preparation. Ap-
propriate intervention is more likely
when the analyst diagnoses the cause
of poor performance.
An important caution is warranted
when talking about diagnosing human
movement. Analysts should not try to
infer too much about the biomechani-
cal causes of observed movements (ki-
nematics), because these speculations
are often incorrect (Herbert, Moore,
Moseley, Schurr, & Wales, 1993; Kilani
et al., 1989). Seemingly identical move-
ments can be caused by very different
musculoskeletal forces and interac-
tions (Winter, 1984).
Consistency
Consistency or reliability is another
important property of qualitative
analysis. Consistency refers to an
analyst's ability to make the same
ratings orjudgments from similar per-
formances. There has been more re-
search on the reliability of qualitative
analysis than on validity. Most studies
of reliability show that within-observer
reliability is generally moderate to
good, while between-observer reliabil-
ity is poor to moderate (Attinger,
Luethi, & Stuessi, 1987; Bernhardt et
al., 1998; Eastlack, Arvidson, Danoff,
& McGarvey, 1991; Krebs, Edelstein,
& Fishman, 1985). The factors that
are associated with greater reliability
of qualitative analysis are the use
of multiple observations, well-defined
critical features, and a simple method
for evaluating critical features.
Multiple Observations. Most studies
of qualitative analysis have shown
that its level of consistency rises as the
number of observations increases.
Human movement has inherent in-
consistencies that tend to decrease in
number as skill increases. Analysts can
reduce their chance of incorrectly fo-
cusing on a movement inconsistency
or making erroneous decisions by in-
creasing the number of trials that
they observe and evaluate. Analysts
should not base intervention on
the observation and evaluation of a
single repetition. Only simple and very
slow movements can be consistently
evaluated by observation of one
or two trials (Painter, 1990; Ulrich,
Ulrich, & Branta, 1988). Knudson
21
 little, within the desirable range, or too
much. Using more levels may promote
an illusion of false precision and in-
crease the potential inconsistency over
multiple analyses.
The analyst-specific, continuum
approach allows the reliable evaluation
of speed, jerkiness, and range of
motion (Bernhardt et aI., 1998;
Knudson, 1999). It is possible that some
observers can evaluate aspects of move-
ment with a greater degree of accuracy
using more holistic impressions of
Ordinal Scale: performance. Figure 2 illustrates the
difference between an ordinal and a
Downloaded by [University of Nebraska, Lincoln] at 11:16 09 October 2015

Inadequate visual analog scale evaluation of the

range of motion in a vertical jump.
Visual-Analog Scale: There is a great need tor research docu-
menting the kinds of biomechanical
ToolittleROM ToomuchROM
variables that are observable for most
To evaluate the "range of motion" information gathered in an "observation" people and the accurdcy of different
of a vertical jump, two methods can be used. The illustrated vertical jump approaches to evaluation.
can be rated on the visual analog scale (VAS) or the ordinal scale (OS)
proposed by Knudson & Morrison (1997). A balance must be struck between Conclusions
accuracy and potential inconsistency. Note that the difficulty of the task
The accuracy and consistency of quali-
would be much greater if you were visually observing the actual jump, which
tative analysis of human movement
takes approximately one second. Would evaluation consistency improve if
you knew that the approximate angles of deepest knee flexion for skilled is vital to maximizing improvement
jumpers are usually between 90 and 110 degrees? in the performance of students in
physical education. Such analysis is
and Morrison (1997) recommend that body movements (e.g., the particular possible only if several characteristics
qualitative analysts use at least five mindset necessary for successful base- are present. The analyst must be
to eight observations for most perfor- ball batting or pole vaulting). guided by a comprehensive vision of
mances. More observations may However, most critical features will need qualitative analysis that goes beyond
be necessary if the movement is fast, to be defined as clearly as possible the traditional method of error detec-
since reliability decreases as movement for different age and developmental lev- tion and correction. Accurate qualita-
speed increases (Ulrich et aI., 1988; els in order to improve the consistency tive analysis must be based on an un-
Mosher & Schutz, 198~; Saleh & of qualitative analysis. The next section derstanding of observable movement,
Murdoch, 1985). The critical features will outline two effective strategies for continual preparation, critical-feature
of a given movement and the analyst's defining critical features. research, a plan for diagnosis, and an
own perceptual abilities will also affect SimplR Evaluation. A simple, coherent appropriate observational strategy. Al-
the number of movements that need to evaluation scheme will enhance consis- though different analysts tend to of-
be observed, but the important point is tency. Analysts need an uncomplicated fer somewhat contradictory analyses,
not to rush tojudgment. way to classifv critical features that the consistency of ratings by individual
Definition ofCritical Features. The con- are valid and meaningful. There are analysts is often enough to achieve
sistency of qualitative analysis can be two approaches to evaluating critical fea- the goal ofstudent improvement. Such
increased by precisely defining the criti- tures using visual observation of the consistency can be attained through
cal features of the movement to be ana- motion of the body. One is to define the use of multiple observations, well-
lyzed. If the boundaries of acceptable discrete boundaries of acceptable per- defined critical features for observa-
performance of a critical feature are formance, while the other involves tion, and a simple method for evaluat-
well defined, it will be easier for the a more holistic judgment of the quality ing critical features that is intuitively
analvst
, to consistently, evaluate that criti- of the critical feature on a continuous meaningful to the analyst.
cal feature. The use ofvague definitions scale specific to the analyst. Knudson
of critical features mav lead to observer and Monison (1997) have employed a Acknowledgment
bias and inconsistent evaluation boundary-defining approach by suggest- The cartoon on p. 21 is reprinted
(Monison, 2(00). Sometimes critical ing that most critical features can be by permission from Knudson, D.,
features cannot be clearly defined as placed into one of three categories: too & Morrison. C. (1997). Qualitative

22 Vol. 71 No.2. JOPERD • February 2000

 analysis of human movement (p. 112).
Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics. © 1997 by
Human Kinetics. Reprinted by permission.
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