Brown​ ​or​ ​blue​ ​eyed​ ​baby?

2​ ​blue/brown​ ​eyed​ ​children​ ​from​ ​Bb​ ​and​ ​Bb​ ​parents

1. Sample​ ​space:

First​ ​child:
B b

B BB Bb

b Bb bb

Second​ ​child:
B b

B BB Bb

b Bb bb

A​ ​simple​ ​event​ ​is​ ​one​ ​particular​ ​outcome​ ​of​ ​a​ ​statistical​ ​experiment​ ​.​ ​It​ ​is​ ​the​ ​set​ ​of​ ​all
simple​ ​events​ ​constitutes​ ​the​ ​sample​ ​space​ ​of​ ​an​ ​experiment.​ ​The​ ​sample​ ​space​ ​we
used​ ​in​ ​this​ ​scenario​ ​is​ ​a​ ​punnett​ ​square​ ​that​ ​uses​ ​the​ ​parent’s​ ​genes​ ​(Bb)​ ​to​ ​calculate
the​ ​probability​ ​of​ ​the​ ​parents​ ​having​ ​two​ ​blue​ ​or​ ​brown​ ​eyed​ ​children.​ ​ ​The​ ​simple
event​ ​A​,​ ​in​ ​this​ ​scenario​ ​between​ ​two​ ​parents​ ​with​ ​the​ ​gene​ ​Bb​ ​is​ ​A=Blue​ ​eyes(bb),
which​ ​means​ ​the​ ​parents​ ​will​ ​have​ ​two​ ​blue​ ​eyed​ ​children.​ ​The​ ​probability​ ​of​ ​parents
having​ ​two​ ​blue​ ​eyed​ ​children​ ​is​ ​1/16​ ​The​​ ​P(A),​​ ​which​ ​is​ ​the​ ​probability​ ​that​ ​A​ ​will​ ​occur,
tells​ ​that​ ​the​ ​probability​ ​of​ ​two​ ​parents​ ​with​ ​the​ ​gene​ ​Bb​ ​will​ ​have​ ​two​ ​children​ ​with​ ​blue
eyes​ ​is​ ​fairly​ ​low.​ ​The​ ​complement​ ​of​ ​an​ ​event​ ​is​ ​the​ ​event​ ​that​ ​A​ ​does​ ​not​ ​occur​ ​which
is​ ​displayed​ ​by​ ​p(A​c​)​ ​which​ ​in​ ​this​ ​situation,​ ​if​ ​A​ ​does​ ​not​ ​occur,​ ​meaning​ ​parents​ ​do​ ​not
have​ ​two​ ​blue​ ​eyed​ ​children,​ ​then​ ​the​ ​parents​ ​would​ ​have​ ​two​ ​brown​ ​eyed​ ​children
which​ ​is​ ​the​ ​probability​ ​of​ ​15/16.​ ​The​ ​probability​ ​of​ ​parents​ ​with​ ​the​ ​gene​ ​Bb​ ​will​ ​have​ ​2
children​ ​with​ ​blue​ ​eyes​ ​is​ ​1/16​ ​and​ ​the​ ​compliment,​ ​or​ ​having​ ​children​ ​with​ ​brown​ ​eyes
is​ ​15/16.
 Another​ ​simple​ ​event​ ​that​ ​could​ ​occur​ ​between​ ​two​ ​parents​ ​with​ ​the​ ​gene​ ​Bb​ ​is
that​ ​the​ ​children​ ​both​ ​have​ ​brown​ ​eyes.​ ​The​ ​probability​ ​of​ ​two​ ​children​ ​have​ ​brown​ ​eyes
is​ ​15/16​ ​The​ ​probability​ ​tells​ ​us​ ​that​ ​the​ ​chances​ ​of​ ​two​ ​parents​ ​with​ ​the​ ​gene​ ​Bb​ ​will
have​ ​children​ ​with​ ​the​ ​gene​ ​BB​ ​or​ ​Bb​ ​is​ ​greater​ ​than​ ​the​ ​probability​ ​that​ ​parents​ ​with​ ​the
gene​ ​Bb​ ​will​ ​have​ ​two​ ​blue​ ​eyed​ ​children.​ ​The​ ​complement​ ​of​ ​this​ ​event,​ ​which​ ​is​ ​the
situation​ ​that​ ​the​ ​parents​ ​do​ ​not​ ​have​ ​two​ ​brown​ ​eyed​ ​children​ ​but​ ​have​ ​blue​ ​eyed
children​ ​is​ ​1/16.​ ​The​ ​probability​ ​of​ ​parents​ ​with​ ​the​ ​gene​ ​Bb​ ​will​ ​have​ ​two​ ​children​ ​with
brown​ ​eyes​ ​is​ ​15/16​ ​and​ ​the​ ​compliment,​ ​which​ ​means​ ​parents​ ​will​ ​have​ ​two​ ​blue​ ​eyed
children​ ​is​ ​1/16
Two​ ​events,​ ​A​ ​and​ ​B,​ ​or​ ​in​ ​this​ ​case,​ ​parents​ ​with​ ​the​ ​genes​ ​Bb​ ​having​ ​2
children​ ​with​ ​blue​ ​eyes,​ ​and​ ​two​ ​children​ ​with​ ​brown​ ​eyes,​ ​is​ ​called​ ​a​ ​compound​ ​event​.
Having​ ​blue​ ​eyed​ ​children​ ​or​ ​brown​ ​eyed​ ​children​ ​is​ ​an​ ​independent​ ​event.​ ​These
events​ ​are​ ​independent​ ​because​ ​the​ ​probability​ ​of​ ​(A)​ ​having​ ​a​ ​two​ ​blue​ ​eyed​ ​children
does​ ​not​ ​affect​ ​the​ ​probability​ ​of​ ​(B)​ ​having​ ​two​ ​brown​ ​eyed​ ​children.​ ​The​ ​probability​ ​of
A​ ​and​ ​B​,​ ​or​ ​having​ ​two​ ​children​ ​with​ ​blue​ ​eyes​ ​and​ ​two​ ​children​ ​with​ ​brown​ ​eyes​ ​is
3/16.​ ​The​ ​probability​ ​of​ ​parents​ ​with​ ​the​ ​Bb​ ​gene​ ​having​ ​two​ ​blue​ ​and​ ​two​ ​brown​ ​eyed
children​ ​is​ ​calculated​ ​by​ ​multiplying​ ​the​ ​probability​ ​of​ ​A​ ​times​ ​the​ ​probability​ ​of​ ​B.
Multiplying​ ​the​ ​probability​ ​of​ ​A​ ​times​ ​the​ ​probability​ ​of​ ​B​ ​is​ ​the​ ​formula​ ​for​ ​calculating
compound​ ​events​ ​that​ ​are​ ​independent.​ ​The​ ​probability​ ​of​ ​A,​ ​having​ ​two​ ​blue​ ​eyed
children​ ​is​ ​1/16​ ​and​ ​the​ ​probability​ ​of​ ​having​ ​two​ ​brown​ ​eyed​ ​children​ ​is​ ​15/16.​ ​12/16
x1/16​ ​=​ ​12/256​ ​or​ ​about​ ​4.6875%.
We​ ​already​ ​know​ ​that​ ​having​ ​two​ ​children​ ​with​ ​blue​ ​eyes​ ​and​ ​having​ ​two​ ​children
with​ ​brown​ ​eyes​ ​is​ ​a​ ​compound​ ​event.​ ​Having​ ​two​ ​children​ ​with​ ​blue​ ​eyes​ ​or​ ​two
children​ ​with​ ​brown​ ​eyes​ ​is​ ​also​ ​a​ ​compound​ ​event.​​ ​These​ ​events​ ​are​ ​mutually
exclusive​,​ ​meaning​ ​it​ ​is​ ​not​ ​possible​ ​for​ ​these​ ​probabilities​ ​to​ ​overlap.​ ​In​ ​other​ ​words,​ ​it
is​ ​not​ ​possible​ ​to​ ​have​ ​two​ ​children​ ​with​ ​one​ ​blue​ ​and​ ​one​ ​brown​ ​eye.​ ​Events​ ​A​ ​and​ ​B
are​ ​completely​ ​separate.​ ​Because​ ​having​ ​two​ ​children​ ​with​ ​blue​ ​or​ ​brown​ ​eyes​ ​is​ ​a
mutually​ ​exclusive​ ​event,​ ​to​ ​find​ ​the​ ​probability​ ​of​ ​A,​ ​having​ ​two​ ​children​ ​with​ ​blue
eyes​ ​or​ ​B,​ ​two​ ​children​ ​with​ ​brown​ ​eyes​,​ ​the​ ​probabilities​ ​are​ ​simply​ ​just​ ​added
together.​ ​The​ ​probability​ ​of​ ​having​ ​two​ ​children​ ​with​ ​blue​ ​eyes​ ​is​ ​1/16​ ​and​ ​the
probability​ ​of​ ​having​ ​two​ ​children​ ​with​ ​brown​ ​eyes​ ​is​ ​15/16.​ ​15/16​ ​+​ ​1/16​ ​=​ ​16/16.​ ​A
probability​ ​of​ ​16/16​ ​means​ ​that​ ​there​ ​is​ ​a​ ​100%​ ​chance​ ​that​ ​parents​ ​with​ ​the​ ​genes​ ​Bb
will​ ​have​ ​two​ ​children​ ​with​ ​either​ ​blue​ ​or​ ​brown​ ​eyes.
The​ ​multiplication​ ​rule​ ​of​ ​counting​​ ​is​ ​defined​ ​simply​ ​as​ ​if​ ​there​ ​are​ ​m​ ​ways​ ​to
choose​ ​one​ ​thing​ ​and​ ​n​ ​ways​ ​to​ ​choose​ ​another,​ ​there​ ​are​ ​m​ ​times​ ​n​ ​ways​ ​to​ ​choose.​ ​It
is​ ​calculated​ ​as​ ​(N1xN2XN3...Nm).​ ​The​ ​multiplication​ ​rule​ ​of​ ​counting​ ​is​ ​used​ ​to​ ​find​ ​the
number​ ​a​ ​ways​ ​a​ ​person​ ​can​ ​choose​ ​to​ ​do​ ​something.​ ​For​ ​example,​ ​it​ ​can​ ​be​ ​used​ ​to
find​ ​how​ ​many​ ​different​ ​ways​ ​a​ ​sandwich​ ​could​ ​be​ ​made​ ​if​ ​there​ ​are​ ​two​ ​types​ ​of​ ​bread,
three​ ​types​ ​of​ ​meat,​ ​and​ ​three​ ​types​ ​of​ ​toppings.​ ​Instead​ ​of​ ​creating​ ​every​ ​single
possible​ ​option,​ ​to​ ​calculate​ ​the​ ​number​ ​of​ ​ways​ ​a​ ​sandwich​ ​can​ ​be​ ​made,​ ​multiply
2x3x3​ ​which​ ​equals​ ​18.​ ​The​ ​number​ ​of​ ​ways​ ​to​ ​create​ ​a​ ​sandwich​ ​with​ ​two​ ​types​ ​of
bread,​ ​three​ ​types​ ​of​ ​meat,​ ​and​ ​three​ ​types​ ​of​ ​toppings​ ​is​ ​18.
A​ ​permutation​​ ​is​ ​a​ ​way​ ​that​ ​a​ ​set​ ​of​ ​numbers​ ​is​ ​arranged​ ​or​ ​ordered.​ ​In​ ​a
permutation,​ ​the​ ​order​ ​that​ ​the​ ​numbers​ ​are​ ​arranged​ ​in​ ​matters,​ ​unlike​ ​in​ ​a
combination.​ ​Permutations​ ​are​ ​used​ ​to​ ​calculate​ ​the​ ​total​ ​number​ ​of​ ​arrangements​ ​that
an​ ​event​ ​can​ ​be​ ​arranged​ ​in.​ ​There​ ​are​ ​two​ ​different​ ​ways​ ​that​ ​a​ ​permutation​ ​can​ ​be
calculated,​ ​by​ ​hand,​ ​or​ ​by​ ​calculator.​ ​The​ ​equation​ ​for​ ​calculating​ ​a​ ​permutation​ ​by
hand​ ​is​ ​n!/(n-r)!​ ​Another​ ​way​ ​to​ ​calculate​ ​a​ ​permutation​ ​is​ ​by​ ​using​ ​nPr​ ​on​ ​the
calculator.​ ​An​ ​example​ ​where​ ​a​ ​permutation​ ​should​ ​be​ ​used​ ​is​ ​when​ ​there​ ​are
placements​ ​for​ ​the​ ​events.​ ​ ​Suppose​ ​there​ ​are​ ​ten​ ​students​ ​running​ ​in​ ​a​ ​race.​ ​The​ ​1st
place​ ​finisher​ ​gets​ ​a​ ​gold​ ​medal,​ ​the​ ​2nd​ ​place​ ​gets​ ​silver,​ ​and​ ​3rd​ ​place​ ​gets​ ​a​ ​bronze
medal.​ ​In​ ​this​ ​case,​ ​a​ ​gold​ ​first​ ​place​ ​medal​ ​is​ ​better​ ​than​ ​a​ ​2nd​ ​or​ ​3rd​ ​place​ ​medal,​ ​so
the​ ​order​ ​matters.​ ​To​ ​calculate​ ​the​ ​number​ ​of​ ​ways​ ​the​ ​runners​ ​can​ ​finish,​ ​you​ ​take​ ​10
factorial​ ​divided​ ​by​ ​10-3​ ​factorial​ ​or,​ ​10!/(10-3)!​ ​If​ ​you​ ​calculate​ ​this​ ​out,​ ​the​ ​answer​ ​is
720.​ ​This​ ​means​ ​that​ ​there​ ​are​ ​720​ ​different​ ​ways​ ​to​ ​arrange​ ​the​ ​runners​ ​in​ ​places​ ​first
through​ ​third.
​ ​A​ ​combination​ ​is​ ​used​ ​to​ ​find​ ​the​ ​number​ ​of​ ​combinations​ ​of​ ​n​ ​objects​ ​taken​ ​r
at​ ​a​ ​time.​ ​The​ ​difference​ ​between​ ​permutation​ ​and​ ​combination​ ​is​ ​that​ ​for​ ​combination
does​ ​not​ ​matter​ ​the​ ​order​ ​the​ ​information​ ​is​ ​given​ ​while​ ​for​ ​permutation​ ​order​ ​or
arrangement​ ​affects​ ​the​ ​outcome.​ ​Combination​ ​is​ ​used​ ​for​ ​calculating​ ​the​ ​number​ ​of
different​ ​ways​ ​a​ ​set​ ​of​ ​numbers​ ​can​ ​be​ ​arranged​ ​where​ ​the​ ​order​ ​of​ ​the​ ​information
does​ ​not​ ​matter.​ ​Calculating​ ​combination​ ​has​ ​two​ ​methods:​ ​equation​ ​and​ ​calculator.​ ​A
handwritten​ ​equation​ ​is​ ​calculated​ ​by​ ​using​ ​the​ ​equation:​ ​C,n,r+n!/r!(n-r).​ ​Where​ ​r
represents​ ​the​ ​number​ ​of​ ​items​ ​being​ ​chosen​ ​at​ ​a​ ​time​ ​and​ ​n​ ​represents​ ​the​ ​total
number​ ​of​ ​items.​ ​The​ ​alternative​ ​way​ ​to​ ​calculate​ ​a​ ​combination​ ​is​ ​by​ ​using​ ​the​ ​nCr​ ​on
the​ ​calculator.​ ​An​ ​example​ ​of​ ​a​ ​situation​ ​where​ ​a​ ​combination​ ​should​ ​be​ ​used​ ​is,
suppose​ ​there​ ​are​ ​7​ ​boys​ ​and​ ​3​ ​girls​ ​on​ ​a​ ​tennis​ ​team.​ ​The​ ​coach​ ​has​ ​to​ ​choose​ ​four
people​ ​out​ ​of​ ​the​ ​10​ ​to​ ​compete​ ​in​ ​the​ ​championship​ ​game.​ ​If​ ​you​ ​plug​ ​these​ ​numbers
into​ ​the​ ​combination​ ​equation,​ ​the​ ​result​ ​is​ ​210​ ​different​ ​ways​ ​to​ ​arrange​ ​the​ ​kids.