BULE HORA UNIVERSITY DEPARTEMENT OF ELECTRICAL AND

COMPUTER ENGINEERING

“Laser light based audio transmission and alarm system”

A project submitted in partial fulfilment of the requirement for the first degree of Bachelor of
Science in Electrical and Computer Engineering

By
AMEHA GETACHEW FE/R/1071/12
ARARE ABERA FE/R/0550/12
ADISU WAKWEYA FE/R/0950/12
ABEBA KBREY FE/R/0545/12
MARUF USMAEL FE/R/0918/12

Advisor:
Mr. Liule Negash
6-16-2017
BULE HORA UNIVERSITY DEPARTEMENT OF ELECTRICAL AND
COMPUTER ENGINEERING

““Laser light based audio transmission and alarm system”

By

AMEHA GETACHEW FE/R/1071/12

ARARE ABERA FE/R/0550/12
ADISU WAKWEYA FE/R/0950/12
ABEBA KBREY FE/R/0545/12
MARUF USMAEL FE/R/0918/12

Electrical and Computer Engineering Department

Approval by Board Examiners

 DECLARATION
WE, the undersigned declare that this final PROJECT is our group original work, and has not
been presented for a degree in this or any other university, and all sources of materials used for
the project have been fully acknowledged.

Name Signature

AMEHA GETACHEW ………………………………………………………………………

ARARE ABERA …………………………………………………………………………….

ADISU WAKWEYA …………………………………………………………………………

ABEBA KBREY………………………………………………………………………………

MARUF USMAEL ……………………………………………………………………………

Date of submission. Place

June,16,2017 BULE HORA ETHIOPIAN

This project has been submitted with our approval as a university advisor and electrical and
computer hade office.

Advisor Name

Mr. Liule Negash

Signature

Department head

Mr. Derara Senay Signature

 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
First of all, we would like to thank to father almighty, may you continue to give us strength and
vision that I may follow your path to external salivation.
We also want to express a sincere acknowledgement to our advisor, Mr. Liule Negash for
giving us the opportunity to research under his guidance and supervision.
Beside our advisor, we also want to thank to Mr. Surafel Getachew, Mr.Behaylu Shefera and
Mr.Tewodros Tadele Electrical and electronics lab Assistance for their endless support.

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 Contents Page
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT ............................................................................................................................. i
LIST OF FIGURES ..................................................................................................................................... iv
LIST OF TABLE .......................................................................................................................................... v
LIST OF SYMBOL ..................................................................................................................................... vi
ABSTRACT................................................................................................................................................ vii
CHAPTER ONE ........................................................................................................................................... 1
INTRODUCTION .................................................................................................................................... 1
1.1 BRIEF HISTORY ............................................................................................................................... 1

1.2 MOTIVATION ................................................................................................................................... 3

1.3 ORGANIZATION OF THE PROJECT ............................................................................................. 3
1.4 OBJECTIVE ....................................................................................................................................... 3
1.4.1 General objective ......................................................................................................................... 3

1.4.2 Specific objective ......................................................................................................................... 3

1.5 SCOPE OF THE PROJECT ............................................................................................................... 4

1.6 PROBLEMS OF STATEMENT......................................................................................................... 4
1.7 SYSTEM ANALYSIS ........................................................................................................................ 4
1.5 BLOCK DIAGRAM EXPLANATION .............................................................................................. 5
1.5.1 CONDENSER MICROPHONE .................................................................................................. 5

1.5.2 TRANSMITTING SECTION ...................................................................................................... 5

1.5.3 LASER TORCH .......................................................................................................................... 5

1.5.4 RECEIVING SECTION .............................................................................................................. 5

1.5.5 LOUD SPEAKERS ......................................................................................................................... 6

CHAPTER TWO .......................................................................................................................................... 7
LITERATURE REVIEW ......................................................................................................................... 7
2.1 OPTICAL AND MICROWAVE COMMUNICATIONS SYSTEMM CONCEPTUAL DESIGN
FOR A REALISTIC INTERSTELLAR EXPLORER.......................................................................... 7

2.2 OPTICAL COMMUNICATION SYSTEM FOR SMART DUST .................................................... 8

2.3 TOWARD A WIRELESS OPTICAL COMMUNICATION LINK BETWEEN TWO SMALL
UNMANNED AERIAL VEHICLES ....................................................................................................... 8
2.4 FREE SPACE OPTICAL LASER COMMUNICATION LINK ........................................................ 8

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 2.5 LASER BASED INTRUDER ALARM ............................................................................................. 8
2.6 LASER BASED COMMUNICATION LINK ................................................................................... 9
CHAPTER THREE .................................................................................................................................... 11
METHODOLOGY ................................................................................................................................. 11
3.1 SYSTEM DISCRIPTION ............................................................................................................. 11

3.2 THE TRANSMITTER CIRCUIT ................................................................................................. 11

3.3 THE RECEIVER CIRCUIT ......................................................................................................... 12

CHAPTER FOUR....................................................................................................................................... 17
COMPONENTS ..................................................................................................................................... 17
4.1 LASER .......................................................................................................................................... 17

4.2 555 TIMER ................................................................................................................................... 18

4.3 LDR (LIGHT DEPENDENT RESISTOR) ................................................................................... 20

4.4 LOW VOLTAGE AUDIO AMPLIFIER IC LM386 .................................................................... 21

4.5 RESISTORS ................................................................................................................................. 22

4. 6 VARIABLE RESISTORS ........................................................................................................... 30

4.7 CAPACITOR ................................................................................................................................ 31

4.8 TRANSISTOR .............................................................................................................................. 36

4.9 BREADBOARD ........................................................................................................................... 42

CHAPTER FIVE ........................................................................................................................................ 43

RESULT AND IMPLEMENTATION ................................................................................................... 43
CHAPTER SIX ........................................................................................................................................... 45
CONCLUSION & RECOMMENDATION ........................................................................................... 45
5.1 CONCLUSION ............................................................................................................................. 45

5.2 RECOMMENDATION ................................................................................................................ 45

REFERENCES ...............................................................................................................................................
APPENDIX A .................................................................................................................................................
APPENDIX B .................................................................................................................................................

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 LIST OF FIGURES
Fig 1. system analysis diagram………………………………………………………………….4
Fig 2. system description block diagram……………………………………………………….11
Fig 3. Transmitter circuit……………………………………………………………………….11
Fig 4. Alarm system circuit…………………………………………………………..................12
Fig 5. Receiver circuit 1………………………………………………………………………...14
Fig 6. Receiver circuit 2………………………………………………………………………...15
Fig 7. Receiver circuit 3 last circuit………………………………………………….................16
Fig 8. Laser……………………………………………………………………………………...17
Fig 9. Emission of a laser…………………………………………………………….................18
Fig 10. 555 TIMER…………………………………………………………………..................19
Fig 11. LDR…………………………………………………………………………………….20
Fig 12. LM386 IC……………………………………………………………………………….21
Fig 13. Resister color coding and band………………………………………………………....28
Fig 14. variable resister………………………………………………………………………....30
Fig 15. Capacitor………………………………………………………………………………..31
Fig 16. Energy storage in capacitor……………………………………………………………..32
Fig 17 A simple resistor-capacitor circuit demonstrates charging of a capacitor………………34
Fig 18. Schematic symbols for PNP- and NPN-type BJTs……………………………………..36
Fig 19. Simplified cross section of a planar NPN bipolar junction transistor…………………..39
Fig 20. the symbol of an NPN bipolar junction transistor………………………………………40
Fig 21. The symbol of a PNP Bipolar Junction transistor………………………………………40
Fig 22. BC548 silicon NPN BJT Transistor…………………………………………………….41
Fig 23. Breadboard……………………………………………………………………………....42
Fig 24. Internal structure of breadboard…………………………………………………………42
Fig 25. Final result of alarm system……………………………………………………………..44
Fig 26. Audio transmitter final result……………………………………………………………45
Fig 27. Audio receiver final result..……………………………………………………………..45

iv
 LIST OF TABLE
1. PIN SPECIFICATION OF 555 TIMER…………………………….……………………….19
2. PIN SPECIFICATION OF LM 3869 IC…………………………………………………….22

v
 LIST OF SYMBOL
1. LDR …………………………………………..…………………………………..………….20
2. Low voltage audio amplifier ………………………..…………………………….…………21
3. Schematic symbol for PNP and NPN type BJTs…………….…………………..…………..40
4. The symbol of an NPN Bipolar junction transistor ……………….………………….……..41

vi
 ABSTRACT
Laser audio transmitter is one type of optic transmission method using simple electrical circuit we
can transmit and receive any kinds of audio message by using laser beam. and also by using laser
beam we can protect our home, office and shop.
In our project by using laser beam or laser torch and some chip electrical component like
resister, capacitor, op amp, 555 timer and breadboard we will construct a laser audio transmitter
and receiver circuit and also construct alarm system circuit.so on the transmitter side we have
resisters, transistors, capacitors,3.5mm audio jack, 5v dc source and laser. these components are
only used to transmission section on the receiving section. we have two circuits the first one is
audio amplification circuit and the second one is security alarm circuit. both circuit are connected
to the LDR parallel so on this section the common component for both circuit is LDR and laud
speaker. by using 9V DC source for both circuit we can received audio from the transmitter side
of the circuit and also, we can protect our home from unauthorized person the general objective
of our project is by using laser beam how can transmit audio signal and how to secure our home.
Toward achieving the general objective mentioned the following specific objective will be
accomplished in this final project.

vii
 CHAPTER ONE
INTRODUCTION
1.1 BRIEF HISTORY
Laser as a communication medium can provide a good substitute for the present-day
communication systems as the problem of interference faced in case of electromagnetic waves is
not there and high deal of secrecy is available.

Use of laser in communication systems is the future because of the advantages of the full channel
speeds, no communication licenses required at present, compatibility with copper or fiber
interfaces and no bridge or router requirements. Besides this there are no recurring line costs,
portability, transparency to networks or protocols, although range is limited to a few hundred
meters. Also, the laser transmission is very secure because it has a narrow beam (any potential
eves dropping will result in an interruption which will alert the personnel.

Also, it cannot be detected with use of spectrum analyzers and RF meters and hence can be
used for diverse applications including financial, medical and military. Lasers can also transmit
through glass; however, the physical properties of the glass have to be considered. Laser
transmitter and receiver units ensure easy, straightforward systems alignment and long-term stable,
service free operation, especially in inaccessible environments, optical wireless systems offer
ideal, economical alternative to expensive leased lines for buildings. The laser can also be
commissioned in satellites for communication, as laser radar requires small aperture as compared
to microwave radar. Also, there is high secrecy and no interference like in EM waves. Further,
potential bandwidth of radar using lasers can translate to very precision range measurement. For
these reasons, they can be used as an alternative to present modes of communication. laser
communication, which is both wide-band and high-speed.

Security is a most important factor today. Technology develops day by day in the world.
The crime gang also improves their technology to perform their operation. So, technology of
security should be modern with time to protect the crime works.

We decide to make a security project as our project. In this project, we have used laser light to
cover a large area. We know laser light goes through long distance without scattering effect.

1
It’s also visible only at source and incident point, otherwise invisible. These two properties help
us to build up a modern security system, which may name as “laser security”. When any person or
object crossover the laser line the security, alarm will be ringing and also the focus light will “on”
to focus the entrance of unauthorized person. We can make a security boundary of single laser
light by using mirror at every corner for reflection.

Siren is a device that produces loud noise. They are the means communication. Sirens can be seen
in emergency vehicles such as police cars, ambulances and fire engines. Generally, sirens are used
as indication or warning. There are different circuits to produce different sirens. Here in this project
a screaming siren lights circuit is presented. Screaming siren lights are those which produces siren
depending on the light intensity falling on the circuit. We can also call it as Laser Based Security
alarm as it is a Light Activated Alarm circuit.
The circuit illustrated here is a burglar alarm. LDR is place at such a place that when the thief
enters our house then a connection of beam of light and LDR is disrupted by the intruder and the
buzzer goes off.
When a ray of light is interrupted by anything, the LDR used in the circuit changes its resistance
and causes the buzzer to go off, producing a large siren, scaring the intruders away. Circuit can be
easily modified to make the police siren instead of a simple alarming sound.

The power consumption of the system is very low. It is of interest, in regard to future laser
communication links, to discuss the question of whether the information transmitted along a
narrow line-of-sight path to a receiver is proof against interception. The automatic assumption that
a beam of light whose beam diameter is of the order of magnitude of the collector mirrors is
“secure” in principle is strictly true only for propagation in empty space. In transmission through
the atmosphere, scattering phenomena due to water droplets in fog, cloud or rain, ice crystals,
snowflakes, dust particles, and Rayleigh scattering from the air molecules themselves produce
diffusion of the light from the direct path of the beam. This diffused light can be detected and
utilized.
In our project by combining laser light based audio transmitter, receiver and alarm system circuit to active.
And both alarm system and audio receiver circuit simultaneously work. and also in our project, the
modification area is in the receiver side both alarm system and audio receiver parallelly to be functional or
to work correctly. This project is about how to prevent theft in homes, offices, banks, museums and
also parallelly transmit and receive a good quality audio sound of without any license.

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1.2 MOTIVATION
Our motivation to select this project title is to design and implementation of Laser based audio
transmission and laser based alarm system. and also, to solve the problems of information accuses
in our campus and Parallelly we will understand the role of communication concept. Secondly, we
think that our project will be done by chip and easy components that are found in our compass in
workshops, laboratories and stores.

1.3 ORGANIZATION OF THE PROJECT

This section describes the introduction part of our project. It introduces basic concepts laser audio
transmission and laser alarm system which translates information using higher rate with a higher
performance using a minimum amount of transmitted power and bandwidth. The second chapter
explains the literature review. It includes back ground history of laser audio transmitter and laser
alarm system and the documents used to guide during our project. The third chapter discusses the
design and analysis / methodology which describe the body of our project. It explains block
diagrams, calculation parts, schematic diagrams and results/out puts. Finally, the project also
includes summary, conclusion, recommendation, references and appendix.

1.4 OBJECTIVE
1.4.1 General objective
Using laser beam how can transmit audio signal and how to secure our home.
1.4.2 Specific objective
Toward achieving the general objective mentioned the following specific objective will be
accomplished in this final project.
➢ To transmit Audio using laser beam.
➢ To install a security system based on laser light conveniently at the entrance of home, bank
and other similar locations to protect the same from unauthorized access
➢ To create low cost and simple circuit to avoid unauthorized entry of people.

3
1.5 SCOPE OF THE PROJECT
This system can be used to protect the perimeter of a building by using a cascade arrangement of
multiple alarms and transmit audio simultaneously. And also It can be used in bank or treasury to
protect from thieves by audio alarming to the security persons.

1.6 PROBLEMS OF STATEMENT

The main problem statement of our project is to fix the problem of home, office and shop
security and to fix the free space transmission problem by using laser beam.

1.7 SYSTEM ANALYSIS

Basically, this is a low cost “laser based audio transmitter, receiver and alarm” system used to
protect the selected locations to strengthen the security system and transmit audio using laser beam
it is consisted of two electronic circuits.
• Transmitter section
• Receiver section

Audio input

Fig 1. system analysis diagram

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1.5 BLOCK DIAGRAM EXPLANATION
1.5.1 CONDENSER MICROPHONE
It is also called a capacitor or electrostatic microphone. Condenser means capacitor, which stores
energy in the form of an electric field. Condenser microphones require power from a battery or
external source. Condenser also tends to be more sensitive and responsive than dynamic, making
them well suited to capturing subtle nuances in a sound. The diaphragm vibrates when struck by
sound waves, changing the distance between the two plates and therefore changing the capacitance.
Specifically, when the plates are closer together capacitance increases and a charge current occurs
and this current will be used to trigger the transmitting section.

1.5.2 TRANSMITTING SECTION

The transmitter section comprises condenser microphone or 3.5mm audio input jack. In
transmitter. The condenser mic used in the transmitter section is used to convert the acoustic
signals to the electrical signals which are modulated and send through a laser beam used in the
transmitter section.

1.5.3 LASER TORCH

Here we use the light rays coming from laser torch as the medium for transmission. Laser had
potential for the transfer of data at extremely high rates, specific advancements were needed in
component performance and systems engineering, Particularly for space-qualified hardware. Free
space laser communications systems are wireless connections through the atmosphere. They work
similar to fiber optic cable systems except the beam is transmitted through open space. The laser
systems operate in the near infrared region of the spectrum. The laser light across the link is at a
wavelength of between 780 - 920 nm. Two parallel beams are used, one for transmission and one
for reception.

1.5.4 RECEIVING SECTION

The receiver circuit uses an NPN phototransistor as the light sensor that is followed by a two-
stage transistor preamplifier and LM386-based audio power amplifier. The receiver doesn't need
any complicated alignment. Just keep the phototransistor oriented towards the remote transmitter's
laser point and adjust the volume control for a clear sound.

Parallelly from the phototransistor or (LDR) of two sides are connected to the alarm circuit. The

5
alarm system is 555 IC integrated circuit (chip) based. After some observation, the circuit should
seem very similar to the ASTABLE MULTIVIBRATOR, that is because the circuit is a ASTABLE
MULTIVIBRATOR with only one modification. This modification is done at RESET pin (PIN4).
In a normal ASTABLE vibrator this pin is connected to +5V, but since in this case we are supposed
to generate pulse on the condition of absence of light it is not connected directly to +5v. The
resistor network provided at the RESET pin provides a virtual ground so to keep resetting the IC
and so the square wave output is stopped in the presence of light. So, by combining two electrical
circuit we got two perfect output that means on the receiving section there is a loud speaker, the
loud speaker is connected to the alarm system and parallel to audio amplifier circuit.

1.5.5 LOUD SPEAKERS

A loudspeaker (or "speaker") is an electro acoustic transducer that converts an electrical signal
into sound. The speaker moves in accordance with the variations of an electrical signal and causes
sound waves to propagate through a medium such as air or water.

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 CHAPTER TWO
LITERATURE REVIEW
2.1 OPTICAL AND MICROWAVE COMMUNICATIONS SYSTEMM
CONCEPTUAL DESIGN FOR A REALISTIC INTERSTELLAR
EXPLORER
The concept of a realistic interstellar explorer has been addressed by the Johns Hopkins University
Applied Physics Laboratory (JHU/APL) with support from the NASA Institute for Advanced
Concepts (NIAC). This paper discusses the requirements, conceptual design and technology issues
associated with the optical and RF communications systems envisioned for this mission, in which
the spacecraft has a projected range of 1000 AU. Well before a range of 100 AU interactive control
of the spacecraft becomes nearly impossible, necessitating a highly autonomous craft and one-way
communications to Earth. An approach is taken in which the role of the optical downlink is
emphasized for data transfer and that of the microwave uplink emphasized for commands. The
communication system is strongly influenced by the large distances involved, the high velocities
(20 AU/year or ~ 95 km/s) as well as the requirements for low-mass (~ 10 kg), low prime power
(~ 15 W), reliability, and spacecraft autonomy. An optical terminal concept is described that has
low mass and prime power in a highly integrated and novel architecture, but new technologies are
needed to meet the range, mass, and power requirements. These include high-power, ³wall-plug´
efficient diode-pumped fiber lasers; compact, lightweight, and low-power micro-
electromechanical (MEM) beam steering elements; and lightweight diffractive quasi-membrane
optics. In addition, a very accurate star tracking mechanism must be fully integrated with the laser
downlink to achieve unprecedented pointing accuracy (~ 400 nrad RMS). The essential optical,
structural, mechanical, and electronic subsystems are described that meet the mission
requirements, and the key features of advanced technologies that need to be developed are
discussed.
The conclusion from this preliminary effort is that an optical communication downlink out
to 1000 astronomical units (AU) is within the realm of technical feasibility in the next 5-10 years
if the identified technical risks for the new technologies can be retired [1].

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2.2 OPTICAL COMMUNICATION SYSTEM FOR SMART DUST
In this thesis, the optical communication systems for millimeter-scale sensing and communication
devises known as ³Smart Dust´ are described and analyzed. A smart dust element is a self
-contained sensing and communication system that can be combined into roughly a cubic-
millimeter mote to perform integrated, massively distributed sensor networks.
The suitable passive optical and fiber-optic communication systems will be selected for the further
performance design and analysis based on the requirements for implementing these systems. Based
on the communication link designs of the free-space passive optical and fiber-optic communication
systems, the simulations for link performance will be performed [2].

2.3 TOWARD A WIRELESS OPTICAL COMMUNICATION LINK

BETWEEN TWO SMALL UNMANNED AERIAL VEHICLES
A communication system between two autonomous micro air vehicles is proposed. Laser
communication offers advantages in range, power, and bandwidth when line of sight is available.
Beam steering is accomplished using gyro-stabilized MEMS micro mirrors. A custom CMOS
smart-pixel imager implements a 1Mbps receiver, including analog front-end and variable-gain
amplifier at each pixel. Algorithms are presented for initial link establishment and maintenance
[3].
2.4 FREE SPACE OPTICAL LASER COMMUNICATION LINK
A Free Space Optical (FSO) LASER Communication Link is presented. This project deals with
the development of a full-duplex FSO analogue / digital transceiver. In this information age, the
demand for high speed, high bandwidth communications channel, is ever increasing.
FSO is presented as a solution to these demands in that it is free to implement, easy to install and
of very high bandwidth. The reader is introduced to the FSO system of communication and the
development of a small-scale communicator using laser as the carrier signal for information
transfer. Experimental results explain the performance of the completed system and offer methods
of maximizing efficiency of such FSO-based communication systems [4].

2.5 LASER BASED INTRUDER ALARM

“LASER BASED INTRUDER ALARM” is security system prototype which alarms and awakes
people when an unauthorized intruder enters their room. This circuit is low cost and easy to install.

8
Though laser diode is used to operate the system failing of which leads to alarm the buzzer
symbolized that someone has accessed the room without the knowledge of user.
A simple and effective circuit prototype is developed to work efficiently in the purpose of security
[5].

2.6 LASER BASED COMMUNICATION LINK

Laser as a communication medium can provide a good substitute for t e present day communication
systems as t e problem of interference faced in case of electromagnetic waves is not t ere and high
deal of secrecy is available. Laser communications offers a viable alternative to R communications
for inter satellite links and other applications where high-performance links are a necessity. High
data rate, small antenna size, narrow beam divergence, and a narrow field of view are
characteristics of laser communications that offer a number of potential advantages for system
design.
The purpose of the project is to determine the feasibility of replacing microwave communications
with laser communications to remote locations. This link is unreliable and can be disrupted in fog
or rain. The current system has a slow data rate of 1.54 Mbps, equivalent to using a dial up modem
on any individual computer. When this link goes down, all communications to and from the
stationary lost, leaving the station unable to carry out its missions. The system proposed to solve
this problem utilizes a long cavity laser operating at 1550 nm. The system will also use
redundancies as well as spatial diversity of seven lasers to achieve reliability and high data rates
averaging 2.4 Gbps. The transmitter and receiver will be set up on gimbals connected to a control
system that ensures alignment based off a pulse train on the receiver plate. This pulse train also
ensures that the signal is penetrating the atmosphere over the 8-mile distance. A comparison
between the microwave and laser communications was completed and future work includes
implementing a proposed three phase test plan.
A basic communication system is made up of three main parts being the transmitter, the
medium over which the message is being sent, and the receiver. A good example of this is two
people communicating from one side of a room to the other. If the person wants to communicate
with the other person, he/she speaks words towards the direction of the other individual who
receives the voice information and determines the message. This example is much like how any
general communication system works. First, the message is determined that needs to be sent to the
receiving end. The message is then sent to the transmitter. The transmitter, much like the person’s

9
mouth, is sending the signal containing the message from one person to the other. This can be
compared to using an antenna to send out a signal. The signal then must travel through some type
of medium to reach the receiver. For the two-people talking, this medium would be air. But,
sometimes this medium is some type of cable or wire. The signal is then collected by the receiver,
which is comparable to the person on the receiving end hearing the sound of the person’s voice.
Sometimes the signal can be immediately understood, but other times the signal must first be
decoded in order to understand the message [6].

In our project by using laser beam or laser torch and some chip electrical component like resister,
capacitor, op amp, 555 timer and breadboard try to construct a laser audio transmitter and receiver
circuit and also construct alarm system circuit.so on the transmitter side we have resisters,
transistors, capacitors,3.5mm audio jack, 5v dc source and laser. these components are only used
to transmission section on the receiving section. we have two circuits the first one is audio
amplification circuit and the second one is security alarm circuit. both circuit are connected to the
LDR parallel so on this section the common component for both circuit is LDR and laud speaker
So, by using 9V DC source for both circuit we can received audio from the transmitter and also,
we can protect our home from unauthorized person.

10
 CHAPTER THREE
METHODOLOGY
3.1 SYSTEM DISCRIPTION
Audio input
Transmitter Audio

And laser amplifier and

alarm
beam

Fig 2. system description block diagram

Fig shows the block diagram of laser based system for audio transmitter, receiver and alarm
system. It comprises transmitter receiver and alarm system section. The alarm system section at
one end of the link provides a beep sound on the receiver circuit. For one way communication,
you need to use an identical system with the positions of the receiver and the transmitter reversed
with this system.
In the transmitter, the intensity of the laser beam is modulated by the output of an always on code
oscillator (operating at 10-15 kHz). The receiver receives the intensity modulated light signals
through a light sensor and outputs an audio signal.

3.2 THE TRANSMITTER CIRCUIT

Fig 3. Transmitter circuit

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The transmitter circuit consists of capacitor, resisters, transistor, Audio input and a Laser.
The Audio input positive side of wire is connected to the capacitor and also the negative side of
audio input wire is connected to the R1 and Q1 and the 5V dc source, then the Capacitor C1
negative side is connected to the R1 resister and Q1 transistor of the middle pin B (bass), the
transistor emitter pin is connected to the positive terminal of the laser light and collector pin is
connected to the parallel resister and dc power source, finally the laser is connected to the source
and the transistor .Now our circuit is completely connected each other on the bread board.
➢ Laser
The laser diodes can be constructed using a variety of different materials to produce distinctive
wavelengths. Semiconductor laser diodes produce a much higher output power and highly
directional beams compared to the LEDs. The laser must be operated with a large drive current to
get a high density of ready to combine electrons at the pn junction. The transmitter circuit shows
the output power vs. forward current characteristics of a laser diode. We can divide it into
spontaneous emission A and laser oscillation region B. The current required for starting
oscillations is called threshold current (I th) while the forward (excitation) current necessary for
maintaining the diodes specified optical output is called its operating current (I op) For the 5mW
laser shown in the transmitter circuit the typical values of threshold and operating currents are
30mA and 45 mA, respectively. Keychain laser pointers available in the market have a power
output of 5mW with forward current limited to 20 to 5mA.Thus a laser diode module of keychain
type visible laser pointer may be used for this transmitter circuit. [5]
3.3 THE RECEIVER CIRCUIT
➢ Alarm system

Fig 4. Alarm system circuit

12
Above figure shows the circuit diagram of dark detector alarm. After some observation, the
circuit should seem very similar to the ASTABLE MULTIVIBRATOR, that is because the
circuit is a ASTABLE MULTIVIBRATOR with only one modification. This modification is
done at RESET pin (PIN4). In a normal ASTABLE vibrator this pin is connected to +5V, but
since in this case we are supposed to generate pulse on the condition of absence of light it is not
connected directly to +5v. The resistor network provided at the RESET pin provides a virtual
ground so to keep resetting the IC and so the square wave output is stopped in the presence of
light.

The transistor here drives the speaker because the speaker driven by IC is not a good idea. The
speaker here can be replaced with LEDs to create an output response of lighting. So once the
LEDs are placed and the darkness falls we will have an emergency backup light.
The transistor here need not be a PNP compulsory but one can replace it with a NPN and the pin
connections should be connected accordingly [5].
➢ Working
Before going to explanation, the circuit should be assumed ON and is not buzzing in the presence
of light. This condition of non-buzzing in the presence of light can be achieved by adjusting the
1MΩ trim pot. Now in the circuit one can observe a voltage divider with 1M, 100K on one side
and LDR on the other, the reset pin is connected in the middle. The trimmer pot is said to be
adjusted because to create enough resistance on the top branch of voltage divider to drop
almost all the potential (+5v) in the top branch itself. This leaves a virtual ground at the middle
of divider (reset pin). Since the RESET pin of 555 is a LOW LEVEL triggered, the timer IC will
be reset mode continuously and so there will be no square wave output as it should be. From this
we can conclude that in the presence of light the 555 IC will be in complete reset and provides
no output.

Now when the darkness or the laser beam on the LDR, the resistance of the LDR increases
drastically as explained in introduction, this increase of resistance in the second branch (one with
LDR) of voltage divider will be enough to change the ratio of voltage sharing between the two
branches of voltage divider section. Once this happen, the potential at the junction of voltage
divider circuit rises from 0V to 2V (approximately). And similarly, the voltage at the RESET
pin rises. This rise of voltage will be enough to lift the 555IC from reset mode. Once this reset

13
 mode is lifted, the timer generates square wave output. So it is concluded that once the darkness
falls on the LDR the square wave output is generated by the timer.

The square wave generated by the timer is fed to the PNP transistor to drive the speaker. So the
speaker outputs sound in response to the square wave.
➢ Audio receiver
The circuit below shows the basic format of wiring up the IC as an amplifier. Here, as discussed
in the previous section, the gain of the circuit is restricted to 20 by keeping the pins 1 and 8 open.
The internal connection of a 1.35K resistor across these pin-outs shunts the IC to the above gain.
The output is connected to a loudspeaker via a filter capacitor, which is normally witnessed in all
linear IC amplifier circuits. The pot VR1 at the input functions as the volume control for enabling
the output to be adjusted to the desired levels.

Fig 5. Receiver circuit 1

The second circuit shows how the gain of the above fundamental design may be boosted to almost
200 by adding a capacitor across pin 1 and 8 of the IC. The value of the capacitor should not be
increased above 10 µF though.

14
 Fig 6. Receiver circuit 2
The gain can be made adjustable from 20 to 200 by including a variable resistor of 4K7 in series
with the above capacitor. Excess offset conditions may be reduced by engaging the unused input
to a resistor from the ground. However, all offset issues are cancelled-OFF if the active input is
coupled through a capacitor. With the circuit set at a gain of 200, it becomes essential to bypass
the unused pin #7 via a 0.1µ capacitor to ground for keeping the circuit stable and avoiding
unnecessary oscillations or clipping. A simple but interesting bass boost arrangement can be
inserted by introducing a resistor/capacitor network across pin 1 and 5+.

15
 Fig 7. Receiver circuit 3 last circuit.
Other than audio amplifiers many different small circuits can also be built using this versatile chip;
the following datasheet will provide you with more added information.
In our project by combining two different types of circuit laser audio receiver and LDR laser based
alarm receiver circuit became one perfect output. And how both circuits are active simultaneously
[6].

16
 CHAPTER FOUR
COMPONENTS
4.1 LASER
LASER is also known as Light Amplification by Stimulated Emission of Radiation. A laser is a
device that emits light (electromagnetic radiation) through a process of optical amplification based
on the stimulated emission of photons. Light emitters are a key element in any fiber optic system.
This component converts the electrical signal into a corresponding light signal that can be injected
into the fiber. The light emitter is an important element because it is often the most costly element
in the system, and its characteristics often strongly influence the final performance limits of a given
link. Laser Diodes are complex semiconductors that convert an electrical current into light. The
conversion process is fairly efficient in that it generates little heat compared to incandescent lights.
Five inherent properties make lasers attractive for use in fiber optics.

Fig 8. Laser [1].

➢ Type
• Gas lasers
• Chemical lasers
• Excimer lasers
• Solid-state lasers
• Fiber lasers
• Photonic crystal lasers
• Semiconductor lasers
• Dye lasers
• Free electron lasers
• Exotic laser

17
➢ WORKING OF A LASER
A LASER works on the principle of spontaneous emission. Spontaneous emission is the
process by which a light source such as an atom, molecule, nanocrystal or nucleus in an
excited state undergoes a transition to a state with a lower energy, e.g., the ground state and
emits a photon. Spontaneous emission of light or luminescence is a fundamental process that
plays an essential role in many phenomena in nature and forms the basis of many
applications, such as fluorescent tubes, older television screens (cathode ray tubes), plasma
display panels, lasers (for startup - normal continuous operation works by stimulated
emission instead) and light emitting diodes emission of photon in a laser [3]

Fig 9. Emission of a laser [1].

4.2 555 TIMER

The 555 Timer IC is an integrated circuit (chip) used in a variety of timer, pulse generation
and oscillator applications. Depending on the manufacturer, the standard 555 package
includes over 20 transistors, 2 diodes and 15 resistors on a silicon chip installed in an 8-pin
mini dual-in-line package. The 555 has three operating modes.

• Monostable mode: in this mode, the 555 functions as a "one-shot" pulse generator.
Applications include timers, missing pulse detection, bounce free switches, touch

18
switches, frequency divider, capacitance measurement, pulse-width modulation
(PWM) and so on.
• Astable - free running mode: the 555 can operate as an oscillator. Uses include LED
and lamp flashers, pulse generation, logic clocks, tone generation, security alarms,
pulse position modulation and so on.
• Bistable mode or Schmitt trigger: the 555 can operate as a flip-flop, if the DIS pin is
not connected and no capacitor is used. Uses include bounce free latched switches [1].

Fig 10. 555 TIMER [5].

Table 1. Pin specification of 555 timer

Pin No. Signal name

1 GND
2 Trigger
3 Output
4 Reset
5 Control voltage
6 Threshold
7 Discharge
8 Vcc

19
4.3 LDR (LIGHT DEPENDENT RESISTOR)
A photo resistor or light dependent resistor (LDR) is a resistor whose resistance decreases with
increasing incident light intensity. It can also be referred to as a photoconductor. A photoresistor
is made of a high resistance semiconductor. If light falling on the device is of high enough
frequency, photons absorbed by the semiconductor give bound electrons enough energy to jump
into the conduction band. The resulting free electron (and its hole partner) conduct electricity,
thereby lowering resistance. A photoelectric device can be either intrinsic or extrinsic. An intrinsic
semiconductor has its own charge carriers and is not an efficient semiconductor, e.g. silicon. In
intrinsic devices, the only available electrons are in the valence band, and hence the photon must
have enough energy to excite the electron across the entire bandgap. Extrinsic devices have
impurities, also called dopants, added whose ground state energy is closer to the conduction band;
since the electrons do not have as far to jump, lower energy photons (i.e., longer wavelengths and
lower frequencies) are sufficient to trigger the device. If a sample of silicon has some of its atoms
replaced by phosphorus atoms (impurities), there will be extra electrons available for conduction.
This is an example of an extrinsic semiconductor. [2]

Fig 11. LDR [5].

20
4.4 LOW VOLTAGE AUDIO AMPLIFIER IC LM386
The LM386 is an integrated circuit consisting of a low voltage audio power amplifier. It is suitable
for battery-powered devices such as radios, guitar amplifiers, and hobbyist projects. The IC
consists of an 8-pin dual in-line package (DIP-8) and can output 0.5 watts power using a 9-volt
power supply.

Fig 12. LM386 IC[4].

21
 Table 2. Pin specification of LM 386 IC
Pin No Signal
1 Gain
2 -Input
3 +Input
4 GND
5 Vout
6 Vs
7 Bypass
8 Gain

4.5 RESISTORS
A resistor is a two-terminal passive electronic component which implements electrical resistance
as a circuit element. When a voltage V is applied across the terminals of a resistor, a current I will
flow through the resistor in direct proportion to that voltage. The reciprocal of the constant of
proportionality is known as the resistance R, since, with a given voltage V, a larger value of R
further "resists" the flow of current I as given by Ohm's law:

𝑉
𝐼=𝑅 ………………………….(Eq.5.1)

Resistors are common elements of electrical networks and electronic circuits and are ubiquitous in
most electronic equipment. Practical resistors can be made of various compounds and films, as
well as resistance wire (wire made of a high-resistivity alloy, such as nickel-chrome). Resistors
are also implemented within integrated circuits, particularly analog devices, and can also be
integrated into hybrid and printed circuits.
The electrical functionality of a resistor is specified by its resistance: common commercial resistors
are manufactured over a range of more than 9 orders of magnitude. When specifying that resistance
in an electronic design, the required precision of the resistance may require attention to the
manufacturing tolerance of the chosen resistor, according to its specific application. The

22
temperature coefficient of the resistance may also be of concern in some precision applications.
Practical resistors are also specified as having a maximum power rating which must exceed the
anticipated power dissipation of that resistor in a particular circuit: this is mainly of concern in
power electronics applications. Resistors with higher power ratings are physically larger and may
require heat sinking. In a high voltage circuit, attention must sometimes be paid to the rated
maximum working voltage of the resistor.
The series inductance of a practical resistor causes its behavior to depart from ohms law; this
specification can be important in some high-frequency applications for smaller values of
resistance. In a low-noise amplifier or pre-amp the noise characteristics of a resistor may be an
issue. The unwanted inductance, excess noise, and temperature coefficient are mainly dependent
on the technology used in manufacturing the resistor. They are not normally specified individually
for a particular family of resistors manufactured using a particular technology. A family of discrete
resistors is also characterized according to its form factor, that is, the size of the device and position
of its leads (or terminals) which is relevant in the practical manufacturing of circuits using them.
➢ UNITS
The ohm (symbol: Ω) is the SI unit of electrical resistance, named after Georg Simon Ohm. An
ohm is equivalent to a volt per ampere. Since resistors are specified and manufactured over a very
large range of values, the derived units of milliohm (1 m Ω =10-3Ω), kilo Ohm (1 k Ω = 103
Ω) and mega Ohm (1M Ω =106 Ω) are also in common usage.
The reciprocal of resistance R is called conductance G = 1/R and is measured in Siemens (SI unit),
sometimes referred to as a mho. Thus, a Siemens is the reciprocal of an ohm: S = Ω -1. Although
the concept of conductance is often used in circuit analysis, practical resistors are always specified
in terms of their resistance (ohms) rather than conductance [2].
➢ THEORY OF OPREATION
Ohm's law
The behavior of an ideal resistor is dictated by the relationship specified in Ohm's law:

𝑉 = 𝐼. 𝑅 ……………………...…………………….(Eq.5.2)

Ohm's law states that the voltage (V) across a resistor is proportional to the current (I) passing
through it, where the constant of proportionality is the resistance (R). Equivalently, Ohm's law can
be stated:

23
 𝑉
𝐼= ………………………………………………...(Eq.5.3)
𝑅
This formulation of Ohm's law states that, when a voltage (V) is present across a resistance (R), a
current (I) will flow through the resistance. This is directly used in practical computations. For
example, if a 300-ohm resistor is attached across the terminals of a 12-volt battery, then a current
of 12 / 300 = 0.04 amperes (or 40 mill amperes) will flow through that resistor.
Series and parallel resistors
In a series configuration, the current through all of the resistors is the same, but the voltage across
each resistor will be in proportion to its resistance. The potential difference (voltage) seen across
the network is the sum of those voltages, thus the total resistance can be found as the sum of those
resistances:

………………...(Eq.5.4)

As a special case, the resistance of N resistors connected in series, each of the same resistance R
is given by NR.
Resistors in a parallel configuration are each subject to the same potential difference (voltage),
however the currents through them add. The conductance of the resistors then adds to determine
the conductance of the network. Thus, the equivalent resistance (Req) of the network can be
computed:

………………….(Eq.5.5)

The parallel equivalent resistance can be represented in equations by two vertical lines "||" (as in
geometry) as a simplified notation. For the case of two resistors in parallel, this can be calculated
using:

24
 𝑅1.𝑅2
𝑅𝑒𝑞 = 𝑅1‖𝑅2 = …………………….(Eq.5.6)
𝑅1+𝑅2

As a special case, the resistance of N resistors connected in parallel, each of the same resistance
R, is given by R/N.
A resistor network that is a combination of parallel and series connections can be broken up into
smaller parts that are either one or the other. For instance,

……………………….(Eq.5.7)

However, some complex networks of resistors cannot be resolved in this manner, requiring more
sophisticated circuit analysis. For instance, consider a cube, each edge of which has been replaced
by a resistor. What then is the resistance that would be measured between two opposite vertices?
In the case of 12 equivalent resistors, it can be shown that the corner-to- corner resistance is 5»6
of the individual resistance.
One practical application of these relationships is that a non-standard value of resistance can
generally, be synthesized by connecting a number of standard values in series and/or parallel. This
can also be used to obtain a resistance with a higher power rating than that of the individual
resistors used. In the special case of N identical resistors all connected in series or all connected in
parallel, the power rating of the individual resistors is thereby multiplied by N.

25
➢ Power Dissipation
The power P dissipated by a resistor (or the equivalent resistance of a resistor network) is
calculated as:
𝑉2
𝑃 = 𝐼2 𝑅 = 𝐼𝑉 = …….…..…………………………………….(Eq.5.8)
𝑅
The first form is a restatement of Joule's first law. Using Ohm's law, the two other forms can
be derived.
The total amount of heat energy released over a period of time can be determined from the
integral of the power over that period of time:
𝑡2
𝑊 = ∫𝑡1 𝑣(𝑡)𝑖 (𝑡)𝑑𝑡…………………………………….…….(Eq.5.9)
Practical resistors are rated according to their maximum power dissipation. The vast majority of
resistors used in electronic circuits absorbs much less than a watt of electrical power and require
no attention to their power rating. Such resistors in their discrete form, including most of the
packages detailed below, are typically rated as 1/10, 1/8, or 1/4 watt.
Resistors required to dissipate substantial amounts of power, particularly used in power supplies,
power conversion circuits, and power amplifiers, are generally referred to as power resistors; this
designation is loosely applied to resistors with power ratings of 1 watt or greater. Power resistors
are physically larger and tend not to use the preferred values, color codes, and external packages
described below. If the average power dissipated by a resistor is more than its power rating, damage
to the resistor may occur, permanently altering its resistance; this is distinct from the reversible
change in resistance due to its temperature coefficient when it warms. Excessive power dissipation
may raise the temperature of the resistor to a point where it can burn the circuit board or adjacent
components, or even cause a fire. There are flameproof resistors that fail (open circuit) before they
overheat dangerously. Note that the nominal power rating of a resistor is not the same as the power
that it can safely dissipate in practical use. Air circulation and proximity to a circuit board, ambient
temperature, and other factors can reduce acceptable dissipation significantly. Rated power
dissipation may be given for an ambient temperature of 25 °C in free air. Inside an equipment case
at 60 °C, rated dissipation will be significantly less; a resistor dissipating a bit less than the
maximum figure given by the manufacturer may still be outside the safe operating area and may
prematurely fail.

26
➢ Resistor Marking
Most axial resistors use a pattern of colored stripes to indicate resistance. Surface-mount resistors
are marked numerically, if they are big enough to permit marking; more-recent small sizes are
impractical to mark. Cases are usually tan, brown, blue, or green, though other colors are
occasionally found such as dark red or dark gray.
Early 20th century resistors, essentially uninsulated, were dipped in paint to cover their entire body
for color coding. A second color of paint was applied to one end of the element, and a color dot
(or band) in the middle provided the third digit. The rule was "body, tip, dot", providing two
significant digits for value and the decimal multiplier, in that sequence. Default tolerance was
±20%. Closer-tolerance resistors had silver (±10%) or gold-colored (±5%) paint on the other end.
➢ Four-band resistors
Four-band identification is the most commonly used color-coding scheme on resistors. It consists
of four colored bands that are painted around the body of the resistor. The first two bands encode
the first two significant digits of the resistance value, the third is a power-of-ten multiplier or
number-of-zeroes, and the fourth is the tolerance accuracy, or acceptable error, of the value. The
first three bands are equally spaced along the resistor; the spacing to the fourth band is wider.
Sometimes a fifth band identifies the thermal coefficient, but this must be distinguished from the
true 5-color system, with 3 significant digits.
For example, green-blue-yellow-red is 56×104Ω= 560 kΩ ± 2%. An easier description can be as
followed: the first band, green, has a value of 5 and the second band, blue, has a value of 6, and is
counted as 56. The third band, yellow, has a value of 104, which adds four 0's to the end, creating
560,000 Ω at ±2% tolerance accuracy. 560,000changes to 560 k Ω±2% as a kilo- is 10

27
Fig 13. Resister color coding and band [2].

28
➢ Electrical and thermal noise
In amplifying faint signals, it is often necessary to minimize electronic noise, particularly in the
first stage of amplification. As dissipative elements, even an ideal resistor will naturally produce
a randomly fluctuating voltage or "noise" across its terminals. This Johnson Nyquist noise is a
fundamental noise source which depends only upon the temperature and resistance of the resistor,
and is predicted by the fluctuation dissipation theorem. Using a larger resistor produces a larger
voltage noise, whereas with a smaller value of resistance there will be more current noise,
assuming a given temperature. The thermal noise of a practical resistor may also be somewhat
larger than the theoretical prediction and that increase is typically frequency-dependent.

However, the "excess noise" of a practical resistor is an additional source of noise observed only
when a current flow through it. This is specified in unit of µV/V/decade - µV of noise per volt
applied across the resistor per decade of frequency. The µV/V/decade value is frequently given in
dB so that a resistor with a noise index of 0 dB will exhibit 1 µV (rms) of excess noise for each
volt across the resistor in each frequency decade. Excess noise is thus an example of 1/f noise.

Thick-film and carbon composition resistors generate more excess noise than other types at low
frequencies; wire-wound and thin-film resistors, though much more expensive, are often utilized
for their better noise characteristics. Carbon composition resistors can exhibit a noise index of 0
dB while bulk metal foil resistors may have a noise index of -40 dB, usually making the excess
noise of metal foil resistors insignificant. Thin film surface mount resistors typically have lower
noise and better thermal stability than thick film surface mount resistors. However, the design
engineer must read the data sheets for the family of devices to weigh the various device tradeoffs.
While not an example of "noise" per se, a resistor may act as a thermocouple, producing a small
DC voltage differential across it due to the thermoelectric effect if its ends are at somewhat
different temperatures. This induced DC voltage can degrade the precision of instrumentation
amplifiers in particular. Such voltages appear in the junctions of the resistor leads with the circuit
board and with the resistor body. Common metal film resistors shown such an effect at a magnitude
of about 20µV/°C. Some carbon composition resistors can exhibit thermoelectric offsets as high
as 400 µV/°C, whereas specially constructed resistors can reduce this number to 0.05µV/°C [2].

29
4. 6 VARIABLE RESISTORS
Variable Resistors consist of a resistance track with connections at both ends and a wiper which
moves along the track as you turn the spindle. The track may be made from carbon, cermet
(ceramic and metal mixture) or a coil of wire (for low resistances). The track is usually rotary but
straight track versions, usually called sliders, are also available. Variable resistors may be used as
a rheostat with two connections (the wiper and just one end of the track) or as a potentiometer with
all three connections in use. Miniature versions called presets are made for setting up circuits which
will not require further adjustment. Variable resistors are often called potentiometers in books and
catalogues. They are specified by their maximum resistance, linear or logarithmic track, and their
physical size. The standard spindle diameter is 6mm
The resistance and type of track are marked on the body:
4K7 LIN means 4.7 kΩ linear track. 1M LOG means 1MΩ logarithmic track
Some variable resistors are designed to be mounted directly on the circuit board, but most are for
mounting through a hole drilled in the case containing the circuit with stranded wire connecting
their terminals to the circuit board.[2]

Fig 14. variable resister [6].

30
4.7 CAPACITOR
A capacitor (formerly known as condenser) is a device for storing electric charge. The forms of
practical capacitors vary widely, but all contain at least two conductors separated by a non-
conductor. Capacitors used as parts of electrical systems, for example, consist of metal foils
separated by a layer of insulating film.
A capacitor is a passive electronic component consisting of a pair of conductors separated by a
dielectric (insulator). When there is a potential difference (voltage) across the conductors, a static
electric field develops across the dielectric, causing positive charge to collect on one plate and
negative charge on the other plate. Energy is stored in the electrostatic field. An ideal capacitor is
characterized by a single constant value, capacitance, measured in far ds. This is the ratio of the
electric charge on each conductor to the potential difference between them.
Capacitors are widely used in electronic circuits for blocking direct current while allowing
alternating current to pass, in filter networks, for smoothing the output of power supplies, in the
resonant circuits that tune radios to particular frequencies and for many other purposes.
The capacitance is greatest when there is a narrow separation between large areas of conductor;
hence capacitor conductors are often called "plates", referring to an early means of construction.
In practice the dielectric between the plates passes a small amount of leakage current and also has
an electric field strength limit, resulting in a breakdown voltage, while the conductors and leads
introduce an undesired inductance and resistance [2].

Fig 15. Capacitor [6].

31
➢ THEORY OF OPREATION:
A capacitor consists of two conductors separated by a non-conductive region. The non- conductive
region is called the dielectric or sometimes the dielectric medium. In simpler terms, the dielectric
is just an electrical insulator. Examples of dielectric mediums are glass, air, paper, vacuum, and
even a semiconductor depletion region chemically identical to the conductors. A capacitor is
assumed to be self-contained and isolated, with no net electric charge and no influence from any
external electric field. The conductors thus hold equal and opposite charges on their facing
surfaces, and the dielectric develops an electric field. InSI units, a capacitance of one farad means
that one coulomb of charge on each conductor causes a voltage of one volt across the device
The capacitor is a reasonably general model for electric fields within electric circuits. An ideal
capacitor is wholly characterized by a constant capacitance C, defined as the ratio of charge ±Q
on each conductor to the voltage V between them:

C=Q/V ……… ………………………….(Eq.7.1)

Sometimes charge build-up affects the capacitor mechanically, causing its capacitance to
vary. In this case, capacitance is defined in terms of incremental changes:
d𝑞
𝐶= .………………………………….(Eq.7.2)
d𝑣

Fig 16. Energy storage in capacitor [6].

32
➢ Energy storage
Work must be done by an external influence to "move" charge between the conductors in a
capacitor. When the external influence is removed the charge, separation persists in the electric
field and energy is stored to be released when the charge is allowed to ret run to its equilibrium
position. The work done in establishing the electric field, and hence the amount of energy stored,
is given by:

𝑄 𝑄 𝑞 1𝑄 2 1 1
𝑊 = ∫𝑄=0 𝑉𝑑𝑞 = ∫𝑄=0 𝑑𝑞 = = 𝑢𝑣2 = 𝑉𝑄 …………….(Eq.7.3)
𝐶 2𝐶 2 2

➢ Current-voltage relation
The current i (t) through any component in an electric circuit is defined as the rate of flow of a
charge q (t) passing through it, but actual charges, electrons, cannot pass through the dielectric
layer of a capacitor, rather an electron accumulates on the negative plate for each one that leaves
the positive plate, resulting in an electron depletion and consequent positive charge on one
electrode that is equal and opposite to the accumulated negative charge on the other. Thus the
charge on the electrodes is equal to the integral of the current as well as proportional to the voltage
as discussed above. As with any anti derivative, a constant of integration is added to represent the
initial voltage v (t0). This is the integral form of the capacitor equation,

𝑞 (𝑡 ) 1 𝑒
𝑣(𝑡) = = 𝑐 ∫𝑡0 𝑖(𝜏) 𝑑𝜏 + 𝑣(𝑡0)…...………………. (Eq.7.4)
𝐶
Taking the derivative of this, and multiplying by C, yields the derivative form,

𝑥𝑑𝑞(𝑡) 𝑑𝑣
𝑖 (𝑡 ) = =𝐶 …………………………..……………. (Eq.7.5)
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡

The dual of the capacitor is the inductor, which stores energy in the magnetic field rather than the
electric field. Its current-voltage relation is obtained by exchanging current and voltage in the
capacitor equations and replacing C with the inductance L

33
➢ DC Circuits

Fig 17 A simple resistor-capacitor circuit demonstrates charging of a capacitor.

➢ Capacitor markings
Most capacitors have numbers printed on their bodies to indicate their electrical
characteristics. Larger capacitors like electrolytic usually display the actual capacitance together
with the unit (for example, 220 µF). Smaller capacitors like ceramics, however, use a shorthand
consisting of three numbers and a letter, where the numbers show the capacitance in pF (calculated
as XY x 10Z for the numbers XYZ) and the letter indicates the tolerance (J, K or M for ±5%, ±10%
and ±20% respectively).

Additionally, the capacitor may show its working voltage, temperature and other relevant
characteristics.
Example
A capacitor with the text 473K 330V on its body has a capacitance of 47 x 1000 pF = 47 nF
(±10%) with a working voltage of 330 V.
➢ Applications
Capacitors have many uses in electronic and electrical systems. They are so common that it is a
rare electrical product that does not include at least one for some purpose.
➢ Energy storage
A capacitor can store electric energy when disconnected from its charging circuit, so it can be used
like a temporary battery. Capacitors are commonly used in electronic devices to
maintain power supply while batteries are being changed. (This prevents loss of information in
volatile memory.)
34
Conventional capacitors provide less than 360 joules per kilogram of energy density, while
capacitors using developing technologies could provide more than 2.52 kilojoules per kilogram

In car audio systems, large capacitors store energy for the amplifier to use on demand. Also for a
flash tube a capacitor is used to hold the high voltage.
➢ Pulsed power and weapons
Groups of large, specially constructed, low-inductance high-voltage capacitors (capacitor banks)
are used to supply huge pulses of current for many pulsed power applications. These include
electromagnetic forming, Marx generators, pulsed lasers (especially TEA lasers), pulse forming
networks, radar, fusion research, and particle accelerators.
Large capacitor banks (reservoir) are used as energy sources for the exploding-bridge wire
detonators or slapper detonators in nuclear weapons and other specialty weapons. Experimental
work is under way using banks of capacitors as power sources for electromagnetic armour and
electromagnetic railguns and coil guns.
➢ Power conditioning
A 10,000-microfarad capacitor in a TRM-800 amplifier Reservoir capacitors are used in power
supplies where they smooth the output of a full or half wave rectifier. They can also be used in
charge pump circuits as the energy storage element in the generation of higher voltages than the
input voltage.
Capacitors are connected in parallel with the power circuits of most electronic devices and larger
systems (such as factories) to shunt away and conceal current fluctuations from the primary power
source to provide a "clean" power supply for signal or control circuits. Audio equipment, for
example, uses several capacitors in this way, to shunt away power line hum before it gets into the
signal circuitry. The capacitors act as a local reserve for the DC power source, and bypass AC
currents from the power supply. This is used in car audio applications, when a stiffening capacitor
compensates for the inductance and resistance of the leads to the lead-acid car battery.

35
➢ Power factor correction
In electric power distribution, capacitors are used for power factor correction. Such capacitors
often come as three capacitors connected as a three-phase load. Usually, the values of these
capacitors are given not in farads but rather as a reactive power in volt-amperes reactive (VAr).
The purpose is to counteract inductive loading from devices like electric motors and transmission
lines to make the load appear to be mostly resistive. Individual motor or lamp loads may have
capacitors for power factor correction, or larger sets of capacitors (usually with automatic
switching devices) may be installed at a load center within a building or in a large utility substation.
➢ Suppression and coupling
Signal coupling
Because capacitors pass AC but block DC signals (when charged up to the applied dc
voltage), they are often used to separate the AC and DC components of a signal. This method
is known as AC coupling or "capacitive coupling". Here, a large value of capacitance, whose
value need not be accurately controlled, but whose reactance is small at the signal frequency,
is employed.

4.8 TRANSISTOR
A bipolar (junction) transistor (BJT) is a three-terminal electronic device constructed of doped
semiconductor material and may be used in amplifying or switching applications. Bipolar
transistors are so named because their operation involves both electrons and holes. Charge flow in
a BJT is due to bidirectional diffusion of charge carriers across a junction between two regions of
different charge concentrations. This mode of operation is contrasted with unipolar transistors,
such as field-effect transistors, in which only one carrier type is involved in charge flow due to
drift. By design, most of the BJT collector current is due to the flow of charges injected from a
high-concentration emitter into the base where they are minority carriers that diffuse toward the
collector, and so BJTs are classified as minority carrier devices.

Fig 18. Schematic symbols for PNP- and NPN-type BJTs.

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NPN BJT with forward-biased E B junction and reverse-biased B C junction. An NPN transistor
can be considered as two diodes with a shared anode. In typical operation, the base-emitter junction
is forward biased and the base collector junction is reverse biased. In an NPN transistor, for
example, when a positive voltage is applied to the base emitter junction, the equilibrium between
thermally generated carriers and the repelling electric field of the depletion region becomes
unbalanced, allowing thermally excited electrons to inject into the base region. These electrons
wander (or "diffuse") through the base from the region of high concentration near the emitter
towards the region of low concentration near the collector. The electrons in the base are called
minority carriers because the base is doped p-type which would make holes the majority carrier in
the base.
To minimize the percentage of carriers that recombine before reaching the collector base junction,
the transistor's base region must be thin enough that carriers can diffuse across it in much less time
than the semiconductor's minority carrier lifetime. In particular, the thickness of the base must be
much less than the diffusion length of the electrons. The collector base junction is reverse-biased,
and so little electron injection occurs from the collector to the base, but electrons that diffuse
through the base towards the collector are swept into the collector by the electric field in the
depletion region of the collector base junction. The thin shared base and asymmetric collector
emitter doping is what differentiates a bipolar transistor from two separate and oppositely biased
diodes connected in series.
➢ Voltage, current, and charge control
The collector emitter current can be viewed as being controlled by the base emitter current (current
control), or by the base emitter voltage (voltage control). These views are related by the current
voltage relation of the base emitter junction, which is just the usual exponential current voltage
curve of a p-n junction (diode). The physical explanation for collector current is the amount of
minority-carrier charge in the base region. Detailed models of transistor action, such as the
Gummel-Poon model, account for the distribution of this charge explicitly to explain transistor
behavior more exactly. The charge-control view easily handles phototransistors, where minority
carriers in the base region are created by the absorption of photons, and handles the dynamics of
turn-off, or recovery time, which depends on charge in the base region recombining. However,
because base charge is not a signal that is visible at the terminals, the current- and voltage-control
views are generally used in circuit design and analysis.

37
In analog circuit design, the current-control view is sometimes used because it is approximately
linear. That is, the collector current is approximately F times the base current. Some basic circuits
can be designed by assuming that the emitter base voltage is approximately constant, and that
collector current is beta times the base current. However, to accurately and reliably design
production BJT circuits, the voltage-control (for example, Ebers Moll) model is required. The
voltage-control model requires an exponential function to be taken into account, but when it is
linearized such that the transistor can be modeled as a transconductance, as in the Ebers Moll
model, design for circuits such as differential amplifiers again becomes a mostly linear problem,
so the voltage-control view is often preferred. For trans linear circuits, in which the exponential
I-V curve is key to the operation, the transistors are usually modeled as voltage controlled with
transconductance proportional to collector current. In general, transistor level circuit design is
performed using SPICE or a comparable analogue circuit simulator, so model complexity is
usually not of much concern to the designer.
➢ Turn-on, turn-off, and storage delay
The Bipolar transistor exhibits a few delay characteristics when turning on and off. Most
transistors, and especially power transistors, exhibit long base storage time that limits maximum
frequency of operation in switching applications. One method for reducing this storage time is by
using a Baker clamp.
➢ Transistor 'alpha' and ‘beta’
The proportion of electrons able to cross the base and reach the collector is a measure of the BJT
efficiency. The heavy doping of the emitter region and light doping of the base region cause many
more electrons to be injected from the emitter into the base than holes to be injected from the base
into the emitter. The common-emitter current gain is represented by βf OR hfe; it is approximately
the ratio of the DC collector current to the DC base current in forward-active region. It is typically
greater than 100 for small-signal transistors but can be smaller in transistors designed for high-
power applications. Another important parameter is the common-base current gain, αF. The
common-base current gain is approximately the gain of current from emitter to collector in the
forward-active region. This ratio usually has a value close to unity; between 0.98 and 0.998. Alpha
and beta are more precisely related by the following identities (NPN transistor):

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➢ Structure

Fig 19. Simplified cross section of a planar NPN bipolar junction transistor [4].

Die of a KSY34 high-frequency NPN transistor, base and emitter connected via bonded wires A
BJT consists of three differently doped semiconductor regions, the emitter region, the base region
and the collector region. These regions are, respectively, p type, n type and p type in a PNP, and n
type, p type and n type in a NPN transistor. Each semiconductor region is connected to a terminal,
appropriately labeled: emitter (E), base (B) and collector (C).
The base is physically located between the emitter and the collector and is made from lightly
doped, high resistivity material. The collector surrounds the emitter region, making it almost
impossible for the electrons injected into the base region to escape being collected, thus
making the resulting value of very close to unity, and so, giving the transistor a large β. A cross
section view of a BJT indicates that the collector base junction has a much larger area than the
emitter base junction.
The bipolar junction transistor, unlike other transistors, is usually not a symmetrical device. This
means that interchanging the collector and the emitter makes the transistor leave the forward active
mode and start to operate in reverse mode. Because the transistor's internal structure is usually
optimized for forward-mode operation, interchanging the collector and the emitter makes the
values of α and β in reverse operation much smaller than those in forward operation; often the α
of the reverse mode is lower than 0.5. The lack of symmetry is primarily due to the doping ratios
of the emitter and the collector. The emitter is heavily doped, while the collector is lightly doped,
allowing a large reverse bias voltage to be applied before the collector base junction breaks down.
The collector base junction is reverse biased in normal operation. The reason the emitter is heavily
doped is to increase the emitter injection efficiency: the ratio of carriers injected by the emitter to
those injected by the base. For high current gain, most of the carriers injected into the emitter base

39
junction must come from the emitter. The low-performance "lateral" bipolar transistors sometimes
used in CMOS processes are sometimes designed symmetrically, that is, with no difference
between forward and backward operation.
Small changes in the voltage applied across the base emitter terminals causes the current that flows
between the emitter and the collector to change significantly. This effect can be used to amplify
the input voltage or current. BJTs can be thought of as voltage-controlled current sources, but are
more simply characterized as current-controlled current sources, or current amplifiers, due to the
low impedance at the base.
Early transistors were made from germanium but most modern BJTs are made from silicon. A
significant minority are also now made from gallium arsenide, especially for very highspeed
applications

Fig 20. the symbol of an NPN bipolar junction transistor

NPN is one of the two types of bipolar transistors, consisting of a layer of P-doped semiconductor
(the "base") between two N-doped layers. A small current entering the base is amplified to produce
a large collector and emitter current. That is, an NPN transistor is "on" when its base is pulled high
relative to the emitter.
Most of the NPN current is carried by electrons, moving from emitter to collector as minority
carriers in the P-type base region. Most bipolar transistors used today are NPN, because electron
mobility is higher than Hole mobility in semiconductors, allowing greater currents and faster
operation.

Fig 21. The symbol of a PNP Bipolar Junction transistor

40
The other type of BJT is the PNP, consisting of a layer of N-doped semiconductor between two
layers of P-doped material. A small current leaving the base is amplified in the collector output.
That is, a PNP transistor is "on" when its base is pulled low relative to the emitter. The arrows in
the NPN and PNP transistor symbols are on the emitter legs and point in the direction of the
conventional current flow when the device is in forward active mode. A mnemonic device for the
NPN / PNP distinction, based on the arrows in their symbols and the letters in their names, is not
pointing in for NPN and pointing in for PNP.
➢ The BC548 is a general-purpose silicon NPN BJT transistor found
commonly in European electronic equipment.
If the TO-92 package is held in front of one's face with the flat side facing toward you and the
leads downward, (see picture) the order of the leads, from left to right is collector, base, emitter.

Fig 22. BC548 silicon NPN BJT Transistor [4].

➢ Specifications
The exact specs of a given device depend on the manufacturer. It is important to check the
datasheet for the exact device and brand you are dealing with. Philips and Telefunken are two
manufacturers of the BC548.
Vcbo = 30 V , Ic = 100 mA ,Ptotal = 50 mW ,ft = 300 MHz
The BC548 is a member of a larger group of similarly numbered transistors. Other part numbers
have different characteristics and ratings. Its complement is the BC558. A family of older "BC"
transistors predates the TO-92 BC54x series, the BC107, BC108 and BC109, (with complements
BC177, BC178 and BC179). These are generally housed in the TO-18 metal package, the same as
what the North American 2N2222 uses. These older transistors have similar characteristics as the
TO-92 BC5xx devices and are electrically interchangeable.
There are many other devices based on the BC54x family, such as the surface-mount versions
of the BC547, 548 and 549; the BC847, BC848 and BC8. [2]

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4.9 BREADBOARD
A breadboard is used to build and test circuits quickly before finalizing any circuit design. The
breadboard has many holes into which circuit components like ICs and resistors can be inserted.
A typical breadboard is shown below:

Fig 23. Breadboard [3].

The bread board has strips of metal which run underneath the board and connect the holes on the
top of the board. The metal strips are laid out as shown below. Note that the top and bottom rows
of holes are connected horizontally while the remaining holes are connected vertically.

Fig 24. Internal structure of breadboard [3].

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 CHAPTER FIVE
RESULT AND IMPLEMENTATION
This chapter of the project is connected with the implementation result of the laser based audio
transmission and alarm system. The final result of our project is shown below

Figure.25 Final result of alarm system.

43
Figure. 26 Audio transmitter final result.

Figure .27 audio receiver final result.

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 CHAPTER SIX
CONCLUSION & RECOMMENDATION
5.1 CONCLUSION
The Laser Based Alarm System and audio communication project was built to our satisfaction.
This project is about how to prevent theft in homes, offices, banks, museums etc, and how to
transfer any audio information though laser light. this project can be implemented by both wired
and wireless technologies. Another application of this instrument is as an "ANTI-THEFT
SYSTEM", that means to protect vehicles from kidnapping. In short, we are sure that this device
is highly useful to mankind especially present scenario.
After the successful working of our project, it can be concluded that this project is suitable for
communication. There can be further up gradations in the project which could lead to a much better
system for communication. Some of the possible ways are as follows:
• Instead of the short-range laser, high range lasers can be used which range a few hundred
kilometers

5.2 RECOMMENDATION
WE recommend to other laser based audio transmitter and alarm system project

• In future, it can be commissioned in satellites for communication.

• Lasers can also transmit through glass; however, the physical properties of the glass
have to be considered and hence can be used for a very large distance communication.
• It can be used in inaccessible areas.
• In the future, we try to upgraded in GSM based laser alarm system and audio transmitter

45
REFERENCES
[1] B.G. Boone, R.S. Bokulic , G.B. Andrews, R.L. McNutt, Jr and N. Dagalakisb
Optical and microwave communications system conceptual design for a realistic
interstellar explorer
[2] Yunbin Song
Optical Communication Systems for Smart Dust.
[3] M. Last, B.S. Leibowitz, B. Cagdaser, A. Jog, L. Zhou, B. Boser, K.S.J. Pister Toward a
Wireless Optical Communication Link between Two Small Unmanned
Aerial Vehicles
[4] Andrew W. Rebeiro and Rodney Tan
Free Space Optical Laser Communication Link.
[5] Sanjiba Kumar sahu
Laser based intruder alarm
[6] SAURABH KOLHE, VATSAL TRIPATHI, VIPIN PATEL, VIRENDRA PATEL, VIVEK
BHARDWAJ
Laser based communication link
APPENDIX A
APPENDIX B