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Concentrated Solar Power (CSP)

Technical Report · March 2014

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Higher Institute for Applied Science and Technology
Electronic and Mechanical Systems Department
Fourth Year

Concentrated Solar Power (CSP)

Submitted by
Ahmad Alalewi

Supervisors
Scientific Supervisor:
Eng. Mahjoub DAHAIR
Language Supervisor
Mr. Fahmi ALAMAREEN
Organizer Supervisor
Dr. Adel ALKAFRI

10/3/2014
For My Mother and Father
 Acknowledgments
I am grateful to the department of Electronic and Mechanical Systems, HIAST
Damascus for giving me the opportunity to conduct this paper, which is an integral
part of the curriculum in Control Systems Engineering.
I would like to take this opportunity to express heartfelt gratitude for my scientific
supervisor Eng. Mahjoub DAHAIR, who provided me with valuable inputs at various
stages of this paper execution.
I would also like to acknowledge the support of every individual who assisted me
in making this paper a success, and I would like to thank Dr. Adel ALKAFRI, the
organizer supervisor, for his guidance, support and direction without which, paper and
presentation would not have taken shape.
I am also thankful to the language supervisor Mr. Fahmi ALAMAREEN, for
helping me.
In addition, I wish to thank Dr. Mohamed DIB for his notes and the work that did
it to review this paper.
Table of Contents
Acknowledgments ........................................................................................................ iv
List of Figures ............................................................................................................... vi
List of Tables ............................................................................................................... vii
List of abbreviations ................................................................................................... viii
List of equations ......................................................................................................... viii
Abstract .......................................................................................................................... 1
Introduction.................................................................................................................... 2
1- Definition................................................................................................................... 3
2- The importance of CSP ............................................................................................. 3
3- CSP plant site selection ............................................................................................. 3
4- Components of a CSP Power Plant ........................................................................... 4
 4- 1- Solar Field ..................................................................................... 5
 4- 1- 1- Mirrors or reflectors .............................................................................. 6
 4- 1- 2- the Receiver .......................................................................................... 6
 4- 1- 3- Pump system for the HTF ..................................................................... 7
 4- 1- 4- Collector balance of system .................................................................. 7
 4- 2- Thermal Energy Storage System................................................... 8
 4- 2- 1- The two-tank direct system ................................................................... 8
 4- 2- 2- Two-tank indirect system ..................................................................... 9
 4- 2- 3- Single-tank thermocline system ............................................................ 9
 4- 3- Power Block .................................................................................. 9
 4- 3- 1- Power Cycles ...................................................................................... 10
 4- 3- 2- Fossil-Fired (Hybrid) Backup ............................................................. 11
 4- 3- 3- Wet and Dry Cooling .......................................................................... 11
5- Technology and Energy Yield ................................................................................. 12
 5.1 Parabolic trough collectors ............................................................ 13
 5.1.1 State of the technology ........................................................................... 13
 5.1.2 Case Study .............................................................................................. 14
 5.2 Solar tower (or power tower or central receiver)........................... 15
 5.2.1 State of the technology ........................................................................... 15
 5.2.2 Case Study .............................................................................................. 16
 5.3 Linear Fresnel ................................................................................ 17
 5.3.1 State of the technology ........................................................................... 17

v
  5.3.2 Case Study .............................................................................................. 18
 5.4 Dish ................................................................................................ 19
 5.4.1 State of the technology ........................................................................... 19
 5.5 Summary and comparison of the CSP technologies ...................... 21
 5.5.1 Annual energy yield ................................................................................ 21
 5.5.2 Capacity factor ........................................................................................ 22
 5.5.3 Land requirement .................................................................................... 23
 5.5.4 Water requirement .................................................................................. 23
6- Applications of CSP ................................................................................................ 24
7- Electricity transmission ........................................................................................... 24
8- Cost of CSP ............................................................................................................. 25
9- CSP in Syria ............................................................................................................ 26
 9- 1- Introduction ................................................................................. 26
 9- 2- Syria thermally ............................................................................ 26
10- Conclusion ............................................................................................................. 27
Works Cited ................................................................................................................. 28

List of Figures
Figure 1: Potential sites for CSP with respect to solar irradiation levels. Source: Solar Millennium
AGPale yellow ‘Suitable’. Bright yellow ‘Good’. Orange ‘Outstanding’. .........................................4
Figure 2 : Scheme for the components of CSP ....................................................................................5
Figure 3 : one type of Solar Field. Source: www.imittelstand.de........................................................5
Figure 4: Types of reflectors from left to right 1-flat reflector 2-parabolic 3-dish. Source:
www.flickr.com ...................................................................................................................................6
Figure 5: Receivers from left to right 1- long pipe 2-top of tower 3- concentrating point ..................6
Figure 6: Andasol thermal storage tanks. Source: Solar Millennium AG ...........................................9
Figure 7: A single-tank thermocline thermal .......................................................................................9
Figure 8: Physical layout of the four main devices used in the Rankine cycle .................................10
Figure 9: Number (left) and capacity in MW (right) of CSP plants of each technology in operation
as in 2011, Source: SolarPaces, NREL, CSP plant developer and owner websites ..........................12
Figure 10: Operation of a parabolic trough. Source: RENAC...........................................................13
Figure 11: Aerial view of Andasol 1. Source: Solar Millennium AG ...............................................14
Figure 12: A parabolic trough Andasol 1 .........................................................................................14
Figure 13: Simplified scheme of parabolic trough plant with molten salt storage tanks. Source:
http://www.billbrownclimatesolutions.blogspot.com/.......................................................................14
Figure 14: Operation of a solar tower. Source: www.abengoasolar.com ..........................................15
Figure 15: PS20 plant under construction with PS10 in the background. Source: Abengoa Solar ...16

vi
Figure 16: Operation of a Linear Fresnel collector. Source: Novatec Solar .....................................17
Figure 17: Linear Fresnel collector array, 1.4MW PE1 plant in Murcia, Spain. Source: Novatec
Solar ...................................................................................................................................................18
Figure 18: Operation of a dish collector. The dish tracks the sun throughout the day. Source:
RENAC ..............................................................................................................................................19
Figure 19: Dish, Ben Gurion National Solar Energy Center. Source: RENACP ..............................21
Figure 20: Investment cost breakdown for a 50MW parabolic trough CSP plant with 7 hours
storage. Source: CSP Technology Roadmap 2010, International Energy Agency
(http://www.iea.org/papers/2010/csp_roadmap.pdf). ........................................................................25
Figure 21: Projected evolution of the levelised electricity cost from CSP plants to 2050, in
USD/MWh, under two different direct normal irradiance (DNI) levels in kWh/m2year. Source:
Technology Roadmap, Concentrating Solar Power, International Energy Agency, 2010 ................26
Figure 22: Syria thermally .................................................................................................................27

List of Tables
Table 1: Raw materials, sub-components and components of heat transfer fluids which carry
thermal energy from the collector to the storage unit 7
Table 2: Materials, sub-components and components required to make Solar Collector Assembly
(SCA) 8
Table 3: Raw materials, components and sub components in thermal storage system 8
Table 4: Raw materials, sub-components and components of power block and cooling system 12
Table 5: Project information for Andasol 1. Source: Solar Paces, NREL, CSP plant developer and
owner websites 15
Table 6: Project information for PS10. Source: SolarPaces, NREL, CSP plant developer and owner
websites 16
Table 7: Project information for PE1. Source: SolarPaces, NREL, CSP plant developer and owner
websites 19
Table 8: Annual solar-to-electric efficiencies of the four main CSP technologies. 22
Table 9: Capacity factors for the four main CSP technologies. Information on Linear Fresnel from
Project Proposal for a CLFR Solar Thermal Plant in the Hunter Valley 22
Table 10: Land use efficiencies for the four main CSP technologies. 23
Table 11: Water requirements for the four main CSP technologies. 24
Table 12: Investment costs for three of the earliest completed CSP installations. Source:
SolarPaces, NREL, CSP plant developer and owner websites. 25

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List of abbreviations

CSP Concentrated Solar Power

HTF Heat Transfer Fluid
HCE Heat Collection Element
LOC Local Controller
SCA Solar Collector Assembly
TES Thermal Energy Storage
SEGS Solar Electric Generating System
ORC Organic Rankine cycles
LFR Linear Fresnel Reflectors
CLFR Compact Linear Fresnel Reflectors
DSG Direct Steam Generation
ISCC Integrated Solar Combined Cycle
SES Stirling Energy Systems

List of equations
Equation 1:The amount of electrical energy ......................................................................................21
Equation 2: the annual capacity factor...............................................................................................22
Equation 3: the land use efficiencies .................................................................................................23

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Concentrated Solar Power CSP Seminar 2013-2014

Abstract
Power is the most important thing for the world. All of us need power (like electricity or fuel).
Our dream is to produce clean power which does not cost a lot. In this paper, we present the sun as
a useful source to produce clean power. You will find that CSP is the way that produces power in a
reasonable cost. What is it? And what are the main blocks? This paper will answer all these
questions by explaining the main concept of this system and its functioning method without going
into technical details. After reading this paper, the reader will have good knowledge about CSP,
about the most possible configurations, and the feasibility of implementing CSP system in Syria.

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Concentrated Solar Power CSP Seminar 2013-2014

Introduction
Over the past years, power was - and still is - the main concern of humanity. From the very
beginning of this world, humans tried to convert power in this universe from one type to another.
We can consider the discovery of fire as the historic transition. Fire is the transition that used the
chemical energy stored in the burned material to generate new power, for example, to heat food.
The problem started when human’s population increased. The planet started facing pollution and
global warming, mainly because of burning fossil fuels. Fossil fuels are considered to be a good
example of non-renewable energy source. Non-renewable energy sources are available on earth in
limited quantities and will eventually be depleted. Coal, gas and oil are non-renewable because they
need specific conditions and millions of years to be produced. So, we can find the importance of
using new sources that can be replenished in a short period of time. Firstly, we generally define
CSP system, then we talk about its importance and what the best countries for this technology are.
After that, we move to name the main components in this system. At the end, we find information
about some technologies and applications in addition to the cost of CSP, in the conclusion we
summarize all the preceding concepts.

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Concentrated Solar Power CSP Seminar 2013-2014

1- Definition
Concentrated Solar Power, CSP for short, is a system that is based on concentrating the solar
radiation onto a small area to get high temperatures, typically, in the range of 400-1000℃. This
thermal energy is converted to electricity via steam or gas turbines.

2- The importance of CSP

CSP technology is recently becoming globally interesting as one of the means to meet
increasing demands using solar energy. Huge amount of money have been invested internationally
in developing this technology. Since 2005, systems are being installed commercially. However, the
various technologies in use have not yet been optimized, either technically or economically and
much experience is still needed to be gathered before CSP could be considered a reliable, low-cost
source of electricity. Some primary findings from the ‘CSP Markets Report 2010’ published by
CSP Today are: [1]
 By 2015 CSP will be worth up to 70$ billion in the US alone.
 There are 921 MW of CSP plants installed worldwide, 93% of which are parabolic trough
systems (see Section 5.1).
 Alternative uses of CSP such as hybridization with existing power plants and desalination are
emerging across new CSP markets.

3- CSP plant site selection

The most suitable sites for CSP with respect to solar irradiation are the world’s deserts. The
best solar resource in the world is in the deserts of South Africa and Chile where annual direct solar
irradiation reaches 3000kWh/𝑚2 per year. Southern Spain and the North African coast have 1800 -
2200kWh/𝑚2 per year. South West US and Upper Egypt have 2000-2800kWh/𝑚2 per year. France,
Italy and Portugal have even lower levels. The global technical potential of CSP has been estimated
at almost 3,000,000TWh/year which means 166 times higher than the current world energy
consumption of 18,000TWh/year. [2]
Other important factors in CSP site selection are:
1. Geographical factors
- Availability of flat, unpopulated land that is not environmentally sensitive or already
being used.
- Availability of large amounts of water for cooling. This is discussed in more detail
in Section 4-3-3.
- Distance to the electricity grid.
- Road access.
- Potential climate risks.

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Concentrated Solar Power CSP Seminar 2013-2014

Figure 1: Potential sites for CSP with respect to solar irradiation levels. Source: Solar Millennium AGPale yellow ‘Suitable’.
Bright yellow ‘Good’. Orange ‘Outstanding’.

2. Political and economic factors

- Political stability of region.
- Cost of land leasing.
- Existence of government incentive schemes.
- Investment freedom.
- Existence of a power purchase agreement.

4- Components of a CSP Power Plant

In figure 2 we can see scheme for the components of a CSP power plant. This scheme consists
of three main stages:
1. Solar Field; where we can concentrating the solar radiation onto the receiver.
2. Thermal Energy Storage System; where we can storing the thermal energy.
3. Power Block; where we can convert the thermal energy to electricity.
We will explain each stage in more details through the next sections.

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Concentrated Solar Power CSP Seminar 2013-2014

Figure 2 : Scheme for the components of CSP

4- 1- Solar Field
The solar field is the main part in a CSP system. It consists of many reflectors, which reflect
and collect the sun radiation in a specific area called “heat collection element”. This produces high
temperature which in turn moves through a heat transfer fluid (HTF). The HTF is warmed by the
sunlight to more than 400°C, and then flows to the power block or the thermal energy storage
system, depending on the mode of operation.

Figure 3 : one type of Solar Field. Source: www.imittelstand.de

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Concentrated Solar Power CSP Seminar 2013-2014
In other words, the main parts of the Solar Field are:
 Mirrors or reflectors
 Linear receiver or heat collection element
 Pump system for the HTF
 Collector balance of system

4- 1- 1- Mirrors or reflectors
There are many types of mirrors and reflectors. They can be classified to:
 Flat mirrors
 Parabolic-shaped mirrors
 parabolic dishes-shaped mirrors

Figure 4: Types of reflectors from left to right 1-flat reflector 2-parabolic 3-dish. Source: www.flickr.com

Reflectors are made of various materials. For example, glass, aluminum (reflective films
laminated onto aluminum sheets) …etc. you need to consider in choosing the materials to the
specular energy reflectance, the expected useful life, excessive corrosion and UV degradation. In
addition to materials, control of direction of these mirrors need to be considered. [3]

4- 1- 2- the Receiver
After the sun rays are reflected by the mirrors, we need to collect them. Linear receiver or heat
collection element HCE is one of the primary reasons for the high efficiency of the CSP system.
The receiver heats a special heat transfer fluid as it circulates through the receiver. It is made up of
stainless steel, special solar-selective absorber surface surrounded by an anti-reflective glass tube.
The shape and material of the receiver depend on the way of concentrating solar power. An HCE
may be a long pipe, a small area on top of a tower or a specific point. We will discuss where each
type is used in section 5.

Figure 5: Receivers from left to right 1- long pipe 2-top of tower 3- concentrating point

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Concentrated Solar Power CSP Seminar 2013-2014
4- 1- 3- Pump system for the HTF
After reflecting and concentrating sun rays in a specific place called HCE, storing and
transferring heat energy is needed in order to generate electricity. Heat Transfer Fluid HTF and
pumps are used. Special technical applications are important for CSP, because it is a big challenge
to manufacture pumps that are able to handle hot fluids, such as the heat transfer medium, of about
500℃. In the next table, we illustrate the materials, components and sub-components that are used
in manufacturing HTF.

Final Components Heat Transfer

System

Components Receiver
Receiver
interconnect
HTF Oils
HTF Piping
System

Photo
Sub-Components Selective
Coating
Glass Tube Ball Joints hose
Salts,Water,Oi
ls
Piping

Materials Chemical
coatings
Polymers Steel Aluminum Rubber Steel

Table 1: Raw materials, sub-components and components of heat transfer fluids which carry thermal energy from the
collector to the storage unit

4- 1- 4- Collector balance of system

Many other essential components make up the balance of system in the solar field, including:
 Pylons and foundations - The pylons support the collector structure. They allow the
collector to rotate and track the sun.
 Drive - Each solar collector assembly includes one drive. The drive positions the
collector to track the sun during the day. It can be either a standard motor and gear box
configuration or can use a hydraulic drive system.
 Controls - Each solar collector assembly has its own local controller (LOC) that controls
the tracking of the collector. It communicates with a supervisory computer in the power
plant control building to know when to start tracking the sun or when to stop tracking at
the end of the day.
 Collector-interconnect – It is used for connecting the receiver to header piping and
between two adjacent collectors. Earlier insulated flexible hoses were used but now new
ball joint assembly is developed to replace the flex hose.
Materials, sub-components and components required to make Solar Collector Assembly (SCA)
are illustrated in table 2:

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Concentrated Solar Power CSP Seminar 2013-2014

Final Components SCA

Parabolic Reflecting Tracking

Components Trough Surface System

Torque Parabolic Reflecting Hydraulic

Sub-Components Truss
Tube/Box Mirror Film Cylinders
Gears Electronics

Chemical
Materials Aluminum Steel Silica/Sand
coatings
Polymers Steel

Table 2: Materials, sub-components and components required to make Solar Collector Assembly (SCA)

4- 2- Thermal Energy Storage System

The big question is what happens during night time. How the power plant will generate
electricity. Surely, we need to store thermal energy.
Energy storage is essential in order to make CSP truly competitive with fossil fuel based
electricity generators. CSP electricity should meet demand at night as well as at peak times. A
considerable value can be added to a CSP installation if it includes a storage utility. The storage
utility should meet the demand for few hours. State-of-the-art in energy storage using liquid molten
salt is currently the most cost-efficient storage option and is becoming increasingly predictable and
commercially reliable. The most commonly used molten salt mixture consists of 60% sodium
nitrate, 40% potassium nitrate.
The availability of efficient and low-cost thermal storage is important for the long-term cost
reduction of CSP technology, and significantly increases potential market opportunities. Several
thermal energy storage (TES) technologies have been tested and implemented. These include:
 The two-tank direct system
 Two-tank indirect system
 Single-tank thermocline system

Final Components Thermal Storage

Storage
Components Molten Salt
Tanks
Heat
Exchangers

Metal
Sub-Components Salts Oils
Structures
Hydraulic
Cylinders
Gears Electronics

Materials Steel Steel

Table 3: Raw materials, components and sub components in thermal storage system

4- 2- 1- The two-tank direct system

This system was used in early CSP power plants. The generated energy is stored in the same
fluid used to collect energy. The fluid is stored in two tanks one at high temperature and the other at
low temperature. Fluid from the low-temperature tank flows through the solar collector or receiver,

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Concentrated Solar Power CSP Seminar 2013-2014
where solar energy heats it to a high temperature. The liquid flows to the high-temperature tank for
storage. Mineral oil is used as the heat-transfer and storage fluid.

4- 2- 2- Two-tank indirect system

Two-tank indirect systems function in the same way as two-tank direct systems, but different
fluids are used for heat-transfer and storage. Organic oil is used as the heat-transfer fluid, and
molten salt is used as the storage fluid. The indirect system requires an extra heat exchanger, which
adds cost to the system. In figure 6, we see Andasol thermal storage which is based on tow-tank
indirect system configuration. The two tanks contain 28,500 tonnes of molten salts providing
1100MWh or 7.5hours of storage.

Figure 6: Andasol thermal storage tanks. Source: Solar Millennium AG

4- 2- 3- Single-tank thermocline system

Single-tank thermocline systems store thermal energy in a solid
medium, most commonly silica sand, located in a single tank. At
any time during operation, a portion of the medium is at high
temperature, and a portion is at low temperature. The hot- and cold-
temperature regions are separated by a temperature gradient or
thermocline. High-temperature heat-transfer fluid flows into the top
of the thermocline and exits the bottom at low temperature. This
process moves the thermocline downward and adds thermal energy
to the system for storage. Reversing the flow moves the thermocline
upward and removes thermal energy from the system to generate
steam and electricity. Using a solid storage medium, and using only
one tank, reduces the cost of this system relative to two-tank
systems.

The only entirely proven and commercially employed Figure 7: A single-tank thermocline
technology is the two-tank molten salt system. thermal

4- 3- Power Block
In this section, we talk about using thermal energy to generate electricity. Simply, hot HTF is
transported to the power block, where it is used to boil water to generate steam for use in a
conventional steam generator to produce electricity.

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Concentrated Solar Power CSP Seminar 2013-2014
The power block is the part where the thermal energy from the collector field is converted into
electrical energy. The power block uses the same technology as conventional fossil fuel power
stations. Existing CSP plants all use steam turbine technology to generate electricity. A steam
turbine can operate in a temperature range of minimum 100℃ (the boiling point of water) and
maximum around 655℃ (the practical limit for the steel alloy turbine materials). The turbine
efficiency is greater at higher temperatures. The fixed upper efficiency is 35-42%. Modern fossil
fuel steam turbine plants operate at around 600℃ , and therefore we can achieve the maximum
possible efficiency of 42%.
CSP power plant technologies include:
 Power cycles
- Steam Rankine
- Organic Rankine
- Combined
 Fossil-fired (hybrid) backup
 Wet and dry cooling

4- 3- 1- Power Cycles
There are a number of different power cycles that can be used for CSP power plants. There are
also a number of options for how to integrate solar energy into the power cycle.
Steam Rankine: most new projects of the solar electric generating system (SEGS) plants are
designed to use steam Rankine power cycles. The power cycle uses a solar steam generator in place
of the conventional boiler fired by natural gas, coal, or waste heat from nuclear fission. Power cycle
consists of the following components:

 A surface condenser
 Multiple low-pressure and high-pressure feed water heaters
 Deaerator (a device that is used for the removal of oxygen and other dissolved gases
from the feedwater to steam-generating boilers)
 Wet cooling towers.

Figure 8: Physical layout of the four main devices used in the Rankine cycle

There are four processes in the Rankine cycle. These states are identified by numbers (in
brown) in the above figure 8.
 Process 1-2: The working fluid is pumped from low to high pressure. As the fluid is a liquid
at this stage the pump requires little input energy.

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Concentrated Solar Power CSP Seminar 2013-2014
 Process 2-3: The high pressure liquid enters a boiler where it is heated at constant pressure
by an external heat source to become a dry saturated vapor. The input energy required can
be easily calculated using enthalpy-entropy chart.
 Process 3-4: The dry saturated vapor expands through a turbine, generating power. This
decreases the temperature and pressure of the vapor, and some condensation may occur.
The output in this process can be easily calculated using the Enthalpy-entropy chart.
 Process 4-1: The wet vapor then enters a condenser where it is condensed at a constant
pressure to become a saturated liquid.
In an ideal Rankine cycle the pump and turbine would be isentropic, i.e., the pump and turbine
would generate no entropy and hence maximize the network output. Processes 1-2 and 3-4 would
be represented by vertical lines on the figure8 and more closely resemble that of the Carnot cycle.
The Rankine cycle shown here prevents the vapor ending up in the superheat region after the
expansion in the turbine, which reduces the energy removed by the condensers.
Organic Rankine cycles (ORCs): use an organic fluid such as butane or pentane instead of
water, like a steam Rankine cycle.
Combined Cycle Power Plants: Some plants now integrate solar fields with an alternate energy
source such as gas turbines to ensure more constant production and sometimes even 24-hours
steady operation.

4- 3- 2- Fossil-Fired (Hybrid) Backup

Most existing parabolic trough power plants have hybrid backup capability. Because parabolic
trough power plants use conventional power cycle technologies. Fossil-fired boilers or heaters
usually can be integrated to enable power plant operation at full-rated output during periods of low
solar radiation, such as on overcast days and at night.

4- 3- 3- Wet and Dry Cooling

The process of generating electricity from a CSP plant requires a large amount of cooling. This
cooling process can either use water for evaporative (wet) cooling, or air for dry cooling. The air-
cooling condenser used in dry cooling eliminates 90% of the water requirement. The downside is
that the performance of the air-cooling condenser drops significantly on hot days, forcing the plant
to operate at reduced capacity and efficiency. The capital cost of dry cooling has previously been
placed at 2.5 times that of wet cooling but the operational cost is lower because the water treatment
and discharge of waste water cost is lower. The capital cost of dry cooling is unlikely to come
down significantly because the majority of the cost is in materials – a 100-200MW CSP plant
cooling tower can occupy as much land as a football field. Hybrid wet and dry-cooling options are
now being developed where wet-cooling contributes for only a few hundred hours per year on the
hottest days1.
Historically, parabolic trough power plants have used wet cooling towers. But now they can be
designed to use dry cooling technology for reducing water consumption. Utilization of dry cooling
usually only requires a modest increase in electricity cost.

1
See ‘CSP cooling options: Workarounds for water scarcity’, Executive Viewpoint interview
from CSP Today.
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Concentrated Solar Power CSP Seminar 2013-2014

Final Components Power Block

Heat Steam Cooling

Components Exchangers Generator
Steam
Network
Turbine Generator
Towers

Power
Sub-Components Salts Oils Piping Structures Blading
Electronics
Towers

Materials Steel Composites Water

Table 4: Raw materials, sub-components and components of power block and cooling system

5- Technology and Energy Yield

The four main CSP technologies being developed are parabolic trough, solar tower (or power
tower), Linear Fresnel reflector, and parabolic dish. The majority of existing installations are
parabolic trough. Figure 9 shows the number of existing commercial installations for each
technology and the respective total capacity in megawatts MW. We can see the existing
installations of parabolic trough has respective total capacity higher than the rest of technologies,
because the efficient of parabolic trough is proven commercially.

Figure 9: Number (left) and capacity in MW (right) of CSP plants of each technology in operation as in 2011, Source:
SolarPaces, NREL, CSP plant developer and owner websites

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Concentrated Solar Power CSP Seminar 2013-2014
5.1 Parabolic trough collectors

Figure 10: Operation of a parabolic trough. Source: RENAC

Solar radiation is reflected from the trough onto an evacuated tube receiver extending along of
the trough. Inside the receiver, there is a heat transfer fluid which transfers the heat to water via a
heat exchanger to produce superheated steam which drives a conventional steam turbine to generate
electricity. For lower temperature applications less than 200℃ the heat transfer fluid is often a mix
of demineralized water with ethylene-glycol. For higher temperature applications of 200-500℃
synthetic oils or molten salts are used. The troughs track the sun as it moves across the sky (see
figure 10 above).

5.1.1 State of the technology

Parabolic trough plants with a combined capacity of more than 850MW have been installed.
Existing plants range in size from 14-80MW, and are located mainly in Spain and the US.
Advantages:
 Parabolic trough systems are the most mature, and thus commercially viable, of the
CSP technologies.
 The net plant efficiency of 15% has been commercially proven.
 Investment and operating costs have been commercially proven.
 Systems are modular.
 Systems have a good land-use factor.
 Systems have lower materials demand.
 Hybrid concept has been proven.
 Storage capability.
Disadvantages:
 High thermal losses in the parabolic trough array.
 An ideal heat transfer medium for use in parabolic trough arrays has not yet been
found. This can cause problems because the pipe running through the array.

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Concentrated Solar Power CSP Seminar 2013-2014
5.1.2 Case Study

Figure 11: Aerial view of Andasol 1. Source: Solar Millennium AG Figure 12: A parabolic trough Andasol 1

Andasol 1 & 2 parabolic trough plants, located near Granada in Andalucia, Spain, were
developed by the ACS-Cobra Group. Andasol 1 has been in operation since 2008 and Andasol 2
since 2009. Both have an electricity generation capacity of 50MW. The heat transfer fluid used in
the parabolic trough array is a mixture of biphenyl and diphenyl oxide. This is currently the most
common heat transfer fluid used in parabolic trough arrays. Its operating temperature range is 12-
400℃. Below 12℃ it freezes and above 400℃ both the biphenyl and diphenyl oxide begin to
break down. These reactions produce hydrogen which passes into the evacuated glass tube
disrupting the vacuum and thus reducing its effectiveness at keeping the heat in. Therefore the plant
temperature must stay below 400℃ at all times. This temperature limitation restricts the efficiency
of converting heat into electricity. A plant able to run at, say, 500℃ would be more efficient.
The plants also include thermal storage (see figure 13) in the form of two large tanks with a
capacity of 28,500 tones containing molten salt (a mixture of 60% sodium nitrate and 40%
potassium nitrate). The molten salt can operate in the temperature range 291-384℃ . These tanks
can provide 1100MWh or 7.5hours of storage so that electricity continue to be generated during
night time.

Figure 13: Simplified scheme of parabolic trough plant with molten salt storage tanks. Source:
http://www.billbrownclimatesolutions.blogspot.com/

Project name Andasol 1

Location Granada, Spain
Capacity 50 MW
Land area 200 ha
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Concentrated Solar Power CSP Seminar 2013-2014

Electricity generation (predicted) 158000 MWh/year

Solar array maximum temperature 393 ℃
Thermal storage capacity 7.5 hours
Thermal storage material molten salts
Type of cooling wet cooling tower
Heat transfer fluid biphenyl-diphenyl oxide
Investment cost 300 € Million
Specific investment costs 0.27 € /kWh
Table 5: Project information for Andasol 1. Source: Solar Paces, NREL, CSP plant developer and owner websites

5.2 Solar tower (or power tower or central receiver)

In figure 14, we can see the solar radiation is reflected from heliostats (large steel reflectors)
onto a receiver (heat exchanger) at the top of the solar tower. The heat transfer medium in the
receiver may be water/steam, molten salts or air. The heat transfer medium transfers the heat to the
rest of the plant, usually to a water store where high temperature steam is produced to drive a steam
generator. Pressurized gas or air at around 1000℃ can also be used directly to drive very efficient
gas turbines in modern gas and steam combined cycles.

Figure 14: Operation of a solar tower. Source: www.abengoasolar.com

5.2.1 State of the technology

Solar towers are past the proof-of-concept stage of development and, although they are less
mature than parabolic trough technology, they are on the verge of commercialization.
Operating experience was gained in the 1980s and 1990s with the “Solar One” and “Solar Two”
10MW facilities in California. Both of these have since been decommissioned. The most current
experience is from several new solar tower pilot projects at the “Plataforma Solar de Almeria” in
Spain. These are all steam receiver systems. A number of molten salt towers are under development
by Solucar, BrightSource and eSolar. Molten salt towers offer the potential for very low-cost
storage so that solar electricity can meet peak demands and have a high capacity factor (ca. 70%).

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Advantages:
 Good mid-term prospects for high efficiencies due to the potential for achieving higher
temperatures of over 1000℃ .
 Better suited for dry cooling than parabolic troughs.
 Can be installed on hilly sites.
Disadvantages:
 Performance, and investment and operating costs have not yet been commercially
proven.

5.2.2 Case Study

The world’s first solar tower plant, PS10, with a generating capacity of 11MW (able to supply
around 10,000 households) was completed by Abengoa Solar in Seville, Spain in 2007.

Project name PS10

Location Seville, Spain
Capacity 11 MW
Land area 55 ha
Electricity generation (predicted) 23400 MWh/year
Solar array maximum temperature 250-300 ℃
Thermal storage capacity 0 hours
Type of cooling wet cooling tower
Heat transfer fluid Water
Table 6: Project information for PS10. Source: SolarPaces, NREL, CSP plant developer and owner websites

The PS20, with twice the capacity of PS10, has been in operation since 2009.

Figure 15: PS20 plant under construction with PS10 in the background. Source: Abengoa Solar

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Concentrated Solar Power CSP Seminar 2013-2014
PS20 has twice the PS10 output (20MW), with 1,255 two-axis sun tracking heliostats driving
120m² mirrors. These mirrors concentrate solar radiation onto the receiver on top of a 165m tower.
The tower follows the same technology as that of PS10 for electricity generation. PS20 represents
second generation technology with important improvements to receiver and other critical elements.
Features include control and operational systems enhancements, improved thermal energy storage
system and a higher efficiency receiver. The plant has been designed by Abengoa Solar and Abener
Energia was the contractor2.

5.3 Linear Fresnel

Figure 16: Operation of a Linear Fresnel collector. Source: Novatec Solar

Linear Fresnel Reflectors (LFRs) approximate the shape of parabolic troughs with long rows of
flat or slightly curved mirrors which reflect the solar radiation onto downward-facing linear, fixed
receivers. A more recent design known as Compact Linear Fresnel Reflectors (CLFRs) has two
parallel receivers for each row of mirrors and thus uses less land than parabolic troughs to produce
a given amount of electricity. LFR systems heat water running through the receivers directly to
generate steam at around 270℃ (Direct Steam Generation – DSG), thereby eliminating the need
for synthetic heat transfer fluids and heat exchangers. This, along with the lower manufacturing and
installation cost of the mirrors make LFR systems less expensive than parabolic trough systems.

5.3.1 State of the technology

LFR plants are in operation to date. The Australian company, Ausra, bought by the French
multinational nuclear power company, Areva, built a Linear Fresnel power plant in 2005 New
South Wales, Australia to contribute 1 MW to the adjacent coal-fired power plant. Ausra completed
the expansion of this plant to 1 MW in 2008. This is an example of a so-called Integrated Solar
Combined Cycle (ISCC) plant – a hybrid between solar and coal. Ausra have built a second Linear
Fresnel power plant at Kimberlina, California. It generates steam to drive a turbine to generate up
to 5 MW . The Novatec BioSol installation is described in the case study.
Advantages:
 Materials are readily available.
 Lower manufacturing and installation costs than for parabolic trough systems.3
 Less land area required to produce a given amount of electricity than for parabolic
troughs.
 Systems use water as the heat transfer medium so can generate steam directly and thus
have lower transmission losses between collector array and steam turbine.

2
http://www.power-technology.com/projects/Seville-Solar-Tower/
3
Studies by DLR indicate LFR cost 50-60% less than parabolic trough collectors per m2 (from CSP
Today Article, ‘Hovering in the wings: Linear Fresnel Technology’, 14.01.2010).
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Concentrated Solar Power CSP Seminar 2013-2014
 Hybrid operation (in combination with a conventional power coal or gas power plant) is
possible.
Disadvantages:
 Performance, and investment and operating costs have not yet been commercially
proven.
 Not straightforward to combine LFR systems with thermal storage.

5.3.2 Case Study

The PE1 ”1.4MW” LFR power plant started exporting electricity to the local grid in March
2009 and as such became the first commercial LFR plant in operation. The plant was developed by
Novatec BioSol and Prointec and is located in Murcia, Spain. Lower costs in the LFR array (as
compared to, for example, a parabolic trough array) allowed for higher investment in the more
expensive dry cooling system. This means that water consumption is much lower than for a
comparable parabolic trough plant and gives LFR plants an advantage in terms of permitting and
environmental aspects.

Figure 17: Linear Fresnel collector array, 1.4MW PE1 plant in Murcia, Spain. Source: Novatec Solar

Project name PE1

Location Murcia, Spain
Capacity 1.4 MW
Land area 7 ha
Electricity generation 2000 MWh/year
(predicted)

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Concentrated Solar Power CSP Seminar 2013-2014

Solar array maximum 270 ℃

temperature
Thermal storage capacity 0 hours
Type of cooling dry cooling
Heat transfer fluid Water
Table 7: Project information for PE1. Source: SolarPaces, NREL, CSP plant developer and owner websites

5.4 Dish

Figure 18: Operation of a dish collector. The dish tracks the sun throughout the day. Source: RENAC

The dish reflector concentrates solar radiation onto a receiver at the focal point of the dish. The
heat transfer medium (fluid or gas) in the receiver is heated to around 750℃ and drives a small
piston, Stirling engine or micro turbine attached to the receiver to generate electricity directly at the
dish. The dish tracks the sun throughout the day. Dish sizes typically range from 5-25kW. The high
solar concentration and operating temperatures have allowed dish systems to achieve solar-to-
electricity conversion efficiencies of up to 30%. Along with the high potential efficiency, another
major advantage of dish systems is that they do not require a cooling system.

5.4.1 State of the technology

There is still much development work required for dish systems, therefore the current energy
cost is around twice that of parabolic trough systems. The two main goals of the development work
are to reduce costs through mass production and to demonstrate long term reliability4. Dish systems
have traditionally been aimed at remote off-grid applications but the industry is becoming
increasingly interested in the larger, grid-connected market.

4
From CSP Technology Roadmap 2010, International Energy Agency
(http://www.iea.org/papers/2010/csp_roadmap.pdf).
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Concentrated Solar Power CSP Seminar 2013-2014
Europe
In the European EuroDish project, Schlaich Bergermann und Partner have extensively
developed and tested several 10-kW systems, based on a structural dish and the Solo 161 kinematic
Stirling engine at the Plataforma Solar de Almería (where the PS10 and PS20 solar towers are also
located). Follow-up activities based on the EuroDish design are being pursued by a European
Consortium of SBP, Inabensa, CIEMAT, DLR and others. EuroDish prototype demonstration units
are currently being operated in Spain, France, Germany, Italy and India5. Spanish company,
Renovali, together with the US-based Stirling engine manufacturer, Infinia, have unveiled their
1MW dish plant in Albacete, Spain6.
USA
In the USA, Stirling Energy Systems (SES www.stirlingenergy.com) is developing their 25-kW
SunCatcher™ dish/Stirling system for utility-scale markets. Six of these are currently being
operated as a mini power plant at Sandia National Laboratories’ National Solar Thermal Test
Facility in Albuquerque, NM, USA. Tessera Solar have built a 1.5MW reference plant, the
Maricopa Solar Project, in Arizona, USA using the SES SunCatcher™ dish that has been
operational since 2010. Tessera plans for a number of larger dish plants at Calico Solar Project and
Imperial Valley Project in California, and the Western Ranch Project in Texas have all recently
been put on hold due to financial and land ownership difficulties.
Advantages:
 Parabolic dish systems have very high conversion efficiencies of over 30%.
 No water requirements for cooling.
 Systems are particularly well-suited to decentralized power supply and remote,
standalone power applications.
 The system is modular.
 Parabolic dishes are not restricted to flat terrains.
 Most effectively integrate thermal storage in large plant.
 Easily manufactured and mass-produced from existing parts.
Disadvantages:
 No large-scale commercial plants exist, so, performance, investment and operating costs
have not yet been commercially proven.
 Mass production cost targets have not yet been proven.
 Lower dispatch ability potential for grid integration.
 Hybrid receivers have not yet been developed.

5
From SolarPaces Part 3: Task 1: Solar Thermal Electric Systems
6
http://www.reuters.com/article/2010/05/04/us-renovalia-idUSTRE64336020100504
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Concentrated Solar Power CSP Seminar 2013-2014

: CS
Figure 19: Dish, Ben Gurion National Solar Energy Center. Source: RENACP

5.5 Summary and comparison of the CSP technologies

Important parameters for comparing the four CSP technologies are:
 annual energy yield
 capacity factor
 land requirement
 water requirement
These are discussed below.

5.5.1 Annual energy yield

The amount of electrical energy that can be generated by a CSP plant can be estimated from the
approximation:
Equation 1:The amount of electrical energy
Eannual   annual  DNI annual  A ; Where
Eannual is the annual electrical energy generated by the plant in MWh/a;
 annual is the annual solar to electric efficiency;
DNI annual is the annual Direct Normal Irradiation in MWh/ m 2 a ;
A is the area of the collectors in the collector field in m2.

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Concentrated Solar Power CSP Seminar 2013-2014
The annual solar to electric efficiency is the ratio of total annual solar energy falling onto the
collector array to total annual electricity generated. The efficiencies of the different technologies
are given in below.

Technology Annual solar to electric efficiency

Parabolic trough 15%
Solar tower 17-35%
Linear Fernsel reflector 8-11%
Dish 25-30%
Table 8: Annual solar-to-electric efficiencies of the four main CSP technologies.

As we see,  annual is different for each of the CSP technologies. Therefore, the annual energy
yield from each of the technologies will also be different.
Example: What is Eannual for a parabolic trough plant where  annual is 15%, DNI annual for the
site is 2.1MWh/ m 2 a , and A is 500,000 m 2 ?
Eannual= 0.15  2.1  500000 = 157500MWh/a

5.5.2 Capacity factor

The capacity factor of a power plant is the ratio of the actual energy generated in a given period
to the energy that could potentially be generated if the plant operated at full output continuously,
e.g. the annual capacity factor would be calculated as:
Equation 2: the annual capacity factor
actual energy generated (MWh)
AnnualCF 
365days  24hours  nominal power output(MW)
The annual capacity factors that existing CSP plants are achieving are given in table 10 below.
All the technologies have the potential to achieve much higher capacity factors if they include
thermal storage. The presence of thermal storage allows the solar energy from the collector field to
be used more effectively and also allows the plant to generate electricity during the night. This can
potentially boost the capacity factor up to around 75%.

Technology Capacity factor

Parabolic trough without storage 25%
Parabolic trough with storage greater than 40%
Solar tower around 25%
Linear Fresnel reflector around 17%
Dish 50%
Table 9: Capacity factors for the four main CSP technologies. Information on Linear Fresnel from Project Proposal for a
CLFR Solar Thermal Plant in the Hunter Valley7

7
Project Proposal for a Compact Linear Fresnel Reflector Solar Thermal Plant in the Hunter
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Concentrated Solar Power CSP Seminar 2013-2014

5.5.3 Land requirement

The collector field takes up the vast majority of the land required for a CSP plant. In all
technologies the collectors are arranged in a particular way so as to maximize solar gain all day
long and all year round. A certain amount of spacing is required between collectors to avoid (or
minimize) the shading of one collector by another. The land use efficiency can be expressed either
as the ratio of collector area to total plant area, or as the ratio of total plant area to electrical power
output. See table 8 below for the land use efficiencies of the four main CSP technologies.
Equation 3: the land use efficiencies
collector area, m 2
Land use efficiency 
total plant area, m 2
Or
total plant area, ha
Land use efficiency , ha/MW 
output power, MW

Technology Land use efficiency Land use efficiency (total

(collector area/total plant plant area/output
area, m 2 / m 2 ) power, ha/MW )
Parabolic trough 0.26 3.9
Solar tower 0.12-0.22 5.4
Linear Fresnel reflector 0.62 0.8-1
Dish 0.36-0.48 1.2-1.6
Table 10: Land use efficiencies for the four main CSP technologies.

For example, parabolic trough CSP plants have a land use efficiency of around 0.26. For a
hypothetical plant with 100m2 of collector area,
collector area, m 2 100
Total plant area, m 2    385m 2  0.0385ha
land use efficiency 0.26

(Total plant area is often given in hectares (ha) where 1 ha = 10000 m 2 .)

For the same hypothetical plant,
total plant area, m 2 0.00385
Output power, MW    0.0099MW  9.9kW
land use efficiency 3.9

5.5.4 Water requirement

CSP plants require large amounts of water for cooling (see Section 4-3-3). The lower the
efficiency of the power block the greater the water requirement for cooling because there is more
heat loss. Table 13 shows the water requirement for the different technologies. We can see that a
typical modern fossil fuel power plant requires much less water for cooling than the CSP

Valley, by D. R. Mills, G. L. Morrison, P. Le Lièvre

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Concentrated Solar Power CSP Seminar 2013-2014
technologies. This is because it operates at a higher efficiency. Dish technology does not require
water for cooling because the electricity is generated directly at the dish and the waste heat is
simply dissipated to the surrounding air.

Technology Water cooling

(Liters/MWh)
Fossil fuel power plant 800
Parabolic trough 3000
Solar tower 2000
Linear Fresnel reflector 3000
Dish 80*
*This water is consumption for cleaning. No water is required for cooling.
Table 11: Water requirements for the four main CSP technologies.

6- Applications of CSP
The main application for CSP is electricity generation. There is however scope for, and interest
in, further applications such as:
 Solar gas – for example generating hydrogen gas.
 Process heat – for example for sterilization, heating, absorption cooling.
 Desalination – large-scale desalination of sea water requires huge amounts of energy
and can cause severe damage to local marine life. It should only be considered after all
possible water conservation measures have been taken. However, advanced CSP
systems can potentially operate cleaner desalination plants with very low environmental
impacts8.

7- Electricity transmission
The building of a new grid, or significant strengthening of the existing grid, is a major cost for
CSP schemes, not only in the physical installation but also in acquiring planning rights and all other
associated permissions. For longer distance transmission, Desertec9 have proposed a ‘supergrid’
connecting the MENA countries to Europe. This would be via ultra-high voltage direct current
cables, similar to those currently being installed in China for the transmission of electricity from the
large hydroelectric schemes in the west of the country to the densely populated east coast. Desertec
suggests, amidst some skepticism, that this supergrid could be operational by 2020.SP

8
More information can be found in the 2007 Aqua-CSP Report, ‘Concentrating Solar Power for Seawater Desalination’
by the German Aerospace Centre (DLR), commissioned by the German Federal Ministry for the Environment, Nature
Conservation and Nuclear Safety.
9
The DESERTEC Foundation was established on 20 January 2009 as a non-profit foundation with the aim of
promoting the implementation of the global DESERTEC Concept "Clean Power from Deserts" all over the world. For
more information, see www.desertec.org
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Concentrated Solar Power CSP Seminar 2013-2014
8- Cost of CSP
The economic feasibility of a CSP project is determined by both the available solar resource at
the site and the power sale conditions in that country. If the local power purchase price does not
cover the production cost then incentives or soft loans can cover the cost gap between the power
cost and the available tariff. Environmental market mechanisms like renewable energy certificates
could be an additional source of income, in particular in developing countries. The investment cost
breakdown for a 50MW parabolic trough plant with 7 hours of storage is shown in figure 20 below.

Figure 20: Investment cost breakdown for a 50MW parabolic trough CSP plant with 7 hours storage. Source: CSP
Technology Roadmap 2010, International Energy Agency (http://www.iea.org/papers/2010/csp_roadmap.pdf).

From figure 20 we see, for example, that the parabolic trough array accounts for 30% of the
investment cost while the thermal storage system is 9%. Investment costs for a number of recent
projects are summarized in table 14.

Project name: Nevada Solar One Andasol 1 PS10

Developer: Acciona Solar Millennium/ACS Abengoa
Year of 2007 2008 2007
completion:
Location: Nevada, US Andalucia, Spain Seville, Spain
Technology: parabolic trough parabolic trough solar tower
Storage: no storage 7h salt storage 30min steam storage
Power ( MWe ): 64 50 11

Area ( m 2 ): 375000 510000 75000

Total cost 191€ 300 € 43 €
(Million):
Specific cost 3.0€ 6.0 € 3.9 €
(Million/MW):

Further www.acciona- www.solarmillennium. www.abengoasolar.c

information: na.com de om
Table 12: Investment costs for three of the earliest completed CSP installations. Source: SolarPaces, NREL, CSP plant
developer and owner websites.

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Concentrated Solar Power CSP Seminar 2013-2014
From figure 21 we see that the specific cost of a parabolic trough plant is currently lower than a
solar tower plant. When storage is included in the plant then the specific cost rises significantly. For
all the technologies there is major cost reduction potential in engineering and planning costs, and in
thermal generation and storage system costs, as well as 15-22% cost reduction potential in
operation and maintenance costs10. The current cost per kWh of electricity from CSP is €0.15-0.2.
It is predicted that this will come down to €0.07-0.09/kWhe in the medium to long term and the
long term target beyond 2020 is a cost of €0.04/kWhe. See for the projected evolution of the
levelised electricity cost from CSP plants to 2050.

Figure 21: Projected evolution of the levelised electricity cost from CSP plants to 2050, in USD/MWh, under two different
direct normal irradiance (DNI) levels in kWh/m2year. Source: Technology Roadmap, Concentrating Solar Power,
International Energy Agency, 2010

9- CSP in Syria
9- 1- Introduction
We have a shortage with energy in Syria, and we have suitable area to implement projects for
producing electricity using CSP. At the Higher Institute for Applied Science and Technology
(HIAST), many projects for producing clean energy have been implemented. The last project in
2013 was generating electricity based on solar radiation and wind power by “Eng. Mohammad
Alshiekh”.

9- 2- Syria thermally
In figure 22 we can see thermal map of Syria. We have convenient area on “Al-Badiah” in the
east of Syria.
Syria, like other Mediterranean countries, is rich in solar irradiation. The average solar
irradiation on a horizontal surface is about 5 KWh/m2 per day. This is a relatively high value
especially when compared with the average irradiation in Germany which is about half that
amount. The sun shines about 2800-3200 hours per year and the cloudy days are about 40 days per
year. The important point is that all the Syrian regions have high irradiation and the number of
sunny days is relatively high. These indicators lead to a promising outlook for solar energy
exploitation in Syria. [3]

10
Estela CSP cost roadmap 2010, A T Kearney
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Concentrated Solar Power CSP Seminar 2013-2014
The following map illustrates the mean irradiation level in Syria:

Figure 22: Syria thermally

10- Conclusion
For the time being, CSP is the only method that could be used in our modern life to produce
electricity depending on the sun. There are many projects with high power generating capability
and high efficiency. These projects are implemented commercially. The most technology that is
implemented commercially is parabolic trough. The potential technology that offers more
efficiency is the technology of solar tower. The solar filed is the takes the major part of the cost of a
CSP system. CSP systems technology is considered to be the technology of tomorrow, as it can
provide a clean and cheap energy source for the world.

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 Concentrated Solar Power CSP Seminar 2013-2014
Works Cited

[1] Abengoa, Acciona, Siemens and Solar Millennium, "The Concentrated Solar Power Markets
Report," CSP today, London, 2010.
[2] C. S. O. T. P. C. H.-K. Franz Trieb, "Global Potential of," German Aerospace Center, Institute
of Technical Thermodynamics, Stuttgart, 2009.
[3] A. H. (. P. M. (.-I. O. M. (. S. L. F. C. (. d. L. Peter Heller (DLR), "Scientific Assessment in
support of the Materials Roadmap Enabling Low Carbon Energy Technologies: Concentrating
Solar Power Technology," Publications Office of the European Union, Luxembourg, 2011.
[4] Fouad Takla Company, "ChamSolar," 2009. [Online]. Available:
http://www.chamsolar.com/en/ed/solarthermal.htm.
[5] J. G. C. R. a. A. M. Childs Staley B., Juice from Concentrate: Reducing Emissions with
Concentrating Solar Thermal Power, Washington, DC.: World Resources Institute, 2009.
[6] IEA (International Energy Agency), Energy Technology Perspectives, Paris: OECD/IEA, 2008.
[7] Greenpeace International, SolarPACES and Estela, Concentrating Solar Power Global Outlook
09, Amsterdam: Greenpeace International, 2009.
[8] M. W. P. G. P. J. W. D. Keith Lovegrove, "Realising the Potential of Concentrating SolarPower
in Australia – Summary for Stakeholders," Australian Solar Institute, Newcastle, 2012.

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