Professional Documents
Culture Documents
ch5 PDF
ch5 PDF
Connected Spaces
1. Introduction
In this chapter we introduce the idea of connectedness. Connectedness is a topological property
quite different from any property we considered in Chapters 1-4. A connected space \ need not
have any of the other topological properties we have discussed so far. Conversely, the only
topological properties that imply “\ is connected” are very extreme such as “l\l Ÿ 1” or “\
has the trivial topology.”
2. Connectedness
Intuitively, a space is connected if it is all in one piece; equivalently a space is disconnected if it
can be written as the union of two nonempty “separated” pieces. To make this precise, we need
to decide what “separated” should mean. For example, we think of ‘ as connected even though ‘
can be written as the union of two disjoint pieces: for example, ‘ œ E ∪ Fß where
E œ Ð ∞ß !Ó and F œ Ð!ß ∞Ñ. Evidently, “separated” should mean something more than
“disjoint.”
On the other hand, if we remove the point ! to “cut” ‘, then we probably think of the remaining
space \ œ ‘ Ö!× as “disconnected.” Here, we can write \ œ E ∪ F , where E œ ( ∞ß !Ñ
and F œ Ð!ß ∞Ñ. E and F are disjoint, nonempty sets and (unlike E and F in the preceding
paragraph) they satisfy the following (equivalent) conditions:
Definition 2.1 Suppose E and F are subspaces of Ð\ß g Ñ. E and F are called separated if each
is disjoint from the closure of the other that is, if ÐF ∩ cl\ EÑ ∪ ÐE ∩ cl\ FÑ œ g.
Example 2.2
1) In ‘, the sets E œ Ð ∞ß !Ó and F œ Ð!ß ∞Ñ are disjoint but not separated. Likewise
in ‘# , the sets E œ ÖÐBß CÑ À B# C# Ÿ "× and F œ ÖÐBß CÑ À ÐB 2Ñ# C# "× are disjoint but
not separatedÞ
213
2) The intervals E œ Ð ∞ß !Ñ and F œ Ð!ß ∞Ñ are separated in ‘ but cl‘ E ∩ cl‘ F Á gÞ
The same is true for the open balls E œ ÖÐBß CÑ À B# C# "× and
F œ ÖÐBß CÑ À ÐB 2Ñ# C# "× in ‘# .
The condition that two sets are separated is stronger than saying they are disjoint, but
weaker than saying that the sets have disjoint closures.
Theorem 2.3 In any space Ð\ß g Ñ, the following statements are equivalent:
Note: Condition 2) is not frequently used. However it is fairly expressive: to say that
Fr E œ g says that no point B in \ can be “approximated arbitrarily closely” from both inside
and outside E so, in that sense, E and F œ \ E are pieces of \ that are “separated” from
each other.
Definition 2.4 A space Ð\ß g Ñ is connected if any (therefore all) of the conditions 1) - 5) in
Theorem 2.3 hold. If G © \ , we say that G is connected if G is connected in the subspace
topology.
The following technical theorem and its corollary are very useful in working with connectedness
in subspaces.
214
Theorem 2.5 Suppose Eß F © G © \Þ Then E and F are separated in G iff E and F are
separated in \ .
Example 2.6
2) A discrete space \ is connected iff l\l Ÿ ". In particular, and ™ are not connected.
3) is not connected since we can write as the union of two nonempty separated sets:
œ Ö; − À ; # #× ∪ Ö; − À ; # #×. Similarly, we can show is not connected.
More generally suppose G © ‘ and that G is not an interval. Then there are points
+ D , where +ß , − G but D  GÞ Then ÖB − G À B D× œ ÖB − G À B Ÿ D× is a nonempty
proper clopen set in G . Therefore Gis not connected.
In fact, a subset G of ‘ is connected iff G is an interval. It is not very hard, using the
least upper bound property of ‘, to prove that every interval in ‘ is connected. (Try it as an
exercise! ) We will give a short proof soon (Corollary 2.12) using a different argument.
5) The Cantor set G is not connected (since it is not an interval). But much more is true.
Suppose Bß C − E © G and that B CÞ Since G is nowhere dense (see IV.10), the interval
ÐBß CÑ ©
Î G , so we can choose D  G with B D C. Then F œ Ð ∞ß DÑ ∩ E
œ Ð ∞ß DÓ ∩ E is clopen in E, and F contains B but not C so E is not connected. It follows
that every connected subset of G contains at most one point.
A space Ð\ß g Ñ is called totally disconnected every connected subset E satisfies
lEl Ÿ "Þ The spaces ß ™ß and are other examples of totally disconnected spaces.
215
connected. Conversely, if \ is not connected and E is a proper nonempty clopen set, then the
characteristic function ;E À \ Ä Ö!ß "× is continuous but not constant.
Note: It is not true that a function 0 with a connected graph must be continuous. See Example
2.22.
The next theorem and its corollaries are simple but powerful tools for proving that certain sets are
connected. Roughly, the theorem states that if we have one “central ” connected set G and other
connected sets none of which is separated from G , then the union of all the sets is connected.
Proof Suppose that W œ Q ∪ R where Q and R are separated. By Lemma 2.8, either G © Q
or G © R . Without loss of generality, assume G © Q . By the same reasoning we conclude that
for each α, either Gα © Q or Gα © R Þ But if some Gα © R , then G and Gα would be
separated. Hence every Gα © Q . Therefore R œ g and the pair Q ß R is not a disconnection of
W. ñ
216
Proof If M œ gß then ÖCα À α − M× œ g is connected. If M Á g, pick an α! − M and let Gα! be
Then ∞
Corollary 2.11 For each 8 − , suppose G8 is a connected subset of \ and that G8 ∩ Gn" Á g.
8œ" G8 is connected.
Proof Let E8 œ 85œ" G5 . Corollary 2.10 (and simple induction) shows that the E8 's are
that ∞ ∞
connected. Then g Á E" © E# © ÞÞÞ © E8 © ÞÞÞ Another application of Corollary 2.10 gives
8œ" E8 œ 8œ" G8 is connected. ñ
Proof We have already shown that if M is not an interval, then M is not connected (Example
2.6.3). So suppose M is an interval. If M œ g or M œ Ö<×, then M is connected.
Suppose M œ Ò!ß "Ó and that Eß F are nonempty disjoint closed sets in M . Then there are points
+! − E and ,! − F for which l+! ,! l œ .Ð+! ß ,! Ñ œ .ÐEß FÑÞ
+! ,!
Let D œ #− Ò!ß "Ó. Since lD ,! l œ l +! # ,! ,! l œ l +! # ,! l l+! ,! l, we
conclude D Â E. Similarly, D Â F . Therefore Ò!ß "Ó Á E ∪ F , so Ò!ß "] is connected.
∞
8œ1 [+ " ß ,Ó œ Ð+ß ,Ó
"
8œ1 [+ß , 8 Ó œ Ò+ß ,Ñ
∞
∞
8
∞
8œ" [+ß + 8Ó œ Ò+ß ∞Ñ
8œ1 [+ 8ß +Ó œ Ð ∞ß +Ó
8œ" Ð+ß + 8Ñ œ Ð+ß ∞Ñ
∞
∞
∞
8œ1 [+ 8ß +Ñ œ Ð ∞ß +Ñ
8œ1 [ 8ß 8Ó œ ‘ ñ
Proof By Corollary 2.12, ‘" is connected. ‘8 can be written as a union of straight lines (each
homeomorphic to ‘) through the origin and Corollary 2.10 implies that ‘8 is connected. ñ
217
Corollary 2.14 Suppose that for all Bß C − \ there exists a connected set CBC © \ with
Bß C − GBC . Then \ is connected.
is connected. ñ
Choose a straight line P which is perpendicular to the line segment BC joining B and C. For each
: − Pß let G: be the union of the two line segments B: ∪ :C. G: is the union of two intervals
with a point in common, so G: is connected.
The definition of connectedness agrees with our intuition in the sense that every set that you think
(intuitively) should be connected is actually connected according to Definition 2.4. But
according to Definition 2.4, certain strange sets also turn out “unexpectedly” to be connected.
‘8 8 might fall into that category. So the official definition forces us to try to expand our
intuition about what “connected” means. Question: Is ‘8 8 connected?
This situation is analogous to what happens with the “%-$ definition” of continuity. Using that
definition it turns out that every function that you expect (intuitively) should be continuous
actually is continuous. If you have a “problem” with the official definition of continuity, it would
be that it almost seems “too generous” it allows some “unexpected” functions also to be
218
continuous. An example is the well-known function from elementary analysis: 0 À ‘ Ä ‘,
where
0 ÐBÑ œ ;
"
if B œ :; in lowest terms
! if B is irrational
Proof Every point : − ‘ is a cut point. But Example 2.15 shows that ‘8 has no cut points
when 8 2Þ
It is also true but much harder to prove that ‘7 and ‘8 are not homeomorphic whenever
7 Á 8. One way to prove this is to develop theorems about a topological property called
dimension. Then it turns out (thankfully) that dim ‘7 œ 7 Á 8 œ dim ‘8 so these spaces are not
homeomorphic. One can also prove this result using homology theory a topic developed
in algebraic topology.
Example 2.18 How is W " topologically different from Ò!ß "Ó? Both are compact connected
metric spaces with cardinality - , and there is no topological property from Chapters 1-4 that can
distinguish between these spaces. The difference has to do with connectivity. The interval Ò!ß "Ó
has cut points : (if : is not an endpoint, then : is a cut point)à but W " has no cut points since
W " Ö:× is homeomorphic to Ð!ß "Ñ for every : − W " Þ
Corollary 2.19 Suppose Ð\ß g Ñ and Ð] ß g w Ñ are nonempty topological spaces. Then \ ‚ ] is
connected iff \ and ] are connected. (It follows by induction that the same result holds for
any finite product of spaces. When infinite products are defined in Chapter 6, it will turn out
that the product of any collection of connected spaces is connected.)
219
Corollary 2.20 Suppose G is a connected subset of \ . If G © E © cl G , then E is connected.
In particular, the closure of a connected set is connected.
E œ G ∪ ÖÖ+× À + − E× is connected. ñ
Proof For each + − Eß Ö+× and G are not separated. By Theorem 2.9,
Example 2.21 By Corollary 2.20, the completion of a connected pseudometric space Ð\ß .Ñ must
be connected.
Because cl > œ > ∪ ÐÖ!× ‚ Ò "ß "ÓÑ, Corollary 2.20 gives that > ∪ E is connected for any set
E © Ö!× ‚ Ò "ß "ÓÞ In particular, >0 œ > ∪ ÖÐ!ß !Ñ× Ðthe graph of 0 Ñ is connected.
Therefore, a function 0 with a connected graph need not be continuous. However, it is true that if
the graph of a function 0 À ‘ Ä ‘ is a closed connected subset of ‘# , then 0 is continuous. (The
proof is easy enough to read: see C.E. Burgess, Continuous Functions and Connected Graphs,
The American Mathematical Monthly, April 1990, 337-339.)
220
In some spaces \ , every pair of points can be joined by a path in \ . This seems like a very
intuitive way to describe “connectedness”. However, this property is actually stronger than our
definition for a connected space. .
Definition 3.1 A path in \ is a continuous map 0 À Ò!ß "Ó Ä \Þ The path starts at its initial point
0 Ð!Ñ and ends at its terminal point 0 Ð"ÑÞ We say 0 is a path from 0 Ð!Ñ to 0 Ð"ÑÞ
Sometimes it helps to visualize a path by thinking of a point moving in \ from 0 Ð!Ñ to 0 Ð"Ñ with
0 Ð>Ñ representing its position at “time” > − Ò!ß "Ó. Remember, however, that the path, by
definition, is the function 0 , not the set ranÐ0 Ñ © \ . To illustrate the distinction: suppose 0 is a
path from B to C. Then the function 1 À Ò!ß "Ó Ä \ defined by 1Ð>Ñ œ 0 Ð" >Ñ is a different path
(running in the “opposite direction,” from C to B), even though ranÐ0 Ñ œ ranÐ1ÑÞ
Definition 3.2 A topological space \ is called path connected if, for every pair of points
Bß C − \, there is a path from B to C in \ .
Note: \ is called arcwise connected if, for every pair of points Bß C − \ , there exists a
homeomorphism 0 À Ò!ß "Ó Ä \ with 0 Ð!Ñ œ B and 0 Ð"Ñ œ C. Such a path 0 is called an arc
from B to C. If a path 0 in a Hausdorff space \ is not an arc, the reason must be that 0 is not
one-to-one (why?). It can be proven that a Hausdorff space is path connected iff \ is arcwise
connected. Therefore some books use “arcwise connected” to mean the same thing as “path
connected.”
Theorem 3.3 A path connected space \ is connected.
\ œ ÖGB À B − \× is connected. ñ
path 0B from + to B. Let GB œ ranÐ0B Ñ. Each GB is connected and contains +. By Corollary 2.10,
221
Sometimes path connectedness and connectedness are equivalent. For example, a subset M © ‘ is
connected iff M is an interval iff M is path connected. But in general, the converse to Theorem
3.,3 is false as the next example shows.
Consider 0 ÐBÑ œ
sin 1B ! B Ÿ "
Example 3.4 . In Example 2.22, we showed that the
! Bœ!
graph >0 is connected. However, we claim that there is no path in >0 from Ð!ß !Ñ to Ð"ß !Ñ and
therefore >0 is not path connected.
Suppose, on the contrary, that 2 À Ò!ß "Ó Ä >0 is a path from Ð!ß !Ñ to Ð"ß !ÑÞ For > − Ò!ß "Ó, write
2Ð>Ñ œ Ð2" Ð>Ñß 2# Ð>ÑÑ − >0 . 2" and 2# are continuous (why? ). Since Ò!ß "Ó is compact, 2 is
uniformly continuous (Theorem IV.9.6) so we can choose $" ! for which
l? @l $" Ê .Ð2Ð?Ñß 2Ð@ÑÑ " Ê l2# Ð?Ñ 2# Ð@Ñl "Þ
We have ! − 2" ÐÐ!ß !ÑÑ. Let >‡ œ sup 2" Ð!ß !ÑÞ Then ! Ÿ >‡ ". Since 2" Ð!ß !Ñ is a closed
set, >‡ − 2" Ð!ß !Ñ so 2Ð>‡ Ñ œ Ð!ß !ÑÞ (We can think of t‡ as the last “time” that the path 2 goes
through the origin).
Choose a positive $ $" so that ! Ÿ >‡ >‡ $ ". Since 2" Ð>‡ Ñ œ ! and 2" Ð>‡ $ Ñ !, we
can choose a positive integer R for which
# #
! œ 2" Ð>‡ Ñ Ÿ R " R 2" Ð>‡ $ ÑÞ
#
By the Intermediate Value Theorem, there exist points ?ß @ − Ð>‡ ß >‡ $ Ñ where 2" Ð?Ñ œ R "
and 2" Ð@Ñ œ R# . Then 2# Ð?Ñ œ sin ÐR # "Ñ1 and 2# Ð@Ñ œ sin R#1 , so l2# Ð?Ñ 2# Ð@Ñl œ ". But this
is impossible since l? @l $ $" and therefore l2# Ð?Ñ 2# Ð@Ñl "Þ ñ
Note: Let > be the graph of the restriction 1 œ 0 lÐ! "Ó. For any set E © Ö!× ‚ Ò "ß "Ó, a similar
argument shows that > ∪ E is not path connected. In particular, cl >
œ > ∪ ÐÖ!× ‚ Ò "ß "ÓÑ is not path connected. But > is homeomorphic to Ð!ß "Ó, so > is path
connected. So the closure of a path connected space need not be path connected.
b) locally path connected if for each point B − \ and for each neighborhood R
of B, there is a path connected open set Y such that B − Y © R .
Note: to say Y is path connected means that any two points in U can be joined by a path in U.
Roughly, “locally path connected” means that “nearby points can be joined by short paths.”
Example 3.6
222
3) Connectedness and path connected are “global” properties of a space \ : they are
statements about \ “as a whole.” Local connectedness and local path connectedness are
statement about what happens “locally” (in arbitrarily small neighborhoods of points) in
\ In general, global properties do not imply local properties, nor vice-versa.
a) Let \ œ Ð!ß "Ñ ∪ Ð"ß #Ó. \ is not connected (and therefore not path
connected) but \ is locally path connected (and therefore locally connected).
The same relations hold in a discrete space \ with more than one point.
Notice that Examples a) and b) also show that neither “(path) connected” nor
“locally (path) connected” implies the other.
Lemma 3.7 Suppose that 0 is a path in \ from + to , and 1 is a path from , to - . Then there
exists a path 2 in \ from + to - .
Proof 0 ends where 1 begins, so we feel intuitively that we can “join” the two paths “end-to-
end” to get a path 2 from + to - . The only technical detail to handle is that, by definition, a path
2 must be a function with domain Ò!ß "Ó. To get 2 we simply “join and reparametrize:”
223
Define 2 À Ò!ß "Ó Ä \ by 2Ð>Ñ œ
0 Ð#>Ñ ! Ÿ > Ÿ "#
. (You can imagine a point moving
1Ð#> "Ñ "# Ÿ > Ÿ "
twice as fast as before: first along the path 0 and then continuing along the path 1.)
The function 2 is continuous by the Pasting Lemma (see Exercise III.E22 ). ñ
Theorem 3.8 If \ is connected and locally path connected, then \ is path connected.
Suppose B Â G and choose a path connected open set Y containing B. If C − Y , there is a path 1
in Y from C to B. Therefore there cannot exist a path in \ from + to C or else, by Lemma 3.7,
there would be a path 2 from + to B and B would be in G . Therefore C Â G , so B − Y © \ G ,
so G is closed and therefore clopen.
Here is another situation (particularly useful in complex analysis) where connectedness and path
connected coincide:
224
this might not be true for a ball in an arbitrary metric space.) We conclude that S is locally path
connected so, by Theorem 3.8, S is path connected. ñ
4. Components
Informally, the “components” of a space \ are its largest connected subspaces. A connected
space \ has exactly one component \ itself. In a totally disconnected space, for example ,
the components are the singletons ÖB×Þ In very simple examples, the components “look like” just
what you imagine. In more complicated situations, some mild surprises can occur.
The preceding paragraphs show that the distinct components of \ form a partition of \ À a
pairwise disjoint collection whose union is \ . If we define : µ ; to mean that : and ; are in the
same component of \ , then it is easy to see that “ µ ” is an equivalence relation on \ and that
G: is the equivalence class of :.
Theorem 4.2 \ is the union of its components. Distinct components of \ are disjoint and each
component is a closed connected set.
Proof In light of the preceding comments, we only need to show that each component G: is
closed. But this is clear: G: © cl G: and cl G: is connected (Corollary 2.20). By maximality,
we conclude that G œ cl G: Þ ñ
Example 4.3
1) Let \ œ Ò"ß #Ó ∪ Ò$ß %Ó ∪ Ò&ß 'Ó © ‘Þ \ has three components: Ò"ß #Ó, Ò$ß %Ó, and Ò&ß 'Ó.
For each ! Ÿ : Ÿ ", we have G: œ Ò!ß "ÓÞ If G is a component in a space \ that has only finitely
many components, then \ G is the union of the other finitely many (closed) components.
Therefore G is clopen.
225
However, a space can have infinitely many components and in general they need not be
open. For example, if \ œ Ö!× ∪ Ö 8" À 8 − × © ‘, then the components are the singleton sets
ÖB× (why?). The component Ö!× is not open in \ .
2) In ‘# , \ œ #8œ" B"Î% ÐÐ8ß !ÑÑ is not homeomorphic to ] œ $8œ" B"Î% ÐÐ8ß !ÑÑ because
\ has two components but ] has three.
4) The sets \ and ] in ‘# pictured below are not homeomorphic since \ contains a cut
point : for which \ Ö:× has three components. ] contains no such cut point.
Example 4.4 The following examples are meant to help “fine-tune” your intuition about
components by pointing out some false assumptions that you need to avoid. (Take a look back at
Definition 2.4 to be sure you understand what is meant by a “disconnection.”)
1) Let \ œ Ö!× ∪ Ö 8" À 8 − ×Þ One of the components of \ is Ö!}, but Ö!×
is not clopen in \ . Therefore the sets E œ Ö!× and F œ Ö 8" À 8 − × do not form a
disconnection of \ . A component and its complement may not form a disconnection of \ Þ
226
E ∪ F of \ for which B − E and C − FÞ For example, consider \ œ P" ∪ P# ∪ ∞
3) If B and C are in different components of \ , then there might not exist a disconnection
#
8œ" V8 © ‘ ,
where:
For each 8 − ß V8 is the rectangle ÖÐBß CÑ À lBl œ 8 and lCl œ # 8" ×Þ (The top and
bottom edges of the V8 's approach the lines P" and P# Þ) The first four V8 's are pictured:
P" is connected. Let G be the component that contains P" . G must be disjoint from
each component V8 , so if P" Á G , then the additional points in G are from P# that is,
G œ P" ∪ H where H © P# Þ But in that case, P" would be a nontrivial clopen set in G
and G would not be connected. Therefore P" œ GÞ
Suppose that E and F are disjoint clopen sets in \ for which \ œ E ∪ FÞ E and F are separated
so, by Lemma 2.8, P# is either a subset of E or a subset of F : without loss of generality, assume
that P# © E and let : − P# Þ Since E is open, : has a neighborhood R © EÞ But R intersects
infinitely many connected V8 's, each of which, therefore, must also be a subset of E. Since the
top edges of these V8 's approach P" , there are points on P" in cl E œ EÞ Therefore P" intersects
E, so P" © EÞ So P" ∪ P# © EÞ
In particular: Ð!ß #Ñ − P" and Ð!ß #Ñ − P# are in different components of \ , but both are in the
same piece E of a disconnection.
227
4) Suppose \ is a connected space with a cut point @. Let G be a component of \ Ö@×.
(Draw a few simple pictures before reading on.)
It can happen that @ Â cl\ G (Would you have guessed that @ must be in cl\ G ?)
Let @ œ Ð!ß !Ñ. Each straw G8 is connected and clopen in \ Ö@×. Therefore each G8 is a
component of \ Ö@×ß and the remaining connected subset, G is the remaining component of
\ Ö@×Þ
Note: for this example, @ Â cl\ G , but @ is in the closure of the each of the other
components G8 of \ Ö@×Þ
228
Here is a description of the Knaster-Kuratowski space \ (sometimes called “Cantor's
teepee”). The proof that is has the properties mentioned is omitted. (You can find it on p.
145 of the book Counterexamples in Topology (Steen & Seebach). Define
G œ the Cantor set ( © Ò!ß "Ó Ñ on the B-axis in ‘# , and let @ œ Ð "# ß "Ñ.
For each : − G , let @: œ the line segment from @ to : and define a subset of @: by
ÖÐBß CÑ − @: À C is rational×
G: œ
if : − H
ÖÐBß CÑ − @: À C is irrational× if : − IÞ
Cantor's teepee is the space \ œ :−G G: . One can show that \ is connected and that
\ Ö@× is totally disconnected.
5. Sierpinski's Theorem
Let g be the cofinite topology on . Clearly, Ðß g Ñ is connected. But is it path connected?
(Try to prove or disprove it.) This innocent sounding question turns out to be harder than you
might expect.
If 0 À Ò!ß "Ó Ä Ðß g Ñ is a path from (say) " to # in Ðß g Ñ. Then ranÐ0 Ñ is a connected set
The answer lies in a famous old theorem of Sierpinski which states that a compact connected
Hausdorff space \ cannot be written as a countable union of two or more nonempty pairwise
disjoint closed sets. (Of course, “countable” includes “finite.” But the“finite union” case is
trivial: \ is not a union of 8 nonempty disjoint closed sets Ð8 #Ñ since each set
would be clopen an impossibility since \ is connected.)
We will prove Sierpinski's result after a series of several lemmas. The line of argument used is
due to R. Engelking. (It is possible to prove Sierpinski's theorem just for the special case
\ œ Ò!ß "Ó. That proof is a little easier but still nontrivial.)
229
Lemma 5.1 If E and F are disjoint closed sets in a compact Hausdorff space \ , then there exist
disjoint open sets Y and Z with E © Y and F © Z Þ
Proof Consider first the case where E œ ÖB×, a singleton set. For each C − F , choose disjoint
open sets YC and ZC with B − YC and C − ZC . The open sets ZC cover the compact set F so a
finite number of them cover F , say F © ZC" ∪ ÞÞÞ ∪ ZC8 œ Z . Let Y œ YC" ∩ ÞÞÞ ∩ YC8 . Then
E © Y ß F © Z and Y , Z are disjoint open sets.
Suppose now that E and F are any pair of disjoint closed sets in \ . For each B − Eß pick
disjoint open sets YB and ZB such that ÖB× © YB and F © ZB . The open YB 's cover the compact
set E, so a finite number of them cover E, say E © YB" ∪ ÞÞÞ ∪ YB8 œ Y Þ Let
Z œ ZB" ∩ ÞÞÞ ∩ ZB8 . Then E © Y ß F © Z and Y ß Z are disjoint open sets. ñ
Note: If E and F were both finite, an argument analogous to the proof given above would work
in any Hausdorff space \ . The proof of Lemma 5.1 illustrates the rule of thumb that “compact
sets act like finite sets.”
family of closed sets in \ for which Y © S, then there exist α" ß ÞÞÞß α8 − M such that
Lemma 5.2 Suppose S is an open set in the compact space Ð\ß g Ñ. If Y œ ÖJα À α − M× is a
U: is always a closed set in \ . The next two lemmas give some relationships between the
component G: containing : and the quasicomponent U: Þ
230
Ò !ß "Ó ‚ Ö 8" × and define \ œ ∞
Example 5.5 An example where G: Á U: Þ In ‘# , let P8 be the horizontal line segment
8œ" P8 ∪ ÖÐ!ß !Ñß Ð"ß !Ñ×.
The components of \ are the sets P8 and the singleton sets ÖÐ!ß !Ñ× and ÖÐ"ß !Ñ×Þ
If G is any clopen set in \ containing Ð!ß !Ñ, then G intersects infinitely many P8 's so (since the
P8 's are connected) G contains those P8 's. Hence the closed set G contains points arbitrarily
close to Ð"ß !Ñ so Ð"ß !Ñ is also in G . Therefore Ð!ß !Ñ and Ð"ß !Ñ are both in UÐ!ß!Ñ , so
GÐ!ß!Ñ Á UÐ!ß!Ñ . (In fact, it is easy to check that UÐ!ß!Ñ œ ÖÐ!ß !Ñß Ð"ß !Ñ×Þ)
231
Lemma 5.8 Suppose E is a closed subspace of a continuum \ and that g Á E Á \ . If G is a
component of E, then G ∩ Fr E Á g.
Gα! is clopen in E and Gα! © E Fr E œ int EÞ Since Gα! is open in int E which is open in \ ,
Gα! is open in \ . But Gα! is also closed in the closed set E, so Gα! is closed in \ . Since \ is
connected, we conclude that E œ \ . ñ
Lemma 5.9 Suppose \ is a continuum and that \ œ ÖJ8 À 8 − × where the J8 's are
pairwise disjoint closed sets and J8 Á g for at least two values of 8. Then for each 8 there exists
a continuum G8 © \ such that G8 ∩ J8 œ g and G8 ∩ J3 Á g for at least two 3 − Þ
Before proving Lemma 5.9, consider the formal statement of Sierpinski's Theorem..
Theorem 5.10 (Sierpinski) Let \ be a continuum. If \ œ ÖJ8 À 8 − × where the J8 's are
pairwise disjoint closed sets, then at most one J8 is nonempty.
Sierpinski's theorem we will assume that \ œ ÖJ8 À 8 − × where the J8 's are pairwise
(Of course, the statement of the theorem includes the easy “finite union” case.) In proving
disjoint closed sets and J8 Á g for at least two values of 8. Then we will apply Lemma 5.9 to
arrive at a contradiction. When all the smoke clears we see that, in fact, there are no continua
which satisfy the hypotheses of Lemma 5.9. Lemma 5.9 is really the first part of the proof (by
contradiction) of Sierpinski's theorem set off as a preliminary lemma to break the argument
into more manageable pieces.
If J8 œ g, let G8 œ \Þ
232
g Á J8 © Y . Therefore, by Lemma 5.8, there is a point ; − G8 ∩ Fr Ðcl Z Ñ. Since ; − Fr Ðcl Z Ñ
and J7 © Z © intÐcl Z Ñß we have ; Â J7 . And since ; − Fr Ðcl Z Ñ © cl Z © \ Y , we have
that ; Â J8 . But \ is covered by the J3 's, so ; − J3 for some 3 Á 7ß 8Þ Therefore G8 ∩ J3 Á gÞ
ñ
Proof of Theorem 5.10 We want to show that if \ œ ∞ 8œ" J8 where the J8 's are disjoint closed
sets, then at most one J8 Á g. Looking for a contradiction, we suppose at least two J8 's are
nonemptyÞ
intersection with a least two J8 's. We can write G" œ G" ∩ \ œ G" ∩ ∞
By Lemma 5.9, there is a continuum G" in \ with G" ∩ J" œ g and such that G" has nonempty
œ ∞
8œ" J8
∞
8œ" ÐG " ∩ J8 Ñ œ 8œ# ÐG" ∩ J8 Ñ, where at least two of the sets G" ∩ J8 are nonempty.
Applying Lemma 5.9 again (to the continuum G" ) we find a continuum G# © G" such that G# ∩ Ð
Then G# œ G# ∩ G" œ ∞ ∞ ∞
G" ∩ J# Ñ œ G# ∩ J# œ g and G# intersects at least two of the sets G" ∩ J8 Þ
8œ# ÐG# ∩ ÐG" ∩ J8 ÑÑ œ 8œ# ÐG# ∩ J8 Ñ œ 8œ$ ÐG# ∩ J8 Ñ, where at
least two of the sets G# ∩ J8 are nonempty.
We continue this process inductively, repeatedly applying Lemma 5.9, to and generate a
G8 ∩ J8 œ g. This gives g œ ∞ ∞ ∞ ∞
decreasing sequence of nonempty continua G" ª G# ª ÞÞÞ ª G8 ª ÞÞÞ such that for each 8ß
impossible: the G8 's have the finite intersection property and \ is compact, so ∞
8œ" G8 ∩ 8œ" J8 œ 8œ" G8 ∩ \ œ 8œ" G8 Þ But this is
8œ" G8 Á g. ñ
Example 5.11 By Theorem 5.10, we know that Ò!ß "Ó cannot be written as the union of 7
written as the union of 7 œ - such sets: for example, Ò!ß "Ó œ B−Ò!ß"Ó ÖB×. What if
pairwise disjoint nonempty closed sets if " 7 Ÿ i! . And, of course, Ò!ß "Ó can easily be
i! 7 - ?
There are other related questions you could ask yourself. For example, can Ò!ß "Ó be written as the
union of - disjoint closed sets each of which is uncountable? The answer is “yes.” For example,
take a continuous onto function 0 À Ò!ß "Ó Ä Ò!ß "Ó# (a space-filling curve, whose existence you
should have seen in an advanced calculus course ). For each B − Ò!ß "Ó, let
PB œ ÖB× ‚ Ò!ß "Ó œ “the vertical line segment at B in Ò!ß "Ó# . Then the sets 0 " ÒPB Ó do the job.
We could also ask: is it possible to write Ò!ß "Ó as the union of uncountably many pairwise
disjoint closed sets each of which is countably infinite? (See Exercise VIII.E27).
233
Exercises
E2. Prove that Ò!ß "Ó is connected directly from the definition of connected.
(Use the least upper bound property of ‘. Ñ
E3. Suppose both Eß F are closed subsets of Ð\ß g Ñ. Prove that E F is separated from F E .
Do the same assuming instead that E and F are both open.
E5. Let Ð\ß .Ñ and Ð] ß . w Ñ be two connected metric spaces. Suppose 5 ! and that
Ð+ß ,Ñ − \ ‚ ] . Let O œ ÖÐBß CÑ − \ ‚ ] À .ÐBß +Ñ Ÿ 5 and . w ÐCß ,Ñ Ÿ 5×.
E6. Prove that there does not exist a continuous function 0 À ‘ Ä ‘ such that 0 ÒÓ © and
0 ÒÓ © .
Hint: One method: What do you know about ran 0 ? What else do you know? )
Another method: if such an 0 exists, let 1 œ " "l0 l and let 2 œ 1lÒ!ß "Ó. What do you know
about 2?
E7. a) Find the cardinality of the collection of all compact connected subsets of ‘# .
b) Find the cardinality of the collection of all connected subsets of ‘# .
E8. Suppose Ð\ß .Ñ is a connected metric space with l\l ". Prove that l\l - .
E9. Suppose each point in a metric space Ð\ß .Ñ has a neighborhood base consisting of clopen
sets (such a metric space is sometimes called zero-dimensional). Prove that Ð\ß .Ñ is totally
disconnected.
234
E10. A metric space Ð\ß .Ñ satisfies the %-chain condition if for all % ! and all B, C − \ , there
exists a finite set of points B" , B# , ... , B8" , B8 where B" œ Bß B8 œ C, and .ÐB3 ß B3" Ñ % for
all 3 œ 1, ..., 8 ".
a) Give an example of a metric space which satisfies the % -chain condition but which is not
connected.
b) Prove that if Ð\ß .Ñ is connected, then Ð\ß .Ñ satisfies the %-chain condition.
c) Prove that if Ð\ß .Ñ is compact and satisfies the %-chain condition, then \ is connected.
d) Prove that ÐÖ!Ñ ‚ Ò "ß "ÓÑ ∪ ÖÐBß sin B" Ñ À ! B Ÿ "× © ‘# is connected.
(Use c) to give a different proof than the one given in Example 3.4.)
e) In any space Ð\ß g Ñ, a simple chain from + to , is a finite collection of sets ÖE" ß ÞÞÞß E8 ×
such that:
+ − E" and + Â E3 if 3 Á "
, − E8 and , Â E3 if 3 Á 8
for all 3 œ "ß ÞÞÞß 8 "ß E3 ∩ E3" Á g
E3 ∩ E4 œ g if l4 3l Á "
Prove \ is connected iff for every open cover h and every pair of points +ß , − \ß there is a
simple chain from + to , consisting of sets taken from h .
E11. a) Prove that \ is locally connected iff the components of every open set S are also open in
\.
b) The path components of a space are its maximal path connected subsets. Show that \ is
locally path connected iff the path components of every open set S are also open in \ .
E12. Let g be the cofinite topology on . We know that Ðß g Ñ is not path connected (because
of Sierpinski's Theorem applied to the closed interval Ò!ß "Ó ). Prove that the statement “Ðß g Ñ is
not path connected” is equivalent to “Sierpinski's Theorem for the case \ œ Ò!ß "ÓÞ”
E13. Let 8 " and suppose 0 À Ò!ß "Ó Ä ‘8 is a homeomorphism (into); then ranÐ0 Ñ is called an
arc in ‘8 Þ Use a connectedness argument to prove that an arc is nowhere dense in ‘8 . Is the
same true if Ò!ß "Ó is replaced by the circle W " ?
235
E14. a) Prove that for any space \ and 8 #ß
if \ has 8 components, then there are nonempty pairwise separated sets L" ß ÞÞÞß L8
for which \ œ L" ∪ ÞÞÞ ∪ L8 (**)
Hints. For a given 8, do not start with the components and try to group them to form the L8 's.
Start with the fact that \ is not connected. Use induction. When \ has infinitely many
components, then \ has n components for every 8.
b) Recall that a disconnection of \ means a pair of nonempty separated sets Eß F for which
\ œ E ∪ FÞ Remember also that if G is a component of \ , G is not necessarily “one piece in a
disconnection of \ ” (see Example 4.4).
Prove that \ has only finitely many components 8 Ð8 #Ñ iff \ has only finitely many
disconnections.
E15. A metric space Ð\ß .Ñ is called locally separable if, for each B − \ , there is an open set Y
containing B such that ÐY ß .Ñ is separable. Prove that a connected, locally separable metric space
is separable.
E16. In Ð\ß g Ñ, define B µ C if there does not exist a disconnection \ œ E ∪ F with B − E and
C − Fß i.e., if “\ can't be split between B and C.” Prove that µ is an equivalence relation and
that the equivalence class of a point : is the quasicomponent U: Þ (It follows that \ is the disjoint
union of its quasicomponents. )
E17. For the following alphabet (capital Arial font), decide which letters are homeomorphic to
each other:
ABCDEFGHIJKLMNOPQRSTUVWXYZ
E19. Show how to write ‘# œ E ∪ F where E and F are nonempty, disjoint, connected, dense
and congruent by translation (i.e., b Ð?ß @Ñ − ‘# such that F œ ÖÐB ?ß C @Ñ À ÐBß CÑ − E× Ñ.
E20. Suppose \ is connected and l\l #Þ Show that \ can be written as E ∪ F where E and
F are connected proper subsets of \ .
E21. Prove or disprove: a nonempty product \ ‚ ] is totally disconnected iff both \ and ] are
totally disconnected.
236
Chapter V Review
9. In a space Ð\ß g ), the component containing the point : is a subset of the intersection of all
clopen sets containing a point :.
11. If 0 À Ð\ß g Ñ Ä Ð] ß g w Ñ is continuous and onto and Ð\ß g Ñ is path connected, then Ð] ß g w Ñ
is path connected.
13. Let G be the Cantor set. There exists a nonempty space \ for which \ ‚ G is connected.
15. If G is a component of the complete metric space Ð\ß .Ñ, then ÐGß .Ñ is complete.
16. Let S " denote the unit circle in ‘# . S " is homeomorphic to a subspace of the Cantor set.
17. If \ is the union of an uncountable collection of disjoint nonempty, connected closed sets
Gα , then the Gα 's are components of \ .
18. If \ is the union of a finite collection of disjoint nonempty connected closed sets Gα , then
the Gα 's are components of \ .
19. If \ is the union of a countable collection of disjoint connected closed sets Gα , then the
Gα 's are components of \ .
237
µ µ
20. If Ð\ß .Ñ is connected, then its completion (\ ,. ) is connected.
22. Suppose 0 À ‘8 Ä ‘8 is continuous, that 0 ÐÐ!ß !ß ÞÞÞß !ÑÑ œ Ð!ß !ß ÞÞÞß !Ñ and
0 ÐÐ"ß !ß ÞÞÞß !ÑÑ œ Ð#ß !ß ÞÞÞß !Ñ. Let E denote the set of all fixed points of 0 . It is possible that E
is open in ‘8 ( Note: we are not assuming f is a contraction, so f may have more than one fixed
point.)
23. Suppose Ð\ß .Ñ is a connected separable metric space with ± \ ± ". Then ± \ ± = - .
24. If a subset E of ‘ contains an open interval around each of its points, then E must be
connected.
∞
26. If ‘# ª E" ª A# ª ... ª A8 ª ... is a nested sequence of connected sets in the plane, then
8œ" A8 is connected.
28. Let E œ ÖÐBß sin B" Ñ À B !× © ‘# and suppose 0 À cl ÐEÑ Ä Ö!ß "× is continuous. Then 0
must be constant.
29. Suppose \ Á gÞ \ is connected if and only if there are exactly two functions 0 − GÐ\Ñ such
that 0 # œ 0 .
33. In a metric space Ð\ß .Ñ the sets E and F are separated iff .ÐEß FÑ !Þ
238