Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Results from the application of these practices in a pilot The first example is from El Trapial field in Argentina in
area are shared, indicating that the nominal decline rate South America. This is a sandstone reservoir located onshore
improved from 33% to 18% per year without any infill with a primary drive mechanism of solution gas drive. The
drilling. The change in the decline rate is primarily attributed average permeability and porosity are 75 mD and 17%,
to effective waterflood management with a methodical respectively. The field was discovered in 1991, and water
approach, employing an integrated multi-functional team. injection started in 1993.
Although the suggested techniques can be applied to any The second example corresponds to the Bangko field
oil field undergoing a waterflood, they are of great value to located in Indonesia, southeast Asia. This sandstone reservoir
mature waterfloods that involve significant production history. is located onshore with aquifer support. The average
In these cases, prioritization is a key aspect to maintain focus permeability and porosity are 530 mD and 25%, respectively.
on the opportunities that will add most value during the final The field was discovered in 1970, and water injection started
period of the depletion cycle. Case studies illustrating the best in 1992.
surveillance practices are discussed. The third and last example corresponds to the Meren field
Introduction located in Nigeria, west Africa. This sandstone reservoir is
located offshore with a mixed primary drive mechanism,
Surveillance and monitoring techniques were first discussed in including aquifer support and gas cap expansion. The average
SPE literature in the early 1960s1. Since then, several highly permeability and porosity are 1,000 mD and 27%,
recognized authors have published related materials2,3,4,5,6,7,8. respectively. The field was discovered in 1965, and water
Industry experts recommend the following valuable principles: injection started in 1984.
• The key ingredient of any surveillance program is
planning and accurate data collection.
• To understand reservoir flows and reduce non-
2 SPE 102200
550 thousand B/D. Waterflood optimization under this oil and water rate between those dates. The same dates are
condition is limited, thus, upgrading the facilities is currently used for all the wells.
under study.
In the X-axis, the ratio of current water rate to previous
Figure 9 shows Meren field data. Notice that VRR has water rate is plotted. In the Y-axis, the ratio of current oil rate
been above 100% for the last 15 years with an increasing total to previous oil rate is plotted. Each point in the chart
liquid production. This has resulted in stable oil rates as seen represents a single well with which several behaviors can be
in Figure 3. quickly identified:
Pore volumes injected (PVI). Recovery factor (RF) and • WELLS WITHOUT CHANGE: These are wells that
water cut (Wcut) versus PVI plots are useful in understanding fall within the (1, 1) area coordinate point. It is not
the drive mechanism and the maturity of an asset. This is a necessary to spend time on these wells as long as they
simple exercise and a very useful benchmarking metric. have been properly and frequently tested throughout the
selected period.
Figures 10 and 11 show these plots for the three fields
• TOTAL LIQUID RATE INCREASE: These are the
presented. Figure 10 suggests that Bangko field has some
wells that responded to the water injection. They fall on
aquifer support as implied by the recovery factor value of 22%
the 45 degree slope line and above the (1, 1) coordinate
prior to water injection. The field office has confirmed this
point.
point, based on the history of pressure support. The same
• TOTAL LIQUID RATE DECREASE: These are
figure shows a recovery factor for Meren Field of about 20%
problem wells. They fall on the 45 degree slope line and
prior to the initiation of water injection. This estimate of RF is
below the (1, 1) coordinate point. Team discussions
the result of the gas-cap expansion and some aquifer support
should focus on root causes. The first intent should be to
in the flanks of the field.
differentiate if the cause is a result of artificial lift
Figure 11 shows that the Wcut for Bangko field has been efficiency or reservoir conditions.
approximately 80% from the beginning, a typical • WATER CUT INCREASE: These are the wells that fall
characteristic of aquifer supported fields. By contrast, El on the lower right part of the 45 degree slope line. This is
Trapial field, which does not have aquifer support, required the expected behavior of wells in a waterflood asset;
approximately 0.4 PVI to reach the same Wcut level. however, special attention should be given to wells
falling outside the overall trend. Channeling may be
Validating the pattern configuration. A good exercise to causing a higher than usual behavior.
perform at this level is to calculate the average total fluid • WATER CUT DECREASE: These are the wells that fall
production and injection rate per well at reservoir conditions.
on the upper left part of the 45 degree slope line. This
After doing so, the ratio of injection to production for the area of the chart will be unpopulated most of the time.
average well is calculated and referred to as the I/P ratio. This We have learned that new wells may fall in this area
value should be close to the one given by the pattern injection
when the initial well test shows high Wcut because of
selected for the field. As a reminder, a five-spot pattern gives a completion fluids that are still being produced.
1:1 I/P ratio making it necessary to have one injector for each
producer. If the I/P ratio is close to 2:1, an inverted seven-spot Figure 12 shows an example of El Trapial field “ABC”
pattern will be optimal and a 3:1 I/P ratio will be suitable for plot between April and July of 2003.
an inverted nine-spot pattern7.
Concerning the time frame between the “after” and the
Table 1 shows the I/P ratios for the three given examples. “before” periods, a three-month period is recommended.
This ratio is approximately 2:1 for El Trapial, therefore an Choosing a shorter period has the disadvantage of some wells
inverted seven-spot pattern was chosen for the field. Had the not being tested. In addition, field personnel are constantly
decision been made to develop using a five-spot pattern, the looking at the short-term changes and the intent of the plot is
number of injector wells would have been much higher and to offer another perspective.
unnecessary capital expenditures would have occurred.
Note that the same plot can be used to assess injector well
In the case of Bangko and Meren fields, the ratio is performance if wellhead pressure and injection rate are
between 4 and 7, indicating a much higher value of injection plotted. This will allow the users to monitor injectivity trends
relative to production rates. These two cases employed at a field level.
peripheral waterfloods with average permeabilities in the
Block Level
range of 0.5 to 10 Darcys, higher reservoir continuity and
conductivity, and some aquifer support. The objective of this next level is to evaluate how efficient the
waterflood is performing thus giving insights into the
The ABC plot. When looking at a field with hundreds of
existence of future opportunities.
wells, identifying the performance of all wells can be
overwhelming. Additionally, well review meetings are usually When the field is comprised of hundreds of wells, it is
time consuming and difficult to keep focused. A different helpful to subdivide the field into areally defined groups. The
approach has been taken by using a plot called geographical limits of these blocks should be honored, such as
the “After-Before-Compare” or “ABC” plot. This plot uses faults or hydraulically known barriers. However, in many
well test production data from two distinct dates and compares instances it will be necessary to use wells as boundaries based
on pressure boundaries or streamline simulation. Each block
4 SPE 102200
will include both producer and injector wells and it is In addition to the higher-level analysis already discussed, it
recommended to keep the maximum number of blocks below is important to look at the following:
fifty.
Pore volumes injected (PVI) per year. If one follows a
An areal allocation method will be required at this level rule of thumb of injecting 0.10 (0.05 to 0.20 range) PVI per
when using wells as block boundaries. Geometrical, pore year, those patterns with lower values should go into the
volume weighted, original oil in place (OOIP), weighted or opportunity list as requiring additional injection. On the other
angle based are some alternatives. “Keep it simple” is our hand, if the PVI is above 0.20 per year in some patterns, the
recommendation. Remember that this level of analysis will opportunity will be to reduce injection.
give qualitative evaluations to help identify opportunities.
Recommended water injection rates. It is recommended to
For fields with a low number of wells (less than 50), 2 or 3 use injectors as the center of the patterns. Once the pattern is
blocks may be enough. defined, one can calculate the water injection that is necessary
to achieve the target VRR for each pattern-—a value of
In addition to the previously discussed field level practices,
injection rate for optimum waterflood performance at this
it is important to think about efficiencies at this point.
point in time. The absolute difference between target and
Volumetric sweep efficiencies (Evol). Calculating Evol at actual injection rates for each pattern should be minimal or
this level is recommended. A calculation method proposed by actions will need to be taken to reduce it further.
William Cobb9 can be used to obtain Evol from production
If the injection rate is lower than the recommended rate
data. With the calculated values, both for the current stage and
and pressure is at maximum condition, one should look for
for the estimate ultimate recovery (EUR), team discussions
locations within the patterns to infill drill and/or convert wells.
should focus on the following questions:
Put together an action list including:
• Is there a wide range of calculated values between
blocks? • Infill drilling candidates
• On those blocks with low Evol at the EUR, is it due to • Workover candidates
the areal or vertical efficiency? • Conversion proposals
Since volumetric sweep efficiency is the product of areal Additional water requirements resulting from these
(Ea) and vertical (Evert) efficiencies, evaluate the use of proposals must be identified and discussed with facilities and
tracers to investigate Ea. Concerning Evert, the use of vertical operations engineers. This will allow the team to recommend
production and injection profiles and fingerprints are realistic and timely action plans.
recommended.
Figure 14 shows an example from El Trapial field. In the
Focus on extreme performers, high and low Evol blocks. early stages of injection, the injected water rate was higher
Those blocks with low Evol, steep oil decline and high GOR than the VRR recommended to account for the cumulative
should have the highest potential; therefore, the evaluation voidage that was not replaced. The last several years of
should focus on putting more water into the reservoir in these injection show injection rates close to the monthly VRR
areas. The next level, pattern analysis, will help identify targets.
actions such as changing injection rates, infill drilling, and
Well Level
conversions candidates.
The well level will be the last one of the proposed methodical
For the other extreme population, when Evol is high and
approach. Specific and detailed actions should arise at the end
Wcut and oil rate are close to the economic limit, proceed to
of it.
the pattern level thinking about the benefits of shutting off
water, changing flow paths, and reducing injection. Within the key patterns selected, check that producers are
pumped off. If they are not, then this should be the first
Figure 13 shows volumetric efficiency values for different
opportunity to investigate before any additional drilling or
blocks in El Trapial field. The values range from as low as 0.1
workover is performed.
to higher than 0.9. Note that the calculated Evol values are
estimates only as these blocks use allocated pattern rates. It is recommended to follow injector well performance to
assess plugging or fracturing of wells with rate and wellhead
Pattern Level
pressure versus time. Additionally, use of the Hall10 plot to
Pattern level evaluations will confirm the existence of the evaluate injectivity changes is recommended, especially if
opportunities identified at a block level and will facilitate in changes in the water injection quality occur.
developing an action plan.
Well test frequency should be reviewed and prioritized
Hundreds of patterns may constitute a field. At this point, according to the knowledge gained from this multi-phased
the focus should be on the patterns that constitute blocks with process, such as patterns where workovers took place or where
potential improvement opportunities This is especially water injection rates were modified. The team must have
important if human resources are limited to look at all patterns confidence in these measurements, since capital expenditures
of the field. will result from them.
SPE 102200 5
Figure 15 shows a producer type plot. Waterflood response The following questions are presented as guidelines to
is observed when GOR decreases followed through time by identify areas of improvement:
total liquid increase and then a gradually increasing water cut.
Field: Overall health of the asset
Figure 16 shows Hall plot behavior of two wells, one with
• What is the oil rate (log scale) versus time plot showing?
no change in injectivity and one with a drastic change that
It is recommended to make a plot of oil rate versus
helped the team identify a problem well with corroded casing
cumulative oil and to note the observed behavior in the
and out-of-zone injection.
oil rate versus time plot.
• What level of voidage replacement ratio is needed to
Optimizing a Waterflood Using the Recommended
maintain reservoir pressure? If no aquifer support exists,
Practices
a target value of 110% is recommended as a starting
The following example from a portion of El Trapial field point. In some cases, such as highly depleted reservoirs,
shows the results that can be achieved by implementing a this value could be significantly higher.
good surveillance and monitoring program as described in this • Is the water-injection rate target being achieved?
paper. • Is there a clear relationship between the VRR and the
total liquid and oil production rates?
The large drilling activity that took place in the field
• Is the pattern configuration appropriate? Is this
between the years 2000 and 2003 triggered inefficiencies in consistent with the drive mechanism and the I/P ratio?
availability of the water treatment capacity, water-injection Has the decision of inverted nine-spot, inverted seven-
distribution system, and electrical power supply. As a result,
spot, five-spot, line drive, or peripheral pattern made
some parts of the field observed steep oil declines from the based upon appropriate pattern selection analysis?
base production. Yearly nominal decline rates of as high as • What does the ABC plot show? Are there indications of
33% were measured. water channeling? How about wells with total liquid
A pilot was set up with the objective of evaluating the decrease or increase?
benefits of performing a more focused integrated water • Which areas of the field show opportunities when
injection management. An area was selected taking into looking at the GOR, Wcut, and pressure maps?
account the following criteria: low VRR, representative area
Block: Evaluating the waterflooding efficiency and looking
of the field, confined area, existence of spare facility capacity,
for opportunities
availability to increase water injection, and feasibility to
improve electrical supply conditions. Figure 17 shows the • When comparing PVI plots for different blocks, are the
location and pattern configuration of the pilot area. trends similar?
• What is the VRR for different blocks?
The location of the pilot is in the central part of the main • Is there a wide range of volumetric sweep efficiencies?
block, where GOR, Wcut, and pressure maps along with Evol Is this consistent with the field-level maps?
calculations at a field level indicated room for improvement.
• Do some blocks show opportunities to improve
Block and pattern analyses were first performed in the waterflood performance?
area, resulting in several action items. The amount of work
Pattern: Refining and prioritizing the opportunities
that was performed in the four inverted seven-spot patterns
consisted of remedial workovers in the injectors to assure that • Are there any patterns in need of incremental water
water was going in all layers, increasing wellhead pressure in injection or by contrast, is excess water being injected in
the injection wells and ensuring that the pumped off any patterns?
conditions were achieved in producers. Additionally, a • Is the PVI per year within a reasonable range?
dedicated crew was assigned to the area and the highest • Should more wells be drilled (both producers and
priority concerning energy supply was given to the area to injectors)? Should more conversions (from production to
assure minimum power shortages. injection) be conducted?
• Can actions be drafted to address the opportunities? For
Well test frequency was critical to assess the results of the
example, new drills, workovers, injection rate changes.
pilot, thus one test per week was performed in all wells. Both • Has a discussion between team members taken place on
producers and injectors were included in the plan. actions prioritization? What is the availability of water,
As a result of the described work, Figure 18 shows that the rigs, energy, personnel, and facilities?
VRR ratio was increased to the desired value, total liquid
Well: Detail action planning
production rate increased, and the nominal oil decline rate
changed from 33% to 18% per year in a matter of about six • Are the producers being properly pumped off?
months. • Are the injectors showing abnormal injectivities because
of plugging or fracturing?
Asking the Right Questions at the Right Level • Is there a clear action plan to monetize the opportunities?
Table 2 summarizes the different practices that can be helpful • Has operations, facilities, and management discussed
to the reader when diagnosing a field’s performance and trying and agreed with this plan to assure alignment?
to identify opportunities.
6 SPE 102200
Challenges Nomenclature
Some of the challenges that the authors have often faced when Ea = Areal Sweep Efficiency, fraction
performing surveillance and monitoring evaluations include: EUR = Estimate Ultimate Recovery, bbl
• Differentiating oil response because of base production Evert = Vertical Sweep Efficiency, fraction
or infill actions when a lot of activity is taking place in Evol = Volumetric Sweep Efficiency, fraction
the field.
GOR = Gas/Oil Ratio, scf/bbl
• Allocating fluid production and injection vertically when
commingled production occurs. I/P ratio = Average Well Injection Rate to Average
• Tracking the fluid flood front and improving areal and Well Production Rate ratio, fraction at
vertical sweeps. reservoir conditions
OOIP = Original Oil in Place, bbl
Conclusions PVI = Pore Volumes Injected, fraction
Following a methodical surveillance and monitoring process RF = Recovery Factor, percentage
from the field to block to pattern to wells levels, the following Rs = Dissolved Gas/Oil Ratio, scf/bbl
conclusions are drawn:
VRR = Voidage Replacement Ratio, percentage
• Practical applications of surveillance and monitoring Wcut = Water Cut, percentage
principles have led to arresting base decline rates in
many fields operated by Chevron. For example,
following this approach, the base decline rate decreased References
from 33% to 18% per year in the pilot area of El Trapial 1. Kunkel, G.C.: “Controlled Waterflooding, Means Queen
field in Argentina. Reservoir,” SPE Annual Fall Meeting, Denver, CO. Oct 3–6,
• The paper outlines a guideline for asking the right 1965.
questions at the right level (field, block, pattern, and 2. Thakur, G.C.: “Waterflood Surveillance Techniques – A
well). By following these guidelines, we can Reservoir Management Approach,” JPT (October 1991) 1180–
significantly improve the performance of a waterflood. 1188.
• Multi-disciplinary teamwork in collecting and analyzing
3. Talash A.W.: “An Overview of Waterflood Surveillance and
surveillance and monitoring data, and implementing the Monitoring,” JPT (December 1988) 1530–1543.
joint recommendations are keys to successfully
managing waterfloods. 4. Gulick K.E. et al.: “Waterflooding Heterogeneous Reservoirs:
• Many millions of barrels of incremental production and An Overview of Industry Experiences and Practices,” 1998
SPE International Petroleum Conference and Exhibition,
reserves have been added by lowering the base decline
Mexico.
rates in the real-life case studies discussed as examples
in this paper. 5. Baker, R.: “Reservoir Management of Waterfloods – Part I,”
1997, JCPT.
Acknowledgments 6. Baker, R.: “Reservoir Management of Waterfloods – Part II,”
January 1998, JCPT.
We would like to thank Chevron and the business units that
shared their examples: Latin America, Indonesia, and Africa. 7. Thakur, G.C., Satter, A.: “Integrated Waterflood Asset
In addition, we would like to express our sincere appreciation Management,” 1998, PennWell Publishing Co.
to many colleagues in Chevron, especially, H.J. Payne, J.D. 8. SPE Reprint Series No.56: “Waterflooding,” 2003.
Dolan, N. Vrubel, T. Perinot, P. Berri, R. Cobeñas, N. Marot,
A. Pitts, Donny and W. T. Lackey. 9. Cobb, W.M.: “Determination of Volumetric Sweep Efficiency
in Mature Waterfloods using Production Data,” 1997 SPE
Annual Technical Conference and Exhibition, San Antonio,
TX.
10. Hall, H.N.: “How to Analyze Waterflood Injection Well
Performance,” World Oil (October 1963) 128–130.
SPE 102200 7
ABC Plot x
PVI vs. RF x x x
E vol x x
PVI / year x
Hall Plot x
8 SPE 102200
Figures
N
150% 1,000
100%
100
50%
High Wcut
VRR
Low Wcut
Oil Rate
0% 10
0 50 100 150 200
Figure 4. El Trapial field water cut (Wcut) map showing
Time (Month)
contrasting water cuts. High cuts in the south of the field and
low cuts in the north.
Figure 1. El Trapial field voidage replacement ratio (VRR) plot
showing a direct relationship between VRR and oil rate. N
150% 1,000
100%
Oil Rate (MBOPD)
VRR (%)
100
Low GOR
VRR
Oil Rate
0% 10
Figure 5. El Trapial field gas oil ratio (GOR) map showing low
0 50 100 150 200
GORs in the southeast of the field and higher than dissolved
Time (Month)
values to the northwest of the field.
400% 1,000
High Pressure
VRR (%)
200% 100
VRR
Oil Rate
0% 10
0 50 100 150 200 250 300
Time (Month)
N 50%
40%
20%
Bangko
10%
Meren
El Trapial
0%
0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0
Pore Volume Injected (fraction)
Figure 7. El Trapial field flood front bubble map showing good 100%
injection in the south and opportunities to inject more water in the
north of the field as depicted by the size or radius of the 2D
bubbles. 80%
600 150%
60%
Water Cut (%)
40%
Total Liquid (Mbpd)
400 100%
20%
VRR (%)
Bangko
Meren
El Trapial
0%
200 50% 0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0
Pore Volume Injected (fraction)
Total Liquid
VRR Figure 11. Benchmark between fields of Water cut versus pore
0 0% volumes injected.
0 50 100 150 200
Time (Month)
4.0
Figure 8. Bangko field total liquid production.
Oil rate @ Jul-03 / Oil rate @ Apr-03
120 300%
2.0 Total liquid rate
Total Liquid (Mbpd)
increase
1,1 coordinate
point
VRR (%)
80 200%
1.0
0.0 1.0 2.0 3.0 4.0
40 100%
0.0
Total liquid rate
Total Liquid decrease Water rate @ Jul-03 / Water rate @ Apr-03
VRR
0 0%
0 50 100 150 200 250 300
Time (Month) Figure 12. “ABC” (After-Before-Compare) plot for El Trapial
field, April versus July 2003 comparison.
3,000,000
No injectivity change
Injectivity change, Injection out of zone
(psi*days)
Low (red color)
Good (yellow color)
Excellent (green color)
1,000,000
Injection out of
zone period
Oil Rate
Oil Rate - Water Injection Rate - Target Water
Target Injection
Figure 16. Hall plot examples. Black dashed line case well
4,000 Water Injection
shows no change in injectivity. Red dashed line case well
suffered corrosion problems that caused injectivity out of zone.
Injection Rate (bls/day)
3,000
2,000
ET349 APT
ET523 ET160 ET188
1,000 ET96
ET399
ET534 ET217
ET358
APT
ET272 APT
ET481 ET345 APT
AGN
ET470 ET49 ET323
ET161 APT
ET350 ET174
ET563
ET450
T69 ET391 ET97 ETM1
0 ET275 APT
ET377 AGN
ET304
ET324 ET352
ET303
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 AGN
ET162 ET351
APT
ET305
APT
ET129 AGN ET256
ET247
ET94 ET264
ET379
ET503 ET550
AGN ET329
AGN ET407 APT
T521 ET261 ET92
ET278 ET452 APT
ET133 ET59 ET330
APT
Figure 14. Injection centered pattern type plot showing target AGN
ET90
ET283
ET130
ET486
ET360
ET546 APT
10,000 100
Figure 17. Location of El Trapial field waterflood optimization
pilot. Pattern configuration consisted of a confined area with
four inverted seven spot patterns.
Oil Rate - Total Liquid Rate (bls/day)
75
Gas Oil Ratio (scf/bbl) -
100,000 200%
1,000
Total Liquid Rate
Water Cut (%)
Oil Rate
50 VRR
Oil Rate - Total Liquid Rate (bls/day)
150%
100
25
Oil Rate
Total Liquid 10,000 100%
GOR
Wcut
10 0
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140
Time (months)
50%
Figure 15. Production well type plot showing oil rate, Pilot Start
water cut, gas oil ratio.
1,000 0%
80 90 100 110 120 130 140
Time (months)