International Master in Water

Engineering

UNIT 11

Jordi Delgado Martín

Civil Engineering School

Universidade da Coruña 1
The Study of Natural Waters

Part III.
Lakes and Reservoirs

2
 Fresh Water Environments
Lentic systems: Water flows at a very low rate or water is
standing (lakes, reservoirs, ponds, swamps, etc.).
They are typically flooded or water-logged.
They can develop tides and waves.
The amount of standing water does not change
significantly (except in the case of reservoirs)
Lotic systems: Water flows fast in a given, one-way,
direction (streams, creeks, rivers, etc.)
The amount of water may change fast (even disappearing)
depending on the amount of precipitation.
Ecological Classification of Fresh
Water Organisms
1.Seston: Organisms (bioseston) and non-living
matter (abioseston or tripton) swimming or floating
in a water body .
Plankton: any organisms that live in the water column and are
incapable of swimming against a current. These organisms
include drifting animals, plants, archaea, algae, or bacteria
Zooplankton: Heterotrophic (sometimes detritivorous)
plankton.
Phytoplankton: Autotrophic component of the plankton
community (algae, archea, bacteria).
Tripton: Inorganic (non-living) fraction of seston.
2.Nekton: Aggregate of actively swimming aquatic
organisms in a body of water able to move
independently of water currents.
 Ecological Classification of
FreshWater Organisms
3. Benthos: Community of organisms which live on, in, or
near the bed of a water body, also known as the benthic
zone. They are usually invertebrates.
4. Neuston: Is the collective term for the organisms that
float on the top of water (epineuston) or live right under
the surface (hyponeuston or pleuston).
7. Periphyton: Complex mixture of algae, cyanobacteria,
heterotrophic microbes, and detritus that are attached
to submerged surfaces in most aquatic ecosystems.
8. Psammon: Ecological community consisting of the
typically minute plants and animals that live in the water
filling the interstices of sand adjacent to a body of fresh
water.
Ecological Classification of
FreshWater Organisms
phytoplankton zooplankton nekton

neuston pleuston
benthos

periphyton psammon
 Macrophyts
1. Emerged
2. Floating
3. Submerged
Ecological Zoning

9
Ecological Zoning

10
Ecological Zoning
Ecological Zoning
ECOSYSTEM
Ecological Zoning

15
Tchad Lake
Tchad Lake
Tchad Lake

Tchad lake was the 6th largest

lake of the world (in surface)
but the prolonged drought
affecting Africa since the early
60’s has reduced its area to
1/10th of its original surface

Changes in its surface area are

not strange...
About 10.000 years ago, it
occupied an area of ~1.500.000
km2 and in the past 1000 years
it has become fully dried, at
least, 6 times !!
Great Lakes of the World
Great Lakes of the World
 Lake Types

Tectonic: Lakes associated to great land

depressions of tectonic origin (mainly faults)
They tend to have a very high depth
Baikal: 1.741 m b.s.
Tanganyika: 1.435 m b.s.
Malawi (or Niassa): 706 m b.s.
Tectonic Lakes
Ancient Lakes
Tectonic Lakes

Age: 25 – 50 My !!
Tectonic Lakes
Tectonic Lakes
Tectonic Lakes
Tectonic Lakes

Banyoles lake (Girona)

 Alluvial Lakes

They typically from as the result of the retention of water in

the flood plain of rivers when the natural draining path becomes
obstructed.
They tend to be colonized by submerged/floating plants and to
disappear due to sediment clogging.
Ox-bow type lakes are examples.
Glacial Lakes
 Glacial Lakes
Product of the excavation work of glacial systems

Cregüeña lake (Spanish Pyrenees)

Glacial Lakes

Sanabria lake (Zamora)

Glacial Lakes

The Great Laurentian lakes

(USA-Canada)
Glacial Lakes

34
Volcanic Lakes

Crater Lake (Oregon, USA)

Volcanic Lakes

36
Volcanic Lakes

Lago Nyos (Camerún)

Volcanic Lakes
 Volcanic Lakes
Source:http://www.pnas.org/content/102/40/14185/F1.large.jpg

Lake Nyos Lake Nyos

Lake Monoun Lake Monoun

40
Volcanic Lakes
Impact Lakes

Manicouagan lake (Canada)

 Other Types of Lake
Endorheic: Water flooding of land depressions without a
natural draining path towards the sea
They use to be salty (brackish to brine waters) due to
progressive evapoconcentration.
Pelagic: Continental (interior) seas which are remnants of old
oceanic masses which have become isolated due to tectonic
processes (plate tectonics).
Karstic: They develop in easily soluble substrates
(carbonates, gypsum, other evaporites) due to the flooding of
sinkholes or related collapse structures
Dolines and poljes
Water discharge is subterranean.
Playa Lakes

Deep Spring Lake (California, USA)

 Water salinity based on dissolved salts
Brackish Saline
Fresh water Brine
water water
< 0.05% 0.05–3% 3–5% > 5%

45
Endorheic (or Closed) Basins

Great Salt Lake (Utah, USA)

Endorheic (or Closed) Basins

Death Valley (Nevada/California, USA)

Endorheic (or Closed) Basins

Gallocanta lagoon (Zaragoza)

The Aral Sea Disaster
The Aral Sea Disaster
1964

By 1960 the surface area of the

45 km Aral sea was above 65000 km2
The Aral Sea Disaster
 The Aral Sea Disaster

The soviet five-year plans designed the use of large

areas of the desert of Turkmeninstan for the
intensive farming of rice and cotton
In 1956 the Karakum channel was opened so that a
large amount of water from the Amur Daria river was
diverted towards desertic areas of Turkmenistan.
Simultaneously, large dry areas of Uzbekistan were
covered by irrigation crops

And the result was ...

The Aral Sea Disaster
54
The Aral Sea Disaster
The Aral Sea Disaster
The Aral Sea Disaster
The Aral Sea Disaster
The Aral Sea Disaster
The Aral Sea Disaster
 The Aral Sea Disaster

2009 2010
Pelagic Lakes
 Pelagic Lakes

Noah’s Flood and the Flooding of the Black Sea

 Pelagic Lakes

Bosphorus

Dardanelles
Pelagic Lakes

65
 Karstic Lakes
Torca de Cañada del Hoyo (Cuenca)

Florida (USA) Covadonga lakes (Asturias)

 Karstic Lakes

Blue Hole (Belize)

Cenote en Yucatán (México)

 Litoral Lagoons
Lagoa de Baldaio
Lagoa de Doniños

Lagoa da Frouxeira

Lagoa de Louro
Natural Dams

Beaver dams
Reservoirs
 Reservoirs

Rosadoiro reservoir

Abegondo-Cecebre reservoir
Mine Pit Lakes
Iberian Pyrite Belt mines

As Pontes de García Rodríguez pit lake

Subglacial Lakes

~20 My !!
Morphometry

Lead sounder
 Morphometry
Charplotter GARMIN GPSMAP 526s with bi-frequency
transducer AIRMAR B258 de 50/200 kHz and 1 kW
Beam amplitude:
50 kHz: 15º-21º
200 kHz: 3º-5º
Range:
50 kHz: 457-671 m
200 kHz: 213-305 m
Morphometry

Ecosounder Valeport Midas Surveyor

Beam amplitude:
33 kHz: 15º-21º
210 kHz: 3º-5º
Range:
33 kHz: 0.3 - 100m
210 kHz: 1.8 - 100 m
Resolution:
0.01 m
Morphometry
 Morphometry
Surface area (A0): This is important to assess the solar energy
budget and different morphometric parameters.
Direct precipitation, total and PAR radiations, etc.
Litoral area (Alit): Difference between the total surface of the lake
or reservoir (A0) and that corresponding to the penetration of 1% of
PAR radiation.
Maximum and Mean Depths (Zmax, Zmed):
Shallow lakes tend to be more productive.
It also affects the likelihood of sediment resuspension due to
waves, grazing organisms, etc.
The relative importance of the litoral habitat can be assessed
through the depth of extinction of the surface radiatin (1 %
PAR or ~3 * ZSD)
V
Zmed =
A0
 Morphometry
Relative Depth (Zrel): highest depth, expresed as a percentage of the
mean diameter of the water body.

50Zmed π
Zrel =
A0
Morphometry
 Morphometry
Shoreline length (SL): length of the contour line that defines the
lake r reservoir at its highest level.
It is important to define the relative development of the different
biotopes in lakes and reservoirs.
Relative development of shoreline length (DL): relationship between
the shoreline length (SL) and the perimeter of a circumference
whose radii is equivalent to the surface area of the lake or reservoir
(A0)
Those with circular shape tend to have a DL value close to 1.
Those with highly irregular shapes have a DL >> 1
SL
DL =
2 πA0
 Morphometry
Crater Lake (USA)
Powell Lake (USA)

DL = 33.6 DL = 1.6
 Morphometry
Maximum length (L): the distance between two points of the shore
line that, related with a strike line, shows the maximum land-
uninterrumpted separation.
It is equivalent to the maximum theoretical fetch.
Maximum width (b): longest distance between two points of the
shoreline measured in the orthogonal direction to the maximum
length.
Mean width (bmed): ratio between the total area of the lake or
reservoir (A0) and maximum length (L)
L
bmed =
A0
Fetch: longest distance exposed to the action of wind without the
interruption of land masses.
It is related with the maximum wave height product of the interaction of
wind with water.
 Morphometry

360
Dirección (º)

270
180
90
0
Morphometry

Rip Rap

In the case of the As Pontes pit lake, with a

fetch of ~5 km (~3 miles), the significant
wave height for a wind speed of ~100 km/h
(~60 mph) would be ~1.5 m (~5 ft)
 Morphometry
Catchment area (CA): Surface of the catchment draining towards a
lake or reservoir.
Is affects many processes (amount and type of nutrients, hydraulic
retention time, etc.)
CA:LA ratio: Relationship between catchment area (CA) and the lake
or reservoir area (A0)
Volume (V): Amount of water stored in a lake or reservoir.
Determines the dilution capacity.
Relative volume development (DV): measure of the deviation of the
lake or reservoir with respect to the theoretical shape of a cone.
3Zmed
DV =
Zmax
 Morphometry
A top
epilimnion
A bottom

hypolimnion

A top
A bottom z
z
z V=
(
z Atop + Abottom + Atop • Abottom )
3
Hypsographic Curve
Hypsographic Curve
 Morphometry – The
Abegondo-Cecebre Reservoir

Barcés river
catchment Mero river
catchment
 Morphometry – The
Abegondo-Cecebre Reservoir
 Bathymetry

Equally spaced travel lines

(~25 m).
Data acquired at high
frequency (~1 sample/m)
Next to the dam, travel lines
are closer (~10 m).
An auxiliary GPS device was
used to real-time track the
boat trajectories.
 Bathymetry
Continuous combined surface topography/bathymetry map as obtained in 2011
(DEM2011)
 Bathymetry
DEM2011 of the reservoir
(in m a.s.l.)
 Bathymetry

DEM2011 of the reservoir

(in m b.s.)

V.E. x10
Bathymetry

97
 Depth-Volume Curve
V35 = 20.85 hm3 (100%)
A third-degree polynomial
35

describes well the data

associated with the DEM2011 :
V31.5 = 10.54 hm3 (50.6%)
30
X = height (m a.s.l.)
Y = volume of usable water (hm3)

Cota (m s.n.m.)
V26.5 = 2.84 hm3 (13.6%)

25

20

Embalse de Abegondo-Cecebre
relación cota-volumen
15
0 5 10 15 20 25
Volumen (hm3)
Y = 4.05x10-3X3 - 0.21756X2 + 3.94213X - 24.24264
(R2=0.99991)
 Morphometry
Morphometric data refers to the maximum attainable
water level (35 m a.s.l.)
Area (A0) = 355.2 ha
Volume (V0) = 20.85 hm3
Maximum depth (zmax) = 17.78 m
Mean depth (V0/A0) = 5.87 m
b
Shoreline length (SL) = 19864.87 m
L
Shoreline development ratio (DL) = 2.973

Maximum fetch (L) = 3627 m

Maximum amplitude (b) = 1525 m
Mean amplitude (A0/L) = 979.3 m
CA:LA ratio = 72.6
(Combined Mero-Barcés catchment area = 25800 ha)
 Colmatation

IGN map of 1929 IGN map of 1929

(Sheet of Betanzos, 1:50.000) (Detail of the reservoir zone)
Colmatation
Taquimetric maps (1/1000) of the
reservoir area before its
construction (year 1965)

Taquimetric maps were ortho-fotographed

and composed in a continuous mosaic
 Colmatation
Digitalization of the
cartographic information
from 1965 and corresponding
DEM1965

1965
2011
 Colmatation
3D image of DEM965

V.E. x10
 Colmatation
Comparing the pre-construction topography with the new bathymetric map it is
possible to assess colmatation since the dam started to operate (1976).
It is also possible to identify where sedimentation is preferentially taking
place, as well as erosion.
Sediment volume assessment considers:
DEM2011: 20.85 hm3 (at 35 m a.s.l.)
DEM1965: 22.26 hm3 (at 35 m a.s.l.)
Reference volume of river basin authority : 21.69 hm3 (at 35 m a.s.l.)
The reduction of storage capacity (1976-2011) goes from 0.84 to 1.41 hm3 or
0.024 to 0.040 hm3/year
 Colmatation
Storage capacity reduction
concentrates in the tails of the
reservoir.
Assessment of the sediment
volume at +35 m a.s.l. shows
that Vsed = 2.083 hm3
The apparent volume of erosion
is about 0.43 hm3
Erosion concentrates in the
margins of the reservoir.
 Reservoir Erosion
Oxidation induced by
sediment bioturbation
Disappearance of lakeside
vegetation
Slope erosion

Procambarus clarkii
(red crab or American crab)
Reservoirs

Reservoirs in Spain, between

1900 and 2010
Reservoirs
Reservoirs
Reservoirs
 Reservoirs

Water quality in a reservoir depends, among others on: Location of uptake points (A,
B, C) with respect thermocline: A) Oxygenated epilimnetic water; B) Anoxic
hypolimnetic water; C) Water in contact with sediments (After Cole and Hannan,
1990)
Reservoirs
Reservoirs
Reservoirs
 Residence Time
Mean time along which a particular substance remains within a
given system (or reservoir).

It is inversely proportional to flow

It is directly proportional to the size of the system (or

reservoir)
Hydraulic Retention Time
Volume (m3)/Flow
Volume (m 3/year)
/ Inflow = Residence
= Residence time (years)
Time (years)

outflow
Output= 50 Input
inflow= 50
TR
RT == 22 years
years
Volume 100
Volume 100

outflow=100
Output 100 inflow
Input 100
= 100
RT
TR ==1 1years
year
Volume 100
Volume 100

Output
outflow=200
200 inflow
Input 200
= 200
RT
TR ==.50.5
years
years
Volume 100
Volume 100
 Residence Time
Residence time of water in the oceans

R volumen = 1370 x 10 6 km 3 = 1.4 x 10 9 km 3

Fflujo ríos = 37 x 10 3 km 3 /año = 3.7 x 10 4 km 3 /year

R 1.4 x 10 9 km 3
t= = 4 3
≈ 40.000 years
F 3.7 x 10 km /year
 Residence Time
Equivalent
Reservoir Residence Time
Depth (m)
Oceans 2500 ~ 40.000 years
Ice caps and glaciers 60 ~ 10 – 1.000 years
Ground wáter 120 ~ 2 weeks – 10.000 years
Lakes and reservoirs 0.25 ~ 10 years
Wetlands 0.007 ~ 1 – 10 years
Soil moisture 0.13 ~ 2 weeks – 1 year
Rivers 0.003 ~ 2 weeks
Atmosphere (total) 0.025 ~ 10 days
Biosphere 0.001 ~ 1 week

Mean residence time of water in different reservoirs

 Residence Time
Residence time of chloride in the oceans

R cantidad = [Cl]sw x total volume of oceans

[Cl]sw = 19 g/kg

Fflujo ríos = [Cl]rw x total river discharge

[Cl]rw = 6 mg/kg

R [Cl]sw x VTO 19
t= = = x 4x10 4 ≈ 120.000.00 0 years
F [Cl]rw x DFT 0.006
Residence Time