Acro metal/. Vol. 32, No. 5. pp. 615-627, 1984 OOOI-6160,‘84S3.00 + 0.

00
Printed in Great Britain. All rights reserved Copyright c 1984 Pergamon Press Ltd

OVERVIEW NO. 37

ON THE MICROSTRUCTURE OF ALLOYS

E. HORNBOGEN
Institut fiir Werkstoffe, Ruhr-Universitlt, Bochum, F.R.G

(Received 7 Augusr 1983)

Abstract-The structural level of “microstructure” is situated between that of “phase” and macroscopic
structures. An attempt is made at its complete and quantitative description. 0- to 3-dimensional defects
are classified as four groups of microstructural elements. These elements occur in different densities and
distributions. They can form order, mixtures, or gradients. Three elementary types of two-phase
microstructures (dispersion, net, duplex) are defined using as topological parameters densities of grain-
and phase-boundaries or the percolation behaviour of the phases and boundaries. These can be extended
to n-phase microstructures for which (n + 1) types exist. Complex microstructures contain mixtures of
elements and types. By analogy with transformations in other structural levels (electronic-. phase-) the
existence of microstructural transformations has been proposed. There are transformations of one
microstructural element into another (dislocations+ grain boundary), of defect crystals (microstructure)
into a glass phase (without microstructure), or of one two-phase microstructure into another type. Such
a microstructural transformation can be associated with large changes in bulk properties.

R&mm&-Le niveau structural de la “microstructure” est situ6 entre les niveaux des structures de “phases”
et des structures macroscopiques. Nous avons essaye d’en donner une description complete et quantitative.
Nous rangeons les defauts de dimension 0 a 3 en quatre groupes d’eliments microstructuraux. Ces
elements apparaissent avec des densites et des repartitions differentes. IIs peuvent former de l’ordre, des
melanges ou des gradients. Nous definissons trois types tlimentaires de microstructures diphasies
(repartition, r&au, duplex) en utilisant comme paramttres topologiques les densites des joints de grains
et de phases ou la percolation de ces phases et joints. On peut les etendre aux microstructures de n phases,
pour lesquelles il existe (n + I) types. Les microstructures complexes comprennent des melanges d’elements
et de types. Par analogie avec les transformations a d’autres niveaux structuraux (structure Clectronique,
phases), nous proposons l’existence de transormations microstructurales. II s’agit de transformations d’un
&l&rent microstructural en un autre (dislocations-+ joint de grains), de cristaux fautes (microstructure)
en une phase vitreuse (sans microstructure) ou dune microstructure diphaste en une d’un autre type. Des
changements importants de-s proprittes du mat&au massif peuvent itre associes a telle transformation
microstructurale.

ZtWUllUleQf-Die strukturelle Ebene “Gefiige” liegt zwischen der “Phase” und den makro-
skopischen Strukturen. Es wird ein Versuch zu dessen umfassender, d. h. vollstlndigen und quantitativen
Beschreibung gemacht. 0- bis 3dimensionale Gitterstiirungen werden als vier Grnppen von Gefiigeele-
menten festgelegt. Diese Elemente kommen in verschiedenen Dichten und Verteilungen vor. Sie kiinnen
Ordnung, Gradienten oder Gem&he bilden. Drei elementare Typen zwei-phasiger Gefiige (Dispersion,
Netz, Duplex) konnen mit Hilfe der Dichten von Kom- und Phasengrenzen als topologischer Parameter
definiert werden oder durch das Perkolationsverhalten (Durchdringung) der einzelnen Phasen. En-
tsprechend den Umwandlungen in anderen Ebenen der Struktur (elektronische Umwandlung, Phasen-
umwandlung) wird der Begriff einer Gefiigeumwandlung vorgeschlagen. Dies sind Umwandlungen eines
Geftigeelementes in ein anderes (Versetzung-rKomgrenze), eines defekten Kristalls (Gefiige) in eine
Glas-Phase oder eines zweiphasen Gefiiges in einen anderen Typ. Derartige Gefiigeumwandlungen konnen
mit grogen binderungen der makroskopischen Eigenschaften verbunden sein.

1. INTRODUCTION exist 6 structural levels of matter down to the final

Material science is concerned with the relation be-
tween structure and macroscopic properties. There
tThe term microstructure is used in the same or in a very
similar form for example in French, Portuguese, Span-
ish, and all Scandinavian languages. It is not without
ambiguity because sometimes it is applied in a more
general sense, i.e. for all structural levels. The German
language, fortunately, provides a more specific term: das
Gefiige.
615
elementary particles (Fig. 1). Microstructuret is the
term used here for the level between phases (crystals
and glasses) and macroscopic structures. The struc-
ture of nuclei, atoms and molecules finds consid-
erable attention by scientists. The same is true for the
crystalline phases and glasses. Sometimes the level of
microstructure is not taken seriously to the same
extent. Its existence and relevance for properties of
materials should, however, justify an attempt for a
complete and quantitative description of its features.
616 HORNBOGEN: ON THE MICROSTRUCTURE OF ALLOYS

Levels of structure of materials

7 Engineering Integrated cirults Chinese wall
structure
I 4
Diameter of groin or phase boundary Large grain size
f 6 Microstructure 1 4
Smai/ Large elementary cells
# 5 Phase
Monomers High polymer
M 4 Molecule I I

A 3 Atom w

N 2 Nucleus !-I

E , Elementary n
particle
I I I I I I 1 )
Level of IO-‘5 10-Q 10-q 10-6 10-x I00 I03
structure Size of structural objects (ml

Fig. 1. Seven levels of structure.

The term microstructure is still often reserved to interface should be regarded as part of the micro-
objects which are visible by the methods of light structure, inspite of the fact that bi-crystal plus
microscopy. Its quantitative description has achieved interface may form a minimum free-energy system.
a high degree of perfection [ I.& Advances of electron Microstructure is identical with the arrangement in
microscopy (TEM, SEMI [3] and more recently field three-dimensional space of all types of non-
ion microscopy (FIM), however, have expanded our equilibrium defects including interfaces, and pores.
horizon so that it seems on time to extend the Thus a mono-phase alloy can, a poly-phase alloy
definition of microstructure. and to realise that its must have a microstructure.
importance is comparable to that of other levels of
structure.
The objects of concern in the different structural
levels cover a certain size range with considerable
overlap. The dimensions of microstructural elements
start just above one atomic spacing (as for example
the thickness of a grain boundary). The size of an
elementary cell of a crystal structure may surpass this
dimension by an order of magnitude (Fig. 1). Thus
the size cannot be used for a definition of the limit
between phase and microstructure. Phases are the
three-dimensional zones of homogeneous structure
(crystal or glass) and composition. Microstructure
comprehends all discontinuities inside and between
phases. The phases can be derived in most cases from
stable or metastable thermo-dynamical equilibria.
The elements of microstructure are non-equilibrium
features of structures. This allows a definition of the
limit between “phase” and “microstructure” [4],
which shall be discussed using the following exam-
ples.
The anti-phase domain boundaries (APB) in AuCu
are regularly spaced and required to minimize free
energy. They are considered if the elementary cell is
established and therefore part of the phase. At the
other hand, grown-in APB’s in FeAl do form an
APB-microstructure. They are not in equilibrium and
prone to healing out (Fig. 2). According to this
definition defects are regarded as part of the
microsrructure [S] unless they are required to min- Fig. 2. Distinction of phase and microstructure. (a) Antl-
imize the energy term of the free energy. Another phase domain boundaries (APB) belonging to the phase
limiting case is an interface of a bi-crystal. This AuCu. (b) Grown-in APB-microstructure in Fe,AI.
 HORNBOGEN: ON THE MICROSTRUCTURE OF ALLOYS 617

Table I. Microstructural elements

Geometrical Dimension of specific
dimension Example for elements densities. p energy.
1 0 Vacancy --,- ; J
2 I Dislocation m-: Jn- ’
3 2 Grain boundary m-’ Jm--‘
4 3 Pore. aarticle I Jm ’

2. MICROSTRUCTURAL ELEMENTS AND S,-p;‘=[m] (2c)

TYPES OF TWO-PHASE
STRUCTURES S, c .f;{’ dij= [ml. (24
The basic elements of microstructure are the lattice In addition to the spacings. statistical and geo-
defects and interfaces. They can be put into a system- metrical functions are required for a description of
atic order using their geometric dimension (Table 1). microstructure, which will not be discussed much
The quantitative characterization of a microstructure further [ 1.21:
starts with information on structure of the defects
(a) distribution of crystal orientations (texture).
followed by information on their density. The dimen-
(bj local distribution (random, ordered, clustered),
sion of these densities varies with the geometric
(c) shape of one-, two-, and three-dimensional ele-
dimension of the defects:
ments,
(d) orientations of these elements in space (micro-
O-dimensional: p0 = p, = y = [mm31 (la) structural anisotropy).
A dispersion of particles [see equations (Id), (2d)] is
l-dimensional: p, = pn= F = [mm’] (lb) not the only type of two-phase microstructure which
exists. Depending on volume fraction, shape and
2-dimensional: p1 = ph = y = [m-‘1 (Ic) distribution of the phases z and fl. different types can
be defined. The discussion will be limited to isotropic
microstrucures which consist of equi-axed grains or
3-dimensional: p3 = pP= 7 = [m”]. (Id)
particles. For this purpose the densities of the bound-
aries phr namely grain- and interface-boundaries are
The subscripts stand for dimension of for certain
useful (Figs 4-6, Table 2).
defects which have been used as examples: L’=
vacancy, d = dislocation, b = boundary, p = particle, pb = PIX+ P/JfJ + P,(l. (3a)

pore. N, L, A, V are number. length. area, and

An ideal dispersion of p should contain no
volume of the defects. There are relations between
@-boundaries
densities p, and the average spacing S, of the defects
(Fig. 3) P/l/j
= 0. (3b)
S, -p;‘=[m] (2a) The density of interfaces is connected with the degree
of dispersion ,f,d,‘, for example for cube shaped
S,-p;‘=[m] (2b)
particles [equation (2d)]

p,/i= 6f,d,' (3c)

(0 <,fj < 1 and d,!> 20). Sometimes it is reasonable to
relate pip to the grain structure of the matrix by using
the ratio 6 of the boundary densities

(3d)

In this way finely dispersed /?-phase is defined by

6 & 1. If fi-particles form at rr-grain boundaries and
cover them totally a net structure will originate,
aa-boundaries disappear and /?P-contacts can form

PZI = 0. (3e)
In a dispersion of p the matric 2 percolates the
cross-section of a macroscopic specimen. The same
Fig. 3. Examples for microstructureal elements: dis-
does fi for net structure (Fig. 5). For a similar
locations, stacking faults. grain boundaries in z-Cu + parameter the term contiguity was introduced
11.2 at.?, Ga solid solution. earlier [6.7].
 .:
618 HORNBOGEN: ON THE MICROSTRUCTURE OF ALLOYS

A similar topological way to distinguish types of

ri!J
two-phase grain structures is the use of boundary
junctions (aaa, aa/& a/?/?, /?/IF) [9], and the densities of
boundary junction lines [equations (lb), (2b)] (Fig.
6).
Coating

3. MIXTURES OF MICROSTRUCTURAL
ELEMENTS AND TYPES

Microstructural elements are typically frozen-in

non-equilibrium features. The densities of the ele-
ments can vary to a large extent. The existence of a
microstructure F is always associated with an in-
crease in free-energy AFr of the materialt. This
microstructural energy is obtained from the sum of
the products of the densities of the zero- to two
Fi bres dimensional elements pi [equations (la-c), i = 0, 1, 21
with the specific energies of the elements ei (Table 1).
AFr=AUr-ASrTxAUr
= Zp,e, + Xp, e, + iYp,e2 + Zp,e, (54

Dispersion
Duplex Sceleton
Type of mlcrostructure
Fig. 4. Varieties of two-phase microstructures.
The third type of two-phase microstructure is
characterized by percolation of z as well as p, i.e. an
equal number of grains of equal average size is
arranged as a random mixture (Figs 5 and 6). Both
types of grain boundaries. and interfaces occur with
the same probability. In average seven interfaces and
seven grain boundaries of both types touch each
grain
PII = P/l/i
Pm + Pss = Pm/l
&p”B=!i?9=2
Pm Pss
This is valid for the ideal duplex structure, which in
addition requires a fixed ratio of the volume fractions
of the phases
f, =fa = 0.5.
The average grain size of such a duplex structure S,,
is inverse proportional to the sum of the densities of
all boundaries [equation (2c)]
s,-Ph’=(P..+PBB+P.B)-‘.
Each tl- or p-grain is surrounded in average by 14
neighbours. The chance that they are all unlike is
2-14. From this follows percolation of z and fi in the
duplex structure (Table 3).
tFor all microstructural elements (Table 1) (except for
thermal vacancies) the energy term AU, dominates and
entropy AS, can be neglected. This is also true for
entropy changes which occur as a consequence of
microstructural order and disorder.
AU, provides the driving force for some solid state
reactions [lo]. Its amount characterizes micro-
structural instability [ 141, provided that the structure
is made-up of thermo-dynamically stable phases 4:
AF4 = 0.
AF,,,, = AF, + AF, (5b)
Thus characteristic for the structural level of micro-
structure is absence of thermo-dynamical equi-
librium. Therefore a multititude of ways exist to
provide the energy for the formation of micro-
structure elements. For example the origin of two-
phase structures can be subdivided into the following
(Fig. 7):
@a)
(1) homogeneously nucleated (statistical distribu-
(4b)
tion),
(2) heterogeneously nucleated (defect-controlled
w
. distribution),
(3) dissipative by autocatalytic growth (eutectic,
eutectoid growth),
(4) synthetic (composites, sintered mixtures of
different powders, structures formed by localized or
W) periodic vapour deposition from different sources).
In this connection the origin of microstructural
order should be mentioned. Its occurrence is associ-
ated with diffraction effects (side-bands) [l l-131. It
can be characterized by a decrease in microstructural
(k) entropy AS, as compared to the corresponding ran-
dom microstructure (Fig. 8). Microstructural order
can be due to:
(A) minimation of energy (AUr+min),
(B) dissipative growth,
(C) artificial production.
Order is either controlled by thermo-dynamical equi-
librium (A) 1121, or kinetics of irreversible processes
(B), or human intelligence (C) [13].
 HORNBOGEN: ON THE MlCROSTRUCTURE OF ALLOYS

Fig. 5. Principal types of equi-axed two-phase microstructures. (a) Dispersion:

Ni + 18.2 Cr + 5.7 Al, 7 + 7’. (b) Duplex: Fe + 9 wty,, Ni, r -t- [y--t zM] (austenite transformed
to martensite during cooling). (c) Net: Fe + 0.6 wt”,; C, r + Fe&.

As a consequence of the multitude of ways by elements and of types of two-phase or poly-phase

which microst~ctures originate, they are found in a structures (Fig. 9). First. the nature and density of O-
wide range of complexity [14]. This is often aspired to 3-dimensional elements are analysed in the differed
if-for example by thermo-mechanical treatments phases CYand /I
[ 10,15]-complex microstructures are to be produced,
(Go + Q, -I- 0, + Q,), +
which in turn provide desired macroscopic
microstructure-sensitive properties such as high me- (Zp, + Q, + zp, + ZP,),, + f .. (64
chanical or magnetic hardness. then the volume fractions of these phases are estab-
A systematic analysis of such complex micro- lished.
structures must consider mixtures of microstructural
f,+.fp+ *.... = 1. (6b)
Finally a study of nature of the interfaces (Table 2)
and the ratios of their densities [equation (3d)J pro-
vides a complete description even of the most com-
piex microstructure, which consists of mixtures of
Nodes o*(r =afQ -P , OBP
Boundries aa aa, aa , PPt4 elements as well as types (Fig. 10).
Fig. 6. Boundary junctions in mono-phase. dispersion, and This in turn can serve as the starting point for
duplex structure, schematic. calculation of macroscopic properties. Micro-
620 HORNBOGEN: ON THE MICROSTRUCTURE OF ALLOYS

Fig. 7. Different origin of two-phase microstructures. (a) Homogeneously nucleated: Fe + 1.1 at.“,, Cu,
25h 500’C. (b) Heterogeneously nucleated at dislocations: Fe + 1.1 at.“,;Au, 24h 500-C. IOh 550 C.
(c) Formed by autocatalytic reaction (combined discontinuous precipitation and recrystallization):
Cu + 2.8 at.%Co. 10% C.W. (d) Artificial formation by impregnation: Metglass, Fe + 20 at.!, B, in
epoxy-resin, fracture surface.

structural elements for example interact with mobile occur in all levels of structure (Fig. 1). Nuclear and
dislocations. They become elementary hardening electronic transformations are known as well as phase
mechanisms, and the yield stress of an alloy can be transformations in solids: a crystal structure z trans-
obtained even for a complex microstructure [16] forms into /I
(Table 1).
&+&I. (7a)
4. MICROSTRUCTURAL TRANSFORMATION Transformations paramagnetic-+ferromagnetic, or
Transformation is a (discontinuous or continuous) normal conductor-+superconductor are electronic
change in structure of matter. Transformations can transformations, the changes in phase structure are

Fig. 8. Microstructural order. (a) Ordered local distribution of particles, schematic. (b) Fe + 28 at.g;Ni t
R at.%Al, 1500h 4OWC,7 + ;t’.
 HORNBOGEN: ON THE MICROSTRUCTURE OF ALLOYS 621

bcohrren,-‘b,m,.,oherml~bn,,-
crcn, (7d)

for interfaces (Fig. IX).

(B) TranTformation of’ microstructure to phuse

(4, + w 4, (8a)
The density of microstructural elements p, can attain
an upper limit. If. for example. the dislocation density
pd [equation (lb)]. or the boundary density oh (equa-
tion (1b)] reaches a value at which the spacing S,
[equation (2)] approaches atomic dimensions. an
amorphous phase is obtained (at about S,,, = 20 ).
Before this transformation is acquired an ultra-fine
crystalline microstructure exists. This transformation
is driven by external energies. For example dis-
locations are produced at surfaces exposed to fric-
tional shear stresses. Such high dislocation densities
must be stabilized by a sufficient number of inter-
stitial atoms such as B. C. N in r-iron (Fig. 13) [20].
If the density of grain boundaries is increased to a
spacing of S, < 10a. the volume fraction of the
(a)

Fig. 9. Complex microstructures. schematic. (a) Mixture of

dislocations and particles. (b) Triplex structure (compare
Table 3).

secondary [ 17,181. The concept of transformation can

be extended to the level of microstructure (r,) for
example of one two-phase microstructure to another
type (Fig. 1I) [19]
r,-1-, Ub)
A systematic search leads to the following trans-
formations in which microstructure plays a role.

(A) Tran:formation of microstructural elements

It is well known that vacancies can condensate to
form dislocation rings, dislocations form grain
boundaries. Coherent boundaries will transform to
non-coherent ones (Table 2). These transformations
are characterized by the fact that a microstructural
element is formed of higher geometrical dimension,
or to less coherency (i.e. structural order for two-
dimensional elements).
The driving force for these transformations is a
lowering of the energy of the total system, while the
specific energy of the element e, will increase. The Fig. 10. (a) Mixture of elements and types: [dislocation.
density of the transforming element will decrease, as boundaries. particles] + [dispersion. duplex]. (b) Micro-
the transformation starts with the formation of the structure Fig. IO(A) in a maraging steel after thermo-
new element (Fig. 12, Tables 1. 2. 4). mechanical treatment. Fe + 15wt”.Ni + 13 wt”,,Co + MO.
Ti, Al, V. Cold worked martensite + IOOh 700 C + 3h
r+d-+b (7c) 500 c.
 HORNBOGEN: ON THE MICROSTRUCTURE OF ALLOYS

“’ -A/ *
t
Nucleotlonof dlslocatlons
anneollng tune (I I

Fig. 1I. Mathematical trar ormations of planar sections

of two-phase microstructures. (a) Original structure. (b)
Affine transformation. (c) Topological transformation.
(d) Microstructural transformations, i.e. appearence of
PP-boundaries as new element.

boundaries can no longer be ignored, and equation

(6b) has to be supplemented for single- and two-
phase materials because the defects occupy a consid-
erable fraction of the total volume (Fig. 14) [21]
.L +.L = 1 (94
f, 1-L +.#yj+fpp +.Ll, Pb)
The transformation is complete, if the volume frac-
tion of boundaries has completely replaced that of the
crystalline phase. An example is the shock trans-
formation of crystal structures into glasses [equation
(8a)]. A reaction reverse to that of equation (8a). Fig. 12. (a) Transformation of supersaturated vacancies (I’)
4,--+(4X f TV) (8b) to dislocation rings (d), schematic. (b) Formation of dis-
location rings away from a grain boundary in a quenched
is a crystallization reaction from an amorphous and aged Al+2wtO/,Cu alloy, 54O’C. 10h IOO’C. (c)
phase. In this case a microstructure I- originates from Formation of semi-coherent interface of @‘-particles
a phase 4, in which no microstructure had existed. Al + 3 Gew.y&u, lOOOh300 C.

(C) Transfomations between d@rent types of micro -
structure
These are defined by appearence of new micro-
structural elements as topological parameters. They
should not be confused with a topological trans-
formation of a geometrical structure by which topo-
logical features are preserved (Fig. 1I). Two-phase
microstructures shall serve as examples for such
transformations. In addition to volume fraction,
boundary densities have to be used to define certain
types of structures [equations (3), (4), (9)]. A trans-
formation of one type of microstructure to another is
associated with the appearance or disappearance of a
particular type of boundary (Table 2, Fig. 15). which
acts as a topological feature. Transformations can
take place as a function of volume fraction of the
phases, and of their shape and orientation. For
constant shape- and size-distribution the trans-

Table 2. Two-dimensional elements

Built from individual dislocation
Small angle boundary IZ
_.__~_.~ (element
_ _~.. 2)~___~_._~_. ~.
High angle boundary 312 Coincidence
Semi-coincidence
Non-coincidence
Stacking fault SF Of close packed crystal planes
Anti phase domain APB Stacking fault of order
Interface z/3 Coherent
Semi-coherent
Non-coherent
Surface 20
 HORNBOGEN: ON THE MICROSTRUCTURE OF ALLOYS 623

(0) lRD/PS
,

Crystok with
mlcrOSlrUCtUre

/’
P--P
(, b mm 0
*RN s,= 26
Density of grotn
boundones, p,,” She’
(b)r.. ‘.:
Fig. 14. Volume fractions of crystal and boundary and glass
transformation, schematic.

formation must take place at a critical volume frac-

tion f,. This in turn leads to relations with alloy
composition .Yand annealing temperature T and with
the equiIibrium phase diagram (Fig. 16). The trans-
formation becomes the more discrete, the smaller the
0.2pm
I variance of the size and the local distributions func-
tion is. Figure 17 shows two-dimensional represent-
ations of the following transformations

duptexedispersion: f’.++T, (lOa)

Fig. 13. (a) Transition of highly defect crystals (micro-
structure) to glass phases, schematic. MC = microcrys-
talline; RDPS = random dense packing of spheres; RN =
random network. (b) Glass-phase, Fe t 10 at.‘,B i-
IO at.?&. quenched from liquid. (c) Ultra-fine crystaltine
microstructure Fe + 25 at.?&u, vapour deposited grain size
3-&m. b.c.c.
net&dispersion: r,+-+T,. (lob)
The local distribution of fi and the number of crys-
tallites pro area (volume) is different in the cases
shown in Fig. IO(a) and (b). This leads to different
critical volume fractions J for the disappearance of
@-boundaries. i.e. the formation of a dispersion
microstructure [equation (3b)]. The critical volume
fraction at which the microstructure transforms can
be calculated from the geometrical and statistical
functions of a microstructure. It is evident from
Fig. 17 that the transformation described in equa-
tion (IOa) is identical with a transition from per-
colation of z only to z as well as & whilst trans-
formations of equation (lob) replaces percolation of
r by /? (Table 3). This discussion has been limited to
isotropic microstructures which consist of equiaxed
grains. In case of microstructural anisotropy per-
colation will be found in different directions at
different volume fractions ,f, (Fig. 4).
Microstructural transformations are found not
only under conditions of phase equilibium, but also
if the volume fractions change after nucleation and
finally an equilibrium value is approached. The first
stage in formation of a duplex structure is usually the
formation of randomly dispersed nuclei. In this case
the transformation. dispersion+duplex, takes place
during isothermal annealing. Other examples for the
occurrence of microstructura~ transformations in
alloys are bulk concentration gradients as for example
for decarburization or carburization of steels (Fig.
18). Concentration gradients may cause micro-
structural gradients. Other examples for micro-
structura1 gradients are varying dislocation densities
at surfaces which were exposed to frictional shear
stresses. They are characterized by the local change in
624 HORNBOGEN: ON THE MICROSTRUCTURE OF ALLOYS

(a)

(b)

fz05 f < f, = k6
Fig. 1.5.Transformations of type of microstructure in planar sections schematic. (a) Dispersion@net. (b)
Duplex%dispersion.

density of a m~~rostructura~ element

dps
- = grad I- UW
dr

5. CONCLUSIONS
A concept of microstructure useful for materials
science should fulfil the following requirements: it

Fig. 16. (a) Transformation of type of microstructure with

increasing volume fraction. schematic. (b.c) Fe + 0.1 I
wt%C, variable volume fractions,f,: (b),f, = 0.75. dispersion
of martensite, (c)J, = 0.20, dispersion of ferrite.
 HORNBOGEN: ON THE MICROSTRUCTURE OF ALLOYS 625

Table 3. PercoIation in a-base grain structures

Type I-phase 2-phase 3-phase
_~__
Homoganeous a - -
Dispersion -
Net - ; /JY
Duplex - eng ~d@~Yl
Triplex - - an&-v

volume fractionf,, and on the type of microstructure.

A x0 - xe To x0 --‘a ’ 54 Three principle types of relation between the bulk
Fig. 17. Relation between phase diagram and types of properties, volume fractions and partial properties
two-phase microstructures (for constant local distribution exist and depend on the type of microstructure (Fig.
of phases), as a function of annealing temperature T and 19) 1221. Either all partial properties and volume
alloy composition X,. Varied from T, and X,,:1. = I. (1) fractions are involved (rules of mixture),
dispersion /? in a, (2) transition, (3) duplex, I&=:fb, (4)
transition, (5) dispersion a in /I, (6) homogeneous @,& = 1.
PI, = P&G.+ Pafe (I2a)
_-
should comprehend all features which are not p, =_ Pspa (12b)
covered by the other structural levels, be compatibie Pa.&+ Pa.&
with the physical realities which control the origin of
microstructure (for example by solid state reactions), or only those of one microstru~tural component and
and be suitable to 6nd quantitative relations for the its volume fraction
microstructure-sensitive bulk properties.
The microstructural elements [equation (l), Table p1= p.f, (I3a)
l] fulfil this requirement. They are responsible for PA = Pars (I3b)

Tabk 4. (A) List of symbols

m2 area of microstructural ekments
m atomic distance
m diameter of pores, clusters, particles
ratio of densities of boundaries
t$abk 1) spectfic energy of microstructural ekments
J mol-’ free energy of micros~uctu~
Jmol-’ free energy difTcrcncc between mctastabk and stabk phase
1 volume fraction of phases a or fi
I volume fraction of boundaries ea
1 volume fraction of iaterfaccs ag
I critical volume fraction for microstructunl transformation
m length of dislocation lines
number of point defects
any bulk property
1:; bulk property for par&l perpendicular arrangement of ekntents (geld
P~pcrw
partia1 property of phase e
partial property of grain boundary M
partial property of interface a@
coordinate to define microstructural gradknt
density of any microstructural element
avenge spacing of microstructural ekment
minims spacing for glass transfotmation
entropy of a ~~~tructu~
energy of a microstructure
total volume
volume of particle or pore

example for the increase in yield stress of alloys by

Tabk 4. (B) List of symbols (indicts)
serving as obstacles to the movement of dislocations.
If amorphous phase
In this function they are known as elementary hard- crystaliine phase
a* B
erring mechanisms: hardening by point defects, dis- au* 88 grain boundary
locations, grain boundaries, and ultra fine dispersions 4 intariaca
aau
of particles or pores [16]. junction line
ncrs >
In this way microstructure sensitive properties vacancy
dislocation
including those of fine dispersions can be derived.
boundary
Many materiaIs are, however, coarse two- or poly- port, pnaicle
phase microstructures, i.e. dual-phase, net, or duplex =V Phase
any mkrostructure
structures [Figs 5, 6, equation (3d)]. Their bulk dispersion
properties depend on the properties of the micro- net microstructure
dupkx I
structural components (partial properties pi), their
626 HORNBOGEN: ON THE MICROSTRUCTURE OF ALLOYS

a
- ‘6

h
C Insulator S Conductor
.>
t

z
::

Distance from the surface i

a r, B
Fig. 19. (a) Representation of different equations which
relate properties of microstructural components. volume
fractions and bulk properties [see equations (12).(13).(14)].
(b) Transition from validity of equation (12a) to (12b) by
microstructural transformation at a volume fraction f,.

fracture stress of a net structure in which the crack

Fig. 18. Microstructural gradients: example decarburiz-
ation of carbon-steel and intercritical annealing. (a) Change
in C-content from the surface. (b) Gradients of volume
fraction of martensite. (c) Gradients of densities of grain
boundaries (az) and interfaces (z/j’). (d) Fe + 0. I1 wt%C,
30min 810 C, microstructural gradient caused by decar-
burization.
can pass exclusively through the brittle phase that
forms the net.
Electronic- and phase-transformations are often
associated with large changes in macroscopic physical
properties. The same is true for microstructural trans-
formations, (Fig. 20). Usually a property P changes
‘E
0

or one partial property is alone responsible for the 7 6

bulk properties

p, ‘P, (14a)
PI = pp. U4b)

Sometimes, in addition to the properties of phases,

that of boundaries and interfaces will have to be
taken into consideration as partial properties: j,,, ppp,
P,,). \
Equation (12a) for example is valid for electrical
conductivity of duplex structure (percolation of s(and 0 20 40 60 60
j?, parallel arrangement of conducting paths), equa- Volumefractlon polymer (fg1
tion (13a) for the elongation at fracture of a coarse Fig. 20. Example for property changes due to a micro-
dispersion with deforming matrix and non-deforming structural transformation in metal-polymer fibre com-
phase (dual-phase steel). Equation (14a) explains the posites.
 HORNBOGEN: ON THE MICROSTRUCTURE
during a microstructura1 transfo~ation around the
volume fraction f,from control by one equation to
another [equations (12), (13), (14)]. Examples for
discontinuous changes in electrical conductivity are
shown in Fig. 21 [23]. Prerequisite is a large difference
in the partial properties: p31*Pa. Connected with the
transformation at f; is the appearance of disap-
pearance of percolation of one microstructural com-
ponent. Percolation of a conducting phase causes a
rise of conductivity, of a brittle phase a crack path of
minimum crack extension energy. The width of the
transitiona range depends on the distribution func-
tions of the microstructural elements which control
size, local dist~bution, and shape of the phases (Fig.
20).
The concept of microstructure discussed here is
sufficient to describe alloys and ceramic materials.
For polymeric materials the structural level of “mol-
ecule” plays a key role. Their chain-structure implies
additional elements like configuration and con-
formation of chains which require consideration of
supplementary aspects for a complete description of
microstru~u~ (the term morphology is used for
these materials). The concepts of microstructure will
also have to be supplemented for concrete. In addi-
tion to pores and fissures, structural gradients in
the cement phase play an important role [24]. A
unified definition of microstructure which includes
these two important classes of materials will still
require considerable efforts.
Acknon$edgemenrs--Thanks are due to several of my co-
workers at Bochum who contributed micrographs from
their work for this paper and to Dr H. E. Exner, Stuttgart.
and Professor G. Ondraschek, Karlsruhe, for encouraging
dirussions on microstructure. The work is supported by the
Federal Ministry of Research and Technology (BMFT-
Project 03574/g).
OF ALLOYS 627
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