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Freshwater acidification
Freshwater becomes acidic when acid inputs surpass
the quantity of bases produced in the reservoir
through weathering of rocks, or by the reduction of
acid anions, like sulfate and nitrate within the lake.[1]
The main reason for freshwater acidification is
atmospheric depositions and soil leaching of SOx and
NOx.[1] In an acid-sensitive ecosystem, which includes
slow-weathering bedrock and depleted base cation
pools, SOx and NOx from runoff will be accompanied
by acidifying hydrogen ions and inorganic aluminum,
which can be toxic to marine organisms.[1] Acid rain is
also a contributor to freshwater acidification, however Diagram depicting the sources and cycles of acid
acid rain is formed when SOx and NOx react with rain precipitation.

water, oxygen and oxidants within the clouds.[2] In

addition to SOx and NOx, the buffering capacity of soils
and bedrocks within the freshwater ecosystem can contribute to the acidity of the water. Each
freshwater reservoir has a capacity to buffer acids.[1] However, with excess input of acids into the
reservoir, the buffering capacity will essentially “run out” and the water will eventually become more
acidic.[1] Increase in atmospheric CO2 affects freshwater acidity very similarly to the way rising CO2
affects ocean ecosystems.[3] However, because of the various carbon fluxes in freshwater ecosystems,
it is difficult to quantify the effects of anthropogenic CO2.[4] Finally, rising freshwater acidification is
harmful to various aquatic organisms.

Contents
Freshwater vs. Ocean Acidification
Causes
SOx and NOx
Buffering Capacity
CO2
Harmful Effects on Aquatic Ecosystems
References

Freshwater vs. Ocean Acidification

The ocean and the atmosphere are constantly exchanging massive amounts of CO2.[3] Over the last
800 000 years, the concentration of CO2 in the atmosphere remained around 172-300 parts per
million by volume (ppmv).[3] However, with recent anthropogenic CO2 emissions, this number has
increased to 387 ppmv in 2009.[3] From 2000-2008, 26% of anthropogenic CO2 was absorbed by the

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ocean.[3] Although ocean acidification is also caused by

other chemical additions and removals, CO2 is the
primary factor affecting pH.[3] Once CO2 is dissolved in
seawater, it becomes a weak acid that primarily affects
carbonate chemistry.[3] Dissolved CO2 increases the
concentration of bicarbonate ions (HCO3−), dissolved
inorganic carbon (CT) and lowers the pH.[3] Freshwater
also absorbs atmospheric CO2, which can also lower the
pH.[4] In addition to CO2, freshwater reservoir's pH
values are altered by acid rain, nutrient runoff, and
other anthropogenic pollutants.[4] Freshwater uptakes
CO2 in the same mechanism as seawater, however, A basic summary of the relationship between
freshwater alkalinity is much lower than seawater, due anthropogenic CO2 and ocean acidification.
to the absence of a salt-buffer.[4] Due to the lack of salt-
buffer, pH changes in freshwater tend to be much
greater than ocean water, due to newly released H+ ions not being buffered by as many bicarbonate
(HCO3−) ions as ocean water.[4] Therefore, the freshwater biota tends to have a higher evolutionary
pH tolerance than seawater biota.[4]

Causes

SOx and NOx

The accelerated burning of fossil fuels within the past century has largely contributed to the
acidification of freshwater ecosystems. In the 1970s, the sulfate emissions levels peaked, with nitrogen
following behind 10 years later.[5] The main contributors to freshwater acidification are SOx and NOx.
Increases in sulfate concentration in runoff, due to increased acidity inputs, is coupled with an
increase in base cation run-off and bicarbonate decrease, creating the acidifying effect seen in
freshwater ecosystems.[6] In a natural state, most nitrogen inputted into freshwater ecosystems will
be utilized by vegetation.[6] However, in excess amounts, all of the nitrogen is unable to be utilized by
vegetation, and excess nitrogen is found as nitrate in the water's runoff.[6] Nitrate will contribute to
acidification in the same manner as sulfate.[6]

Buffering Capacity

In addition to SOx and NOx, low buffering capacities of

ecosystems can also lead to freshwater acidity. For example,
Atlantic Canada has the lowest acid deposition rates in Eastern
North America, with the most acidic waters on the continent.[7]
This is due to the low buffering of the regional bedrock and the
addition of natural organic acids produced by close by
wetlands.[7] Specifically, in Southwestern and Eastern Nova
Scotia, there is a combination of high organic acidity, poor
buffering, and high acid deposition to produce a very low surface A map depicting Atlantic Canada.
water pH and acid neutralization capacity (ANC) values.[7] In
most of the Atlantic region, granite and shale bedrock are found,

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which contain very little buffering material.[7] Soil formed from low-buffering materials and the
waters that drain from them are, therefore, susceptible to acidification, even under low acid
deposition.[7]

CO2

In oceans, CO2 in the atmosphere can dissolve into the water's surface, and forms carbonic acid.[8]
The total inorganic carbon in freshwater involves free CO2 (or H2CO3), HCO3− and carbonate
(CO32-).[9] The percentage of all these constituents is also dependent on the pH of the body of
water.[9] When water is acidic it will primarily contain CO2.[9] It is often difficult to quantify the
effects of pCO2 levels in freshwater due to the various sources of carbon dioxide freshwater
ecosystems receive. Factors such as nearby ecosystem, agriculture, land use, watershed, lake size,
precipitation, soil type and rocks all determine the amount of CO2 absorbed.[8] However, there has
been a clear increase in pCO2 in freshwater ecosystems in the last century due to anthropogenic
influence.[8] As the vegetation near freshwater ecosystems grow larger and multiply, due to the excess
pCO2 feeding these plants, the carbon available at death and during decomposition increases.[8] Then,
precipitation, weathering and runoff will wash this soil into the nearby water.[8] When the pCO2 from
the decomposing vegetation reacts with the water, it forms carbonic acid, which contributes to a lower
pH level.

Harmful Effects on Aquatic Ecosystems

With increased acidification in freshwater ecosystems, there will
be a decrease in biodiversity, with the increased loss of acid-
sensitive species.[10] A fall in pH to 6 would drastically affect both
snail and crustacean's species within freshwater.[10] For example,
within the Norwegian lakes, these species represent 45% of the
trout's food source, resulting in a 10-30% reduction in trout due
to freshwater acidification.[10] In addition, zooplankton's species This pond shows an overabundance
diversity is affected by freshwater acidification.[11] of Sphagnum.

In most acidic freshwater reservoirs, there will be an increase in

the development of mosses and algae.[10] In particular, it is common to see an increase in the
abundance of the moss Sphagnum.[10] Sphagnum has a high capacity to exchange H+ for basic cations
within freshwater.[10] The thick layer of Sphagnum is restricting the exchange between surface water
and sediment, which further contributes to reduction in nutrient cycling in the ecosystem.[10]

References
1. Psenner, Roland (March 1994). "Environmental impacts on freshwaters: acidification as a global
problem". Science of the Total Environment. 143 (1): 53–61. Bibcode:1994ScTEn.143...53P (http
s://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1994ScTEn.143...53P). doi:10.1016/0048-9697(94)90532-0 (http
s://doi.org/10.1016%2F0048-9697%2894%2990532-0). ISSN 0048-9697 (https://www.worldcat.or
g/issn/0048-9697).
2. Irwin, J.G.; Williams, M.L. (1988). "Acid rain: Chemistry and transport". Environmental Pollution.
50 (1–2): 29–59. doi:10.1016/0269-7491(88)90184-4 (https://doi.org/10.1016%2F0269-7491%288
8%2990184-4). ISSN 0269-7491 (https://www.worldcat.org/issn/0269-7491). PMID 15092652 (htt
ps://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/15092652).
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3. Jean-Pierre Gattuso; Lina Hansson, eds. (2011). Ocean acidification. Oxford University Press.
ISBN 9780199591084. OCLC 975179973 (https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/975179973).
4. "Measurements and observations : OCB-OA" (http://www.whoi.edu/OCB-OA/page.do?pid=11215
7). www.whoi.edu. Retrieved 2019-03-24.
5. Cardoso, A.C.; Free, G.; Nõges, P.; Kaste, Ø.; Poikane, S.; Solheim, A. Lyche (2009). "Lake
Management, Criteria". Encyclopedia of Inland Waters. Elsevier. pp. 310–331. doi:10.1016/b978-
012370626-3.00244-1 (https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fb978-012370626-3.00244-1).
ISBN 9780123706263.
6. Henriksen, Arne; Kämäri, Juha; Posch, Maximilian; Wilander, Anders (1992). "Critical Loads of
Acidity: Nordic Surface Waters". Ambio. 21 (5): 356–363. ISSN 0044-7447 (https://www.worldcat.o
rg/issn/0044-7447). JSTOR 4313961 (https://www.jstor.org/stable/4313961).
7. Clair, Thomas A.; Dennis, Ian F.; Scruton, David A.; Gilliss, Mallory (December 2007). "Freshwater
acidification research in Atlantic Canada: a review of results and predictions for the future".
Environmental Reviews. 15 (NA): 153–167. doi:10.1139/a07-004 (https://doi.org/10.1139%2Fa07-
004). ISSN 1181-8700 (https://www.worldcat.org/issn/1181-8700).
8. Weiss, Linda C.; Pötter, Leonie; Steiger, Annika; Kruppert, Sebastian; Frost, Uwe; Tollrian, Ralph
(January 2018). "Rising pCO2 in Freshwater Ecosystems Has the Potential to Negatively Affect
Predator-Induced Defenses in Daphnia" (https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.cub.2017.12.022). Current
Biology. 28 (2): 327–332.e3. doi:10.1016/j.cub.2017.12.022 (https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.cub.201
7.12.022). ISSN 0960-9822 (https://www.worldcat.org/issn/0960-9822). PMID 29337079 (https://p
ubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/29337079).
9. Hasler, Caleb T.; Butman, David; Jeffrey, Jennifer D.; Suski, Cory D. (January 2016). Sterner,
Robert (ed.). "Freshwater biota and rising pCO 2 ?". Ecology Letters. 19 (1): 98–108.
doi:10.1111/ele.12549 (https://doi.org/10.1111%2Fele.12549). PMID 26610406 (https://pubmed.nc
bi.nlm.nih.gov/26610406).
10. "The Effect of Coal Utilization Emissions on Natural and Man-managed Terrestrial and Freshwater
Ecosystems". Environmental Impacts of Coal Mining & Utilization. Elsevier. 1987. pp. 282–318.
doi:10.1016/b978-0-08-031427-3.50020-7 (https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fb978-0-08-031427-3.50020
-7). ISBN 9780080314273.
11. Muniz, Ivar P. (1990). "Freshwater acidification: its effects on species and communities of
freshwater microbes, plants and animals". Proceedings of the Royal Society of Edinburgh, Section
B: Biological Sciences. 97: 227–254. doi:10.1017/s0269727000005364 (https://doi.org/10.1017%
2Fs0269727000005364). ISSN 0269-7270 (https://www.worldcat.org/issn/0269-7270).

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