DAM SITE INVESTIGATION

TECHNIQUES
 SITE INVESTIGATION TECHNIQUES
FOR DAMS
The various steps involved for the site investigation in case of a Dam
Site, are as follows

1. Topographic Mapping and Surveying

2. Satellite images and aerial photographs
3. Geological and Geotechnical Mapping
4. Geophysical Methods
5. Test pits
6. Trenches
7. Adits and Shafts
8. Drilling
- Auger
– Percussion
– Rotary
9. Sampling
10. In-situ Testing
11. Ground Water Monitoring
12. Permeability Evaluation
1. TOPOGRAPHY MAPPING AND
SURVEYING
• A fundamental requirement for the
investigation and design of any project is
accurate location and level of all relevant
data.
• Topographic maps at suitable scales are
essential with establishment on site of clearly
identified bench marks.
• It includes all the information on site which is
used for the feasibility studies of the project
 TOPOGRAPHIC MAPPING AND
SURVEYING (CONT’D)
• The actual scale depends on the complexity and
size of the area.
• The common scales used are
– Regional maps, 1:250 000 with 20 to 40 m contour or
with 10 m contour at 1: 25 000
– Catchment area, 1:250 000 with 10 m contours to 1:
2000 with 2 m contours.
– Project area, 1:1000 with 2 m contours to 1:250 with 1
m contour.
– Individual engineering structures 1:500 with 1 m
counter interval and 1:200 with 0.5 m
 TOPOGRAPHIC MAPPING AND
SURVEYING (CONT’D)
• Regional topographic maps issued by
Government agencies in most countries
are published at standard scales
– which ranges from 1:250 000 with counter at
20 to 40 m and
– which ranges from 1:25 000 with counter at
10 m
• The user of these maps should consider
their original purpose and the accuracy of
information plotted.
 Topographic Mapping And
Surveying
• The notes on the map indicates the method of
compilation
– Aerial photography
– Ground survey
• Photogrammetry is not adequate in steep, tree
covered area.
• The field survey team should co-ordinate with
the site investigation team and provide a series
of clearly labelled marks through the project
area.
 2. INTERPRETATION OF SATELLITE
IMAGES AND AERIAL PHOTOGRAPHS
• Satellite image maps and aerial photographs are
available from government agencies in most
countries.
• These small scale images or imagery maps
provide a broad view of the region in which the
project is to be located.
• It indicates co-relation between geological
features and position geological boundaries or
faults if they are not recognizable on larger scale
photographs covering small areas.
 INTERPRETATION OF SATELLITE IMAGES AND
AERIAL PHOTOGRAPHS

• Standard LANSAT images are at

1:1 000 000 but enlargement up to 1: 500 000
And 1: 250 000 are available.
• It also gives information regarding
landforms, drainage, soils, vegetation
and land use, which may be useful in
• Planning of access routes to and within the
project area
• Location of potential sources of construction
materials, and
• Assessing reservoir siltation rates.
INTERPRETATION OF SATELLITE IMAGES AND
AERIAL PHOTOGRAPHS
• Aerial photographs are helpful for
• To show the present condition of the location
• Required scale and coverage can be specified,
and
• To prepare topographic maps
• Aerial photographs help to observe features on both
sides of the hill and it is important in the
interpretation of geological structure.
• Landforms, which reflect the structure of folded
rocks, show up well on aerial photographs.
• It also indicates the various features at the project
site like steeply dipping faults, straight section of
river, springs, topography, drainage, vegetation etc.
 Aerial Photographs
• A major advantage of aerial photograph is that
distance of observation is not a matter.
• It is possible to observe features on both sides
of the hill at the same time and develop their
continuity.
• Recognition of linear arrangement of features
• Linear features of features like vegetation
boundaries are found to co-relate with geological
features
 Aerial Photographs
• Presence of active or ancient landslide is
indicated by
– Unvegetated scarps, cracks and areas of exposed
soil and rocks
– Characteristics of topographic form
– Area where trees are dead or younger than else
where or where vegetation is more dense due to an
area of wet soil
• Rib and Liang (1978) provide a guide line for
assessment of landslide from aerial
photographs.
 3. Geological &Geotechnical
Mapping
• Geotechnical mapping involves the
location and plotting of all the data which
helps in understanding the geological
conditions of a site.
• Some useful data can be obtained from
existing maps and reports.
• Maps showing regional geology are
available from scales ranging from 1:100
000 to 1: 1000 000
 Geological & Geotechnical Mapping

• Regional maps show the inferred distribution of

the main rocks and the inferred geological
structure.
• The main benefit is that if helps in in providing
and understanding of the stratigraphy, structure
and geological history of the region.
• Local deposit of alluvial, co-alluvial or residual
weathered materials are usually ignored.
 Geological & Geotechnical Mapping

• At or near the site is the key to success of

the site investigations.
• The map involves the identification and
location of all the surface features relevant
to the establishment of geotechnical
models at the site.
• Scale for these maps is 1:5000 to 1:2500
for general work sites and 1:1000 to 1:500
for immediate area of site.
 Geological & Geotechnical Mapping

• The geotechnical map contains the following

factual information
– Ground surface contours
– Geomorphic features e.g slope changes
– Geological surface features
– Features of in situ rocks
– Ground water features
– The location of track, roads, test pit, trenches
– The position of drill holes and geophysical traverse
lines
 4.Geophysical Methods
• Geophysical methods used in
investigations for sites are as follows
– Seismic refraction using both ‘P-waves’ and
‘S-Waves’
– Seismic Reflection
– Electrical Resistivity
– Ground Probing Radar
– Transient electromagnetic
– Downhole logging
 Geophysical Methods
• These methods are used as in-situ testing tools
to assist in
– Boundaries b/w sandy and clayey soils.
– Boundaries b/w residual soils, weathered rock and fresh rock
– Deeply weathered or altered zones
– Major fault zones
– Buried river or glacial channels
– Landslide masses
– Cavities
– Rip ability
– Depth of general foundation excavation
– Depth of cutoff excavation
– Liquefaction potential of saturated sands and sandy gravel
 Seismic Refraction ‘P-Waves’
• This method is based on the fact that
seismic waves travel at different velocities
in different materials in rock and soil mass
and velocity increases with increase in
substance strength and compactness.
• It is used for marking of boundaries
between soil and weathered rocks and
within weathered rock profiles.
 Limitations
• It cannot distinguish b/w sandy and clayey
soils.
• It cannot detect velocity inversion i.e. high
velocity material above low velocity
material, unless some other technique is
used.
• The accuracy of the method is affected by
the poor velocity contrast b/w layers and
where there are cliffs in the rock profile.
 Seismic Refraction S-Wave
• This method has been applied down hole to
obtain shear wave velocity profiles, from which
dynamic and static Young’s and shear moduli
have been estimated.
• These values are used in dynamic analysis of
the response of structures to earth quake
loading. The shear wave profile can be used
directly to estimate the liquefaction potential of
cohesion less soils.
 Seismic Reflection
• This technique has little use in dam
engineering.
• It is mainly used for large scale exploration
for oil, gas and coal.
 Electrical Methods
• Electrical Resistivity
– It measures the resistance of the ground to induced
electric current.
– It is helpful in the determination of fault zones, zones
of deep weathering and cavities.
– For exploration of alluvial deposits where where
permeable gravels or sands can be distinguished
from low permeable clay or rocks.
– It has limited application in dam investigation as some
times it does not indicate the proper layer depth.
– At dam sites in valleys the result of resistivity surveys
are affected by irregular terrain
• Self Potential Method
- It measures the natural potential difference which
exist generally b/w any two points on the ground.
-This method has no important application in the dam
investigation.
 Geophysical Methods
• Ground Probing radar (GPR)
– It uses VHF electro magnetic signals to
penetrate through soils and rock using
antennas.
– It receives the waves back after reflection
from various faults, cavities in rock and from
distinct layer in soils.
– It can also been used in a down hole.
 Geophysical Methods
• Transient electromagnetic
– It produces resistivity vs depth profiles
– The method is quicker and requires less
space than resistivity but may not be suited to
the shallow depths normally associated with
dam foundations.
 Geophysical Methods
• Downhole Geophysical Logging
– Values for electrical resistivity, self potential,
gamma-ray emission and neutron absorption
are routine down hole measurement during
exploration for oil and coal.
– Geophysical logging is relatively cheap but
require uncased and water or mud filled
holes.
 5. Test Pits
• It provides information for the subsurface
condition and they are made by using rubber
tyred back hoe or tracked excavators.
• They are used for the following reasons.
• Cheap and quick
• Subsurface profile is clearly visible and can be logged and
photographed.
• Material type , their boundaries and structure can be
observed and recorded in three different deimenstion.
• Undisturbed samples can be obtained.
• Insitu tests can be carried out
 Test Pits

• Pit depth is usually limited to 4m but upto

6m depth can be made by using large
excavators.
• Ground water may limit the effective
excavation due to caving in of sides.
• Test pits disturb the local environment but
if carefully backfilled and re-vegetated
then the impact is minor.
 6. Trenches
• A logical extension of the use of test pits is the
excavation of trenches, using either a tracked excavator
or tractor with bulldozer and ripper.
• Bulldozer trenches provide virtually continuous
exposures of the sub surface materials at sites where
often there is little natural out crop.
• Trench exposures are logged in a similar manner to test
pits .
• At the site for large structures in geologically complex
areas with little natural exposure, systematic trenching is
the most practical method of providing the answer to vital
feasibility and design questions.
• A disadvantage of trenching is that it causes much
disturbance of the site environment.
 7. Adits and Shafts
• To investigate a part or parts of site e.g an area
underlain by cavernous limestone or disturbed
by a landslide, in more detail than can be
achieved by the combination of surface
excavations and drilling.
• Adits and shafts provide the following
advantages
– Direct observation of the ground conditions.
– Measurement of orientation of defects and
comparison with surface measurements.
– In situ testing
– Underground investigation drilling.
 Adits and Shafts
• Adits and shafts are expensive and slow to
excavate as they require support,
ventilation and drainage.
• Shafts using 1000 mm or larger diameter
augers or clam shell excavators are often
used to explore alluvial and glacial
deposits
 8. Drilling Holes
• Drill holes are useful for subsurface
exploration at greater depths.
• When the pit holes and trenches cannot
access the deeper zones then drill holes
are recommended.
• They have also little effect on the
environment because maximum size of
drill hole is limited to 100 mm and can be
easily back filled.
 Drilling (cont’d)
• Drilling is the only practicable method when
determining the permeability below foundation.
• There are certain limitations to drilling method
which are as follows
– The information obtained is always indirect either
from the observation of resistance to rig, by the
measurement of insitu properties with equipment
lowered down the hole or by the logging of samples
recovered by the drilling.
– Drilling process is relatively slow e.g. 4-5 auger holes
to 10m in soil per 8-hr shift.
– Rigs are often truck mounted and it is not easy to use
them on sloppy grounds.
 Types of Drilling
• Auger Drilling
• Percussion Drilling
• Rotary Drilling in Rock
– Core drilling
– Non-core drilling
 A. AUGER DRILLING
• Hand augers are used when the depth of
exploration is limited to 10~15m.
• Most augers are machine driven ranging from
portable to truck mounted hydraulic drill rigs.
• Common auger rig equipped with either solid or
hollow flight augers, can reach up to 30m in soil
strength materials.
• Spiral flight auger is used to majority cases for
the removal of earth below the surface
especially in case of cohesive soils are rocks.
 AUGER DRILLING
• A steel blade “V” bit will penetrate most fine grained soils
and extremely low strength rocks and “TC” “Tungsten
carbide” bit is used for medium to low strength rocks.
• The sample obtained from the auger drilling is disturbed
in nature.
• Auger drilling is restricted to cohesion less soils above
water table only.
• Auger drilling is used in the areas where there are thick
deposits of soil strata and test pits cannot reach the
whole depth.
• It is comparatively rapid method to determine the
properties of soil lying above the rock as compare to that
of the other methods.
 B. PERCUSSION DRILLING
• Penetration in rocks and gravel material which are beyond the
scope of augers can be achieved by breaking the particles into
small fragments
(i) Cable Tool Drilling
• In this method successive dropping of heavy chisel type bit is carried
out.
• Fragments are recovered using a bailer, if the hole is dry then water
is added to lift those fragments to the soil surface.
• A steel casing is driven inside the hole to prevent the caving in of
the hole.
• It’s limitation are
• Reduction of particle size and mixing of particles from several layers.
• Grading of particle size is different from the natural material inside
the hole
 B. PERCUSSION DRILLING

(ii) Air percussion drilling

• It provides rapid penetration of medium to high
strength rocks
• The fragments are carried to surface under air
pressure.
• It’s limitation are
• It does not provide any indication on the rock structure.
• The efficiency of drilling is affected by ground water and also
drilling is slowed by the blocking of bits by clay.
 C. ROTARY DRILLING
• Drilling used in rocks and soils
involves
(i) Non core drilling
(ii) Core Drilling
 (i) Non Core Drilling
• It is also called as wash boring because it involves the
use of a solid roller, button or drag bit at the end of drill
rods.
• The bits break up or grind the full face of the bottom of
the hole and the fragments are removed by using the
fluid called water.
• Samples obtained are slurry of fine grained material so it
leads to poor identification of material.
• When drilling in sandy soils above the water table and in
most soils below the water table, drilling mud is used to
support the hole sides and assist in the recovery of drill
cuttings.
• By maintaining a head of mud above the water table the
excess pressure supports the sides of the hole
 (ii) Core Drilling
• A portion of rock is removed when using a hollow bit with
a leading edge impregnated with fragments of diamond
or tungsten carbide, leaving a cylindrical sample, which
can be removed, by the core barrel.
• In conventional drilling when the core barrel is filled, it is
removed but in case of wire line barrel there is a special
barrel type which enables the core to be raised inside
the rods and significantly reduces the time involved in
drilling deep holes.
• Tripple tube, stationary inner tube, core barrels reduce
core disturbance, improve core recovery and used in
dam investigation.
• Placement of the core in boxes and logging of the core
should emphasize sections where core was not
recovered as these may present crucial zones in the
foundation.
 10. FIELD & LAB TESTING
• INSITUE TESTING ON ROCKS
– PLATELOAD TEST IN ADITS
– FLAT JACK TEST
– WATER PRESSURE TESTS IN BOREHOLES
– INSITUE TESTING ON SOILS
– Standard Penetration Test
- Static cone penetrometer and piezocone
- Vane shear
- Pressuremeter
- Dilatometer
- Plate load Test
- Permeability Tests
 Plate Load Test Results

Test NO. - 2
Surface adeformation as a Function of Bearing Pressure
Location: ADL-1, Cham ber No. 1, at 9.75 (m )
(Base)
Rock Surface Deform ation as a Function of Bearing Pressure
8

7
Wa. = .14 mm
6
P = 500 Kn
6
n = .25
5 E = .96x500/2x.14x150
Bearing Pressure (Mpa)

5
E = 11.1 GPa

Bearing Pressure (MPa)

4
4

3
3

2
2

1
1

0 0
0 0.05 0.1 0.15 0.2 0.25 0 0.05 0.1 0.15 0.2 0.25 0.3 0.35 0.4
Surface Deformation (mm) Deform ation (m m)
 Flat Jack Test Results

Flate Jack Test No. - 1

ADL-1, Chamber - 2
Deformation vs Pressure
Target (c -d)

0.4

0.2

0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Deformation (mm)

-0.2

-0.4

-0.6
E = 13.52 GPa
-0.8

-1
Applied Pressure (MPa)
10. FIELD & LAB TESTING

LABORATORY TESTING ON ROCK & SOIL SAMPLES

– CORE TESTING
– AGGREGATE TESTING
– SAND TESTING
LABORATORY TESTING ON CORE SAMPLES
AGGREGATE TESTING
SAND TESTING
 11. Ground Water Monitoring
MONITORING OF GROUND WATER IN BOREHOLES IS VERY
IMPORTANR. W/T CAN BE

• -Gravity Water Table or Gravity Wells

• Artesian Water Table or Artesian/pressure Wells

 Discharge(cfs) Discharge(cfs)

0.000
0.050
0.100
0.150
0.200
0.250
30
0.000
0.050
0.100
0.150
0.200

-
2
J-7 p
- 7
eS 2
0 -lu-70 40 S-
4 A
u - pe 82
0-g -12
4 yA 40 S-
-g 60 - pe 72
40 eS- 40 N-
0 -p -11 vo 0
4 eS -
-p 0 40 J-7
40 O-9 -na 60
0 -tc 52 5 0 F-
4 O-
-tc 70 - b e 61
0
4 J- 50 F-
-na 61 - b e 52
50 eF-
MDA-1.1

50 F-
MDA-2A-1

-b 40
50 M- - be 10

Date
-
Date

ya 02 50 M-
50 luJ- - ra 21
-y 12 50 M-
50 uJ-
l - ra 22
0 -y -22
5 uJ
l
50 uJ-
0 -y -32
5 uJ - yl 32
-yl 82 50 uJ-
50 uJ-
l - yl 50
0 -y -20 50 A-
5 uA
- gu
-g 30 50
TIME~FLOW IN BOREHOLES

50 A-
u
0 -g -50
5 uA
-g
50
 Permeability Evaluation
• Permeability of Alluviums
- Constant head permeability test (above W/T)
- Falling head permeability test (above W/T)
- Pumping test (below W/T)
• Permeability of Rocks
- Water Pressure or Lugeon Test
Evaluation of Rock Mass Parameters
Based on Field & Lab Results

ROCK CLASSIFICATION FROM FIELD &

LAB DATA
- RQD
- RSR
- RMR
- Q-VALUE
- GSI (Global Strength Index (GSI)
 Classification of rock mass based on RQD

Sr. No RQD % Rock Class

1 < 25 Very poor

2 25 < 50 Poor

3 50 < 75 Fair

4 75 < 90 Good

5 90 < 100 Excellent

 Classification of rock mass based on RMR

S. No. Parameter/Properties Rock Mass Rating (Rock Class)

of Rock Mass
100-81 (I) 80-61 (II) 60-41 (III) 40-21 (IV) <20 (v)

1. Classification V. good Good Fair Poor V. poor

2. Average stand-up time 10 years for 6 months 1 week for 10 hrs for 2.5 m 30 min. for
15 m for 8m 5m span 1m
span span span span

3. Cohesion of rock mass >0.4 0.3-0.4 0.2-0.3 0.1-0.2 <0.1

(MPa)*

4. Angle of internal >45 35o_45 25~35 15o_25 15

friction of rock
mass
* These values are applicable to slopes only in saturated and weathered rock mass
Classification of rock mass based on Q-values

Q Group Classification

400-1000 1 Exceptionally good

100-400 Extremely good
40-100 Very good
10-40 Good

4-10 2 Fair
1-4 Poor
0.1-1 V. poor

0.01-0.1 3 Extremely poor

0.001-0.01 Exceptionally poor
Evaluation of Rock Mass Parameters
for Kohala Site by Roclab Software

INPUT PARAMETERS
- Uniaxial compression of intact rock
unit
- Modulus of Elasticity of intact rock unit
-Disturbing factor (D)
Geological Strength Index (GSI)
Global Strengths Index (GSI) Chart
ROCKLAB SOFTWARE
ROCKMASS PARAMETERS EVALUATION