Professional Documents
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E.Tozzi
2003
Dimensional analysis
A relation between dimensional variables is replaced by an equivalent relation
between dimensionless groups. The number of dimensionless groups is
smaller than the number of variables.
Features:
Pipe roughness [ ] = L1
It's most useful to put the dimensions and variables in matrix form.
∇p V D
L −2 −3 1 1 2 1 (1)
M 1 1 0 0 0 0
−2 0 −1 0 −1 0
# of variables n=6, # of dimensions j=3
Number of dimensionless parameters Ði : k=6-3=3
Each Ði is a power product consisting of the j repeating variables raised to
unknown exponents ai, bi, ci...etc. and each of the remaining k variables.
j repeating variables : , V , D
k remaining variables : ∇ P , ,
1=∇ P⋅a ⋅V b⋅Dc (2) 1 1 1
2=⋅a ⋅V b ⋅Dc
2 2 2
3=⋅a ⋅V b ⋅D c
3 3 3
Ð1 is dimensionless if:
−2a ⋅−3 b ⋅1c ⋅1 0
L 1 1
=L 1
−2a 1⋅−3b1⋅1c 1⋅1=0
1a ⋅1b ⋅0c ⋅0 0
M 1 1
=M 1
or equivalently: 1a1⋅1b1⋅0c 1⋅0=0
−2a ⋅0b ⋅−1c ⋅0 0
1 1
= 1
−2a1⋅0b1⋅−1c 1⋅0=0
In matrix notation:
[ ][ ] [ ] [ ]
a1−3 1 −2 10
1 0
b1 1 = 0 0
c1 0 −1−2 00
Important: Note how the matrix columns are related to columns of the matrix
(1) of dimensions of the variables, and the choice of variables in (2).
Analogously for Ð2
In matrix notation:
[ ][ ] [ ] [ ]
a2 1−3 1 0 1
1 0
b2 0 = 0 0
c2 0 0 −10 0
Solving for a2, b2, c2 one obtains: a2=0 b2=0 c2=-1
⇒ 2=
D
Analogously for Ð3
In matrix notation:
[ ][ ] [ ] [ ]
−3 1 a3
1 2 0
1 0 0
b3 0 = 0
0 −1 0
c3 −1 0
Solving for a3, b3, c3 one obtains: a3=0 b3=-1 c3=-1
⇒ 3= =
V D V D
1= f 2 , 3 ⇒
⇒∇ p
D
V
2
=f
D
,
V D
Ði 's are found by forcing the exponent of each dimension to be zero. A
matrix method can be used to quickly obtain the values of the unknown
exponents.
Any function of the Ði groups will be dimensionally homogeneous, and more
easily correlated than the variables taken individually. The groups are not
unique, since different choices of variables can be made.
Fluid Statics:
Pressure:
Is a force always perpendicular to the area element.
Is not associated with viscous forces (exists even when the fluid is at rest)
d F = p n dA ⇒
⇒ F =∫ p n dA
Area element for different geometries:
Rectangle : dA=dW dZ 2
F x =∫ yx dA
In the example of the falling film, the force on the wall equals the weight of
the fluid.
F= m gx = ñV gxx
Sign convention: The stress ôyx is the force in the x direction exerted by the
fluid of lesser y to the fluid of greater y on a unit area perpendicular to the y
direction.
dv x
yx=− BSL
dy
Rotating liquid1
A liquid is in equilibrium in a container which rotates at some angular velocity
ù.
The fluid elements are subject to the gravity field and a centrifugal field
whose acceleration depends on the radius. The pressure is then a function of
two variables, the radius and the height.
P=P r , z
∂P ∂P ∂P ∂P
dP= dr dz = 2⋅r =− g
∂r ∂z ∂r ∂z
p2 r2 z2
∫p1 dP=∫r1 2 r dr −∫z1 g dz
2 2 2
P 2−P 1= r −r − g z 2−z 1 constant
2 2 1
Exercise: Calculate the surface profile (z=z(r)) of a liquid rotating at a
constant angular velocity.
dv x
• Newtonian fluid yx=−
dy
In some common coordinate systems it takes the following form:
• Unidirectional flow
The wheel in the picture is one of the first devices used by mankind for lifting
water continuously: Where is the source of mechanical energy in this system?
If you want to make an energy balance which variables would you use?. How
are they related?
Bernoulli equation
Working version of Bernoulli eqn, with corrections for friction and realistic
velocity profile and energy input from pump:
pa V2a pb V2b
g Z a W p= g Z b h f
2 2
Adiabatic
Without Friction
With Friction
.........................area, ......................cross sonic barrier.
u t=
a e p− 2 m
C D A p p
K =D p
[ p− g
2
] 3
NRe p=
V D p
[ ]
n1 n−1
b 4 a e p− Dp 2−n
CD= n u t=
NRe p 3b
n
K Rep b n CD
<3.3 <2 24 1 24/Rep
3.3-43.6 2-500 18.5 0.6 18.5/(Rep^0.6)
43.6- 500-
2360 2e5 0.44 0 0.44
u t=1.75
D p a e p−
Questions
What is the sphericity factor?
Can always the drag force on a particle be calculated analytically?
How can one calculate the terminal velocity if the drag coefficient is not
known?
Can two particles of different size and different densities have the same
terminal velocity?
What's the effect of increasing the particle concentration on the settling
velocity?
Example 2: Two particles have densities ra, rb and they have the same
terminal velocity. What is their diameter ratio Da/Db?
Dp 6.0426E-04m
vt 2.41E-02m/s
Re 1.46E+01=> intermediate regime
(rhop-
54.931(Kg/m3)^0.71
rho)^0.71
(rhop-rho) 282.13Kg/m3
rhop 1282.13Kg/m3
"Practice is required for maintaining know
how. It can be lost through inactivity"
H.L.Dreyfuss "Mind over machine."
Vo 1−
2
P 150 V0 1−2
= 2 2 1.75
L Dp 3 D p 3
[ ]
3
D g p− M 2
V0≈ s p for NRe p103
1.750
150 V0
= For laminar flow
L 1− M 1− g p −2s D 2p
=
LM 1−
V0= m large particles m= f Nre p
Filtration, Pumps.
Cake vs clarifying: Cake filtration separates a large amount of solids, the cake
is sometimes washed. Clarifying involves sep of small quantities of solids to
produce a clean gas or liquid.
Filtrate: Is the clear fluid coming out of the filter, V : Volume of filtrate.
Superficial velocity of the filtrate: Flow rate of filtrate per unit area.
u=(dV/dt)/A
Pumps:
Pump head:
H = W p
pa V2a pb V2b
g Z a W p= g Z b h f
2 2
NPSH: Excess pressure at pump inlet with respect to vapor pressure to insure
no cavitation occurs, expressed as height of liquid.
1 P '−P v
NPSH = a −h fs −Z a
g a
Za
a'
u o=
Co
1− 4
2 p
L
ṁ= uo S o p=Hg − L g Z
Agitation, Mixing:
Purposes of agitation: Mixing, mass transfer, heat transfer.
Power requirement calculation:
2
P n Da
Power Number: NP = 3 5 Reynolds number: NRe=
n Da
There are correlations and plots for different impeller types and geometries.
Correlations: Re<10 P=KL/Re
Re>10000 P=KT
Mixing time:
• Can be determined by experiment. Example: Measure concentration of a
tracer at different points in the vessel. Time to reach 95% of the final
concentration is taken as mixing time.
• Can be estimated as the time required to circulate the entire volume of the
vessel 5 times.
tT=5V/qT qT=flow rate of liquid moved inside the vessel by impeller
3
Correlation: q T =n D a N Q (NQ is the flow number, depends on the impeller
type)
Scale up:
2
Low Re:
n1
n2
=
D a2
D a1
High Re:
t T2 n1
D
= = a2
t T1 n 2 D a1
3
Heat transfer: Conduction, Convection
Thermal conductivity, heat flux or "flow rate".
Cylindrical Geometry
2 L T 1 −T 2
q=
T i −T o r r r
q=Alm h Multiple walls: ln 2 ln 3 ln 4
r o −r i r1 r r
2 3
ka kb kc
2 Lr o−r i
Alm=
ro
ln
ri
Convection
q=h AT 1−T 2 [h]=( J m-2 s-1 K-1)
q T o −T i
Q̇= = =U T o−T i
A 1 x1 x2 1
hi k 1 k 2 ho
1 1 Do x w Do 1
U for a pipe, based on the outer surface: =
U o hi D i k m D LM h o
Convective heat transfer coefficients: [h]=(W m-2 ºC-1 ) or (Btu ft-2 h-1 ºF-1 )
=
w
Reynolds Prandtl Graetz Peclet
Simultaneous
V i i
Calculation of areas: Ai =
Ui T
Ai
Correction of temperatures. T i ' = T i
A AVG