Lighting, Equipment, Occupants,

The following article was published in ASHRAE

Journal, January 2004. © Copyright 2004 Ameri-
can Society of Heating, Refrigerating and Air-
Conditioning Engineers, Inc. It is presented for
educational purposes only. This article may not
be copied and/or distributed electronically or in
paper form without permission of ASHRAE.

By Steven F. Bruning, P.E., Fellow ASHRAE cesses involved are not simple, nor
steady state, nor easily precisely quanti-
he 2001 ASHRAE Handbook—Fundamentals (Chapter 29 on Non-
T residential Cooling and Heating Load Calculations), includes a new
fied. At any point in time, energy may
enter a space by conduction, convection
and radiation via walls, roofs, floors and
cooling load calculation methodology called the Radiant Time Series (RTS) windows; by direct solar energy through
method. RTS is a cooling load calculation procedure intended to replace windows; by convective and radiant
gains from internal sources including
three other calculation methods published in previous Handbooks.
lights, people and equipment.
RTS was developed by ASHRAE- vides an overview and introduction to The rate of energy transfer from each of
funded research over several years with the new method, not a detailed deriva- these sources varies with time. Internal
the goal of improved accuracy while tion or documentation. sources depend on occupancy and usage
maintaining the design engineer’s abil-
ity to apply experience and judgment Estimating Cooling Loads About the Author
to the process. The procedure incorpo- Since the early days of air-condition- Steven F. Bruning, P.E., is a partner at Newcomb
rates familiar concepts from previous ing development, engineers have recog- & Boyd in Atlanta. He is past chair of ASHRAE
Technical Committee 4.1, Load Calculation Data
methods to minimize the experienced nized that many sources contribute to and Procedures and current chair of TC 4.1’s
user’s learning curve. This article pro- space cooling loads and the actual pro- Handbook Subcommittee.

20 ASHRAE Journal ashrae.org January 2004

 Doug Balcomb/DOE/NREL
Weather, Solar Energy
schedules. Solar energy through windows depends on window
orientation, solar position based on time of day and day of the
year, and effect of both internal and external shading devices.
Wall and roof heat transfer varies due to hourly changes in out-
door temperature and solar intensity on the outside surface.
Besides the time variability of energy input from various
sources, the mass of building construction materials and space
contents absorb and store radiated energy. This results in damp-
ening and time delay between radiant energy entry into a space
and when it becomes a cooling load on the air-conditioning
system. Also, conduction through walls and roofs is delayed
by the mass and heat capacity of the wall and roof materials.
Historically, methods to estimate cooling loads were de-
signed to account for the various energy sources and heat trans-
fer mechanisms while approximating the time delay effects of
building mass. Earlier versions of Fundamentals documented
the Total Equivalent Temperature Difference/Time Averaging
(TETD/TA) method, the Transfer Function Method (TFM) and
the Cooling Load Temperature Difference/Cooling Load Fac-
tor (CLTD/CLF) method. Each of these is a simplified method
intended to approximate the real processes involved. They all
have limitations based on the assumptions and techniques
built into each method.
Based on the belief that ASHRAE should present both funda-
mental scientific principles and practical methods to apply to
everyday engineering problems, Technical Committee 4.1 set
out to develop a single simplified method that has broader range
of applicability and improved scientific basis vs. previous sim-
plified methods. That new simplified method is the RTS method.
Development
Goals for development of the RTS method include:
1. Scientifically relates to or derives from basic heat trans-
fer principles;
2. Provides practicing engineers with an easily understand-
able method;
January 2004
3. Determines and provides output for each heat source in
the total estimated cooling load;
4. Characterizes data in terms that are intuitive and allow
easy comparison of choices;
5. Allows the use of engineering judgment based on experi-
ence; and
6. Enhances ability to understand the relative impact of
assumptions.
A basic concept behind all cooling load calculations is
that heat gain to a space, from any source, consists of both
convective heat transfer to the room air and radiant heat trans-
fer from the source to surfaces in the room. The convective
portion immediately becomes cooling load. The radiant en-
ergy transferred is absorbed by the mass of the room surfaces
and, over time, is convected from those surfaces to the room
air, thus becoming cooling load when that convection occurs
at a later point in time.
Based on this basic concept, the general procedure
for calculating cooling load for each load component
(lights, people, walls, roofs, windows, appliances, etc.)
with RTS is:
1. Calculate a 24-hour profile of component heat gain for
a design day (for conduction, account for conduction time
delay).
2. Split heat gains into radiant and convective parts.
3. Calculate time delay of radiant part in conversion to cool-
ing load.
4. Sum convection part of heat gain and delayed radiant
part of heat gain to determine cooling load for each hour for
each cooling load component.
5. After calculating cooling loads for each component for
each hour, sum those to determine the total cooling load for
each hour and select the hour with the peak load.
This procedure is similar to the TETD/TA and TFM methods
from earlier Handbook versions and should be familiar to us-
ers of those methods.
ASHRAE Journal 21
 Percent Radiant Heat Gain

50% 50%
Becomes Cooling Load

40%
40%
30%

RTS
30% 20%
10%
20%
0%
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
10%
Hour
0% LW, No Carpet, 50% Glass
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 MW, No Carpet, 50% Glass
Hour HW, No Carpet, 50% Glass

Figure 1: RTS for lightweight zone. Figure 2: RTS for light to heavy construction.

Radiant Time Delay qrθ = the radiant heat gain for the current hour
So, how does the RTS method address this time delay phe- qrθ–n = the radiant heat gain n hours ago
nomenon? It simply distributes radiant heat gains over time r0, r1, etc. = radiant time factors
based on a “curve” that represents the time response of the The radiant cooling load for the current hour is added to the
space. Heavier construction spreads heat gain out over a longer convective portion to determine the total cooling load for that
time, lighter construction responds more quickly. Figures 1 component for that hour. Figure 3 illustrates the results of this
and 2 illustrate this concept. The numerical values of this process for an internal load.
“curve” are termed a “radiant time series,” from which the
method gets its name. This data is determined by simulta- Conduction Time Delay
neously solving a series of basic heat balance equations to Besides the time delay due to radiant energy absorption
calculate the cooling load for each hour following a unit pulse within a space, time delays also occur in the conduction of
of radiant heat gain to a specifically defined space. energy through massive surfaces such as walls and roofs. Con-
In theory, every space has a unique time delay “curve” based duction heat gain occurs due to temperature difference be-
on the specific physical construction of that space and the tween the outside surface temperature and inside temperature
relationship of the heat source to each surface in the room. of a wall or roof. That conduction heat transfer is slowed by the
Fortunately, the variation in RTS values is primarily depen- mass of the various construction layers comprising the wall or
dant on the “mass” of the space and differences due to other roof. Those layers must absorb the conducted energy before
factors have a relatively small impact. Chapter 29 of the 2001 their temperature rises and heat is conducted on to the next
ASHRAE Handbook—Fundamentals includes RTS factors for layer. Fortunately, this can be characterized by a time delay
representative zones from light to heavy construction. RTS “curve” similar to the RTS curves.
data for different construction The numerical values of
is easily comparable, allow- Heat Gain these curves are termed Con-
800
Sensible Cooling Load
ing the engineer to assess the duction Time Series (CTS).
impact of making different For lightweight construction
600
assumptions regarding build- walls, the conduction delay
ing characteristics when those is relatively short while mas-
Btu/h

characteristics have not yet 400 sive walls slow conduction

been fully defined in the de- heat transfer over many hours.
sign process. 200 Figure 4 illustrates CTS for
The radiant time series is various constructions.
used to convert the radiant 0
Conduction heat gain can
portion of hourly heat gains 1 4 7 10 13 16 19 22 25 be determined from heat input
to hourly cooling loads ac- Hour at the exterior surface by us-
cording to: Figure 3: Illustration of process for lighting load. ing CTS to estimate the time
delay. Wall and roof conduc-
Qr θ = r0 qr θ + r1qr θ−1 + r2 qr θ− 2 + r3qr θ −3 + … + r23qr θ− 23
tion heat input at the exterior for each hour of the day is defined
where by the familiar conduction equation as:
Qrθ = the radiant cooling load (Qr) for the current
qi = UA(te − t rc )
hour (θ)

22 ASHRAE Journal ashrae.org January 2004

 Spandrel Glass, R-10 Insulation Board, Gypsum Board 1 in. Stucco, Sheathing, R-11 Batt Insulation, Gypsum Board
60% 60%

40% 40%

20% 20%

0% 0%
1 3 5 7 9 11 13 15 17 19 21 23 1 3 5 7 9 11 13 15 17 19 21 23

Brick, R-5 Insulation Board, Sheating, Gypsum Board Brick, 8 in. HW Concrete, R-11 Batt Insulation, Gypsum Board
60% 60%

40% 40%

20% 20%

0% 0%
1 3 5 7 9 11 13 15 17 19 21 23 1 3 5 7 9 11 13 15 17 19 21 23

Figure 4: Illustration of conduction time series for a variety of wall constructions.

where ment of conduction transfer function data in an understand-

qi is the conduction heat input for the surface
U is the overall heat transfer coefficient for the surface
A is the surface area
te is the exterior surface sol-air temperature at a particu-
lar hour
trc is the constant design room air temperature
Conduction heat gain through walls or roofs can be calcu-
lated using conduction heat inputs for the current and past 23
hours and conduction time series, as:
qθ = c0 qiθ + c1qiθ−1 + c2 qiθ− 2 + c3qiθ−3 … + c23qiθ− 23
where
qθ is the hourly conduction heat gain for the sur-
face
qiθ = the heat input for the current hour
qiθ–n = the heat input n hours ago
c0, c1, etc. = conduction time factors
CTS values are calculated using the same numerical tech-
niques that have been developed during the past 30 years to
determine conduction transfer functions. Since design cool-
ing load calculations are based on the simplifying assumption
of steady periodic conditions (the conditions at each hour
today are the same as they were at the same hour yesterday, and
the day before, etc.). CTS values actually are simply a restate-
January 2004
able form. Conduction calculated using a simple CTS curve
exactly matches conduction calculated with conduction trans-
fer functions for steady periodic conditions.
Fundamentals includes tabulation of CTS data for 35 repre-
sentative wall and 19 representative roof constructions. CTS
data allows easy comparison of time delay due to various wall
and roof construction choices, which permits the engineer to
exercise better judgment in the assumptions used in the calcu-
lation process.
Figure 5 illustrates results from the application of CTS and
RTS to determine wall heat gain and then cooling load due to
that wall heat gain.
Application
The RTS method, while simple in concept, requires many
repetitive calculations. Like two of its predecessors, the
TETD/TA and the Transfer Function methods, RTS is best done
with the aid of a computer. The computations involved are
simple enough to be solved with a spreadsheet, although most
commercial software vendors will use more sophisticated pro-
gramming languages to handle the large volumes of data re-
quired to perform load calculations for buildings with dozens
or even hundreds of rooms. A series of RTS demonstration
spreadsheets have been developed and are available for pur-
chase from ashrae.org.
ASHRAE Journal 23
Finding the Peak Load 350
Heat Input
As can be seen from the earlier examples, the hour of the day 300 Heat Gain
of peak cooling load for individual components varies greatly. 250 Cooling Load
The individual components all contribute to the total room-

Btu/h
200
cooling load and the maximum value of that total may occur
150
at an hour of the day different than the maximum for any single
component. Likewise, due to solar influences, the peak room- 100
cooling load may actually occur in a winter, spring or fall 50
month instead of the traditionally assumed summer month.
0
Calculations done for a single hour of a single month run the 1 5 9 13 17 23
risk of missing the true peak and can result in undersized sup- Hour
ply air to a particular room or even undersized airflow capacity Figure 5: South wall example using RTS and CTS.
in air-handling units. While the peak refrigeration capacity
usually occurs during peak summer months (due to outside air 90,000
conditioning), the supply airflow rate is determined by room

Cooling Load, Btu/h

sensible peak load, which could peak in December for zones
with large south-facing windows (Figure 6).
Due to this, cooling load calculations should be done for
24-hour design days for each month to find the peak load for
sizing each element of the air conditioning system. The RTS
procedure incorporates this concept. To facilitate cooling load
calculations for non-summer months, monthly cooling design
weather data have been included in Table 4 of Chapter 27 in
Fundamentals.
Conclusion
The RTS cooling load calculation procedure provides a
method that allows characterization of time delay effects due
to exterior surface and building mass in a readily understand-
able and quantitatively comparable form. Engineering judg-
ment can be applied more readily when the impact of
assumptions is discernable. By characterizing time delay in
visually comparable “curves” and providing load breakdown
by components, RTS provides good tools for application of
that judgment.
It also allows examination of individual component contri-
bution to the total cooling load, which helps diagnose poten-
tial errors in assumptions or data. That also allows focus of
attention on those components that have the greatest influ-
ence on the total load.
The RTS method consolidates several previous cooling load
calculation methods into a single approach which is less depen-
dant on tabulation of data and adjustments required to adapt
that data to particular situations. The RTS method does not in-
validate previous cooling load calculation methods; instead it
is a logical evolution of those methods. While RTS is conceptu-
ally simple, it is comparable in computational steps to the older
TETD/TA and TFM methods and, like those methods it can be
used economically only for design with the aid of a computer.
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Month
People Sens Window
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Lighting
Figure 6: Room sensible cooling (south zone example).
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24 ASHRAE Journal ashrae.org January 2004