Module 3

Cooling & Heating

Load Estimation
 Table of Contents

• Thermal comfort
• Indoor & Outdoor Design Conditions & Criteria
• Cooling Load Principles & Estimation
1- Conventional method “Maximum load”
2-CLTD/SCL/CLF method for Nonresidential
building.
3- CLTD/GLF for residential building.
• Heating Load calculation
 Thermal comfort
Thermal comfort : Is that condition of mind which expresses satisfaction
with the thermal environment.

The comfort of the occupants will depend on the

following five parameters:
1. Dry-bulb temperature.
2. Air quality (air should be free of excessive impurities
such as dust, and other contaminants )
3. Relative humidity. The most desirable relative
humidity is 50 percent, but deviations of plus or minus
15 percent are acceptable in most spaces.
4. Noise level. OSHA specifies the a limited noise levels
as a function of the maximum number of hours of
exposure.
5. Air movement. The air motion from air outlets such
as grills or diffusers is desirable in offices, classrooms,
and auditoriums it has a limited flow velocity as
presented by ASHREA tables.

(OSHA), is the Occupational Safety and Health Act

Refer to ASHRAE Standard 55-2004
ASHRAE comfort zone
Load estimation
• Purpose of HVAC load estimation
– Calculate peak design loads (cooling/heating)
– Estimate likely plant/equipment capacity or
size
– Provide info for HVAC design e.g. load profiles
– Form the basis for building energy analysis
• Cooling load is our main target
– Important for warm climates & summer design
– Affect building performance & its first cost
 Basic Concepts
• Heat transfer mechanism
– Conduction
– Convection
– Radiation
• Thermal properties of building
materials
– Overall thermal transmittance (U-value)
– Thermal conductivity
– Thermal capacity (specific heat)
 Steps of load calculation
1- Location of the project and Orientation of the walls.
2- Building layouts & plans, Physical dimensions of the
rooms ceiling height , and rooms functions (use of spaces)
3- Buildings materials and the corresponding “U” values
4- Area and types of the glass windows.
5- Surrounding conditions
6- People (number or density, duration of occupancy, nature
of activity), Diversity factor of persons.
7- Appliances (wattage, location, usage) Lighting (W/m2,
type),Diversity factor of lighting and equipment capacity.
8- Ventilation (criteria, requirements) ,Rate of ventilation
and infiltration.
Location of project & orientation of walls & glass
Building lay out & plans physical dimensions &
function of rooms

Surrounding conditions and glass type and areas

People (density, duration of occupancy ,activity
and diversity factor

Appliances and lighting (wattage ;location ;usage

& diversity factor)
Ventilation & infiltration rates
Acceptable Range of T & RH
95

in summer and winter

50 % RH
Recommended inside design condition

96
 Design Conditions in Beirut
The outdoor and the indoor conditions considered in our project are
the following: ( Lat= 33.8 Deg. , Elevation 29 m)
Summer Conditions Winter Conditions
(August –Beirut ) (January - Beirut )

Indoor (room) conditions: Indoor (room) conditions:

Relative Humidity: 50%
Dry bulb temperature: 23˚ -24 ˚ C
Wet bulb temperature : 16-17˚ C
hi = 8.29 W/m2.˚C ( still air )
Outdoor (room) conditions:
Dry bulb temperature: 33.9-35˚ C
Wet bulb temperature: 25.6-26 ˚ C
ho  22.7 W/m2.˚C
Vair = 3.4 m/s
Daily range ( 8 ˚C)
Relative Humidity: 50%
Dry bulb temperature: 21-22 ˚ C
Wet bulb temperature : 14-15˚ C
hi = 8.29 W/m2.˚C ( still air )
Outdoor (room) conditions:
Dry bulb temperature: 8-10˚ C
Wet bulb temperature: 7.5 ˚ C
ho  30 W/m2.˚C
Vair = 6.7 m/s
 The heat storage effect
The heat received from the heat sources ( conduction,
convection, solar radiation, lightning, people,
equipment, etc..) does not go immediately to heating
the room air. Some of the heat,especially from sun,
lighting, people, is absorbed by the room material and
furnishings. This is called heat storage effect where
heat is absorbed and stored in the building materials.
As a result, the net heat gain to the room air from
the heat sources is often less than the gross heat
gains.
The heat storage effect can also be considered as a
heat time lag. After a period of time, the temperature
of the building material will rise enough so that they
will give off heat to the room air.
 The heat storage effect
The instantaneous heat gain is Not equal to the
instantaneous sensible cooling load

100
 The heat storage effect for different types of
construction
The relation between heat gain and cooling load and the effect of the mass
of the structure ( light, medium & heavy ) is shown below. From the figure
it is evident that, there is a delay in the peak heat, especially for heavy
construction.

101
 Conversion of heat gain into cooling load

There are four distinct but related heat flow rates used in the design of Air
conditioning system: 1-Space heat gain, 2- Space cooling load, 2- Space heat
extracted rate ; 4- Cooling load.
 Conversion of heat gain into cooling load
1-Space heat gain instantaneous rate of heat gain, is the rate at which
heat enters a space, or heat generated within a space during a time
interval.

2-Space cooling load is the rate at which heat is removed from the
conditioned space to maintain a constant space air temperature. Previous
figure shows the difference between the space heat gain and the space
cooling load. The difference between the space heat gain and the space
cooling load is due to the heat storage of a portion of radiant heat in the
structure.
3- Space heat extracted rate is the rate at which heat is removed from
the conditioned space.

4-Cooling coil load :is rate at which energy is removed at the cooling coil
that serves one or more conditioned spaces in any central air conditioning
systems.
 Sudden increases
Sudden decrease
in temp and
in temp and
gradual increases
relative humidity
in relative
humidity
Significant rise in
temp and lower
relative humidity
Summary of Cooling Load
Calculation Methods
•Conventional method ( peak load )
Evaluate max. load to size/select equipment
• CLTD/GLF Method
For residential buildings single & multifamily buildings
• CLTD/CLF Method
Hand Calculation Method
For non-residential buildings office building ,industrial ,etc..
Simplified Factors based on TFM (above)
•Radiant Time Series (RTS) Method
Based on Heat Balance Method (exact solution)
Requires Computer-Based Solution Techniques
•TETD/TA Method
Equivalent cooling load temperature difference .
Originally Developed by Willis Carrier
Widely used but sources not well-documented
•Transfer Function Method (TFM)
Rigorous & Complex
Requires Computer
• Rules of thumb & floor areas “Cooling Load
Check figures”
1. The Heat Balance Method (ASHRAE)
 Fundamental Method, most reliable
 Application of the first law of thermodynamics
 Real application and requires fewer assumptions
Advantages:
1. Using a complete heat balance would give better results than simplified
methods
2. Additional information about the component performance could be
determined and not only cooling load
Disadvantages:
1. A complete description of the input data should be provided by this
method
2. Iterative procedure is included because all of the heat balance equations
must be solved simultaneously, and therefore, a computer program should
be used
 The Radiant Time Series (ASHRAE)
2- Coefficients to convert radiant heat gain components to cooling
load

Advantages:
1. Is a simplification of the heat balance method and can be
performed step by step, thus it does not require iterations
2. Can be implemented in a computerized sheet

Disadvantages:
1. Sol-Air temperatures have to be found for each hour of the 24
2. Periodic response factor has to be found for each wall, roof …
according to its layer section
3. It is not suitable for manual calculations because the periodic
response factors and the radiant time factors has to be found
using a software
 The Radiant Time Series (cont’.)
• Wall and window conduction 63%, 37%
• Roof conduction 84%, 16%
• People 70%, 30%
• Lighting 67%, 33%
• Equipment, 20%, 80%
• Transmitted solar heat gain 100%, 0%
• Absorbed solar heat gain, 63%, 37%
• Infiltration 0%, 100%
3. The Admittance Method (CIBSE)
 Uses the heat balance equations to find the load
 Internal temperature is not assumed constant
 Demonstrate the role of internal mass in modifying room
temperature

Advantages:
1. Simple
2. No iteration is needed
3. Allows the calculation in two modes: overheating calculation
(floating temperature), and a peak cooling load calculation

Disadvantages:
1. It was lately shown that the environmental model contains several
flaws
2. Tends to underpredict lighter weight zones cooling loads and
overpredict loads for heavyweight zones (because of radiant
factors)
 Cooling Load estimation
C . L.  QT  Q S  Q L  Qo  Qe  QV
Where :
QT  Is the heat transm itted through structures
Qs  Is the heat gained from Sun.
Q L  Is the light heat gained .
Qo  Is the heat of Occupants.
Qe  Is the heat of equipem ent, m otors
QV  Is the heat of Ventilation or
QI  Is the heat of Infiltration.

N.B. Peak load = max. cooling load

Block load = sum of zone loads at a specific time
Zone – a space, or several rooms, or units of space having some
sort of coincident loads or similar operating characteristics
Conventional method (peak load)
 103

C.L.  QT  QS  QL  Qo  Qe  QV
 Heat transmission through
structures .
The heat gained through structures is estimated from the
following equation:

Qt   [ U  A  (To  Ti)]
where Q is the heat gained per second ( W ) ,
U is the overall heat transmission coefficient (W/m2 .K )
A  Area .
To  Design Outside temperature (33.9  35 C ) [in Beirut ]
Ti  Inside temperature (24  25 C )
 Sun Heat gain SHG.
(Walls & windows)

QS  (U  A  TS )WALL  Aglass  ( SHG)  SC

TS  Additional Tem p. depends on sun direction
SHG Sun Heat gain (W / m 2) depends on sun direction.
Sc  Shade Coefficient
Sun Heat gain on walls

Maximum (peak )
 Sun heat gain Factor on Windows
SHGF (W/m2 )

Windows

The value Aglass  (W / m 2 ) depends on sun direction

Q S  (U  A  T S )WALL  A glass  (SHG )  SC

T S = Additional Temp. depends on sun direction
SHG Sun Heat gain (W / m 2 ) depends on sun direction.
Sc = Shade Coefficient is the
Ratio of how much sunlight passes through relative
to a clean 1 / 8” thick piece of glass
 N
NW NE
Sun heat gain Factor on window
W E ( D. 32ºNorth)
The value Aglass  (W / m 2 ) depends on sun direction

SHGF W/m2.
SW SE
Beirut
 Remark ! Sun heat gain
•If two or more walls are exposed to sun ray, the wall
having the higher sun effect value will be selected for
cooling load calculation, assuming that TS is based on
the peak load.
• However, we could add them all if it is required to
calculate the cooling load at a particular time of the day
(let say @ 5 o'clock). In this case, TS will be based on
the actual load at the particular time.
Simultaneously at the same time of the day ( for example south & East
walls are exposed )
Q S  [(U  A  ΔTS ) North  A  (W/m ) North  Sc] 
2

[(U  A  ΔTS ) South  A  (W/m2 ) South  Sc]

 [(U  A  ΔTS ) West  A  (W/m2 ) West  Sc]
 [(U  A  ΔTS ) East  A  (W/m2 ) East  Sc]
Wall Sun heat gain
TS ,  C

Read the corresponding

additional temperature @ 5
o'clock.(medium wall)
N= 2 C , E= 8 , S= 11 ,
W= 17  C

Read the corresponding

additional temperature @
peak load ,(medium wall).
N= 3 C , E= 15 C, S= 12
C ,W= 23  C.

115
 Sun Heat gain ( Roof )

Q S  (U  A  TS ) Roof

TS  Additional Tem p.difference
which depends on roof weight
TS ( Maxim un)  31 C ( light roof ),
26 C ( Medium roof ) and 16 C ( Heavy roof ).
Sun heat gain (Roof )
TS ,  C

Read the corresponding

temperature difference TS
@ 5 o'clock.(Roof medium
wall)
TS = 25  C.

Read the corresponding

temperature difference TS
@ peak load ,(Roof
medium wall).
TS = 26  C.

117
Shade Coefficient SC for glass
Shade Coefficient SC for windows
 Heat of Occupants
Qo  n  Q / person  D.F .
Where :
n  Num ber of occupants
Q  Heat produced / person
Q  (Q s  Q L ) / person
D .F .  Diversity factor
 Diversity of the cooling
Another design consideration is the diversity of the cooling
load. "diversity of cooling load results from the probable
non-occurrence of part of the cooling load on a design day.
Diversity factors are applied to the refrigeration capacity
in large air-conditioning systems. These factors vary with
location, type and size of the application, and are based
entirely on the judgment of the engineer."
The diversity factor, as a ratio of actual load/design load,
can be applied to people and lighting loads in large
multistory office, Hotel or apartment buildings. For
example, in an office building, the diversity factor for the
refrigeration capacity due to people may be from 0.75 to
0.90 and, due to the lighting, from 0.70 to 0.85. In
addition, the design engineer must consider the storage
load factors for heat gain due to lighting and solar gains
44
by glass.
Diversity factor

Carrier
 Example:
100 persons seating in theater @ night. Calculate the
heat From occupants:

Qo  n  Q / person
Qs  100  70  7000 W
QL  100  35  3500 W
Qo  100  (105)  0.8  8400 W
Assuming D.F .  0.8

121
 Light Heat gain.
Q L   (I n  1.25 F) in watt
Where :
I n  heat radiation from lamps
in watt. ( From Electrical Drawing)
F  heat radiation From Fluorescent
Or using Specific table ;
Q L  Area  ( W/m 2 )  DF.
Diversity Factor DF tak ing into consideration
the possibilty of not using all lighting connections at
the sametime. For Exam ple 65% of the light is ON
DF  0.65
 Light Heat gain

Example
W / m2 Type of Building
For 150 m2 area flat,
estimate the heat gained 60 Office
from lighting:
45 Factory
150 x 20 x0.65 =
40 School, University
=1950 W.
Assuming DF = 0.65. 20 Flat, theater, hotel,

17 Restaurant

15 Hospital, Library,
Museum
123
Heat of equipment & Motors

Qe  Sum ( E  (1   ))
Where :
E  Power in watt.
  Efficiency of the m otor.
 Heat of equipment & Motors
Example:
Motor Power Efficiency
A computer room,
having 10 computers
Less than 200 Watts. 0.6

calculate the heat From 375 up to 750 0.7

gained from Watts
computers; each From 1 Kw up to 4 0.8
computer has a power Kw
of 700 Watts. From 5.5 Kw up to 0.85
15 Kw.
Qe  Sum ( E  (1   )
Greater than 15 Kw. 0.88
Qe  10 (700  0.3)
Qe  2100 W . Assuming DF=1
What is the difference between ventilation and
infiltration?

A) Ventilation refers to the total amount of air

entering a space, and infiltration refers only
to air that unintentionally enters (leakage).
B) Ventilation is intended air entry into a
space. Infiltration is unintended air entry.
C) Infiltration is uncontrolled ventilation.
 Heat of ventilation
Rate of ventilation for a person
(Required Fresh air )
1
mo  n  ( L / S / person ) 
v0
v0  The specific Volume of air @ To
n  number of persons inside
the conditioned area.
L / S / Person.  Av. Re quired fresh air per
person l / s ( From tables) 127
Required fresh air per
person:
Example:
Find the required fresh
for theater having 500
seats.
From the table :
500 x 3.5 = 1750 L/s

128
 Heat gained by Ventilation (fresh air )
[sensible + latent]
QV= Qsensible + QLatent .
Ventilation:
Qsensible= 1 .23 x n x (L/S/Person) x (to - ti) watt
Qlatent = 3010x n x (L/S/Person) x (Wo - Wi) watt
Qtotal = 1.2x n x (L/S/Person) x (ho – hi) watt

Where:
Q = L/s/person from ASHRAE standard tables, ventilation or infiltration.
to, ti = outside, inside air temp., o C.
Wo, Wi = outside, inside air humidity ratio, kg(water)/kg(dry air).
ho, hi = outside, inside air enthalpy, kJ/kg (dry air).
n = number of occupants 129
 ho

O
outside
hx

hI
Qlatent = 3010x n x (L/S/P

X
I Room

Qsensible= 1 .23 x n x (L/S/Person) x (to - ti)

131
 Heat of Infiltration
The heat loss by infiltration (Leakage from Windows
openings) is determined from the following formula:

3 1
Q I  Sum L ( L / s / m ).10   ( ho  hi ).10 3 . (W )
o
ν o  Specif volume (from psych. Chart )
h o  Enthalpy @ the Outside temperature
h i  Enthalpy @ the inside temperature.
Sum of L  Perimeter.
L/ S / m  0.82 ( from table )
(for Glass window , Aluminum.Frame )
L/ S /m  5 (for Wooden door )
(Leakage from Windows ) L/s/m

133
(Leakage due to door opening) L/s/m
 Practical
Infiltration Loss
(Air change method)

The heat loss by infiltration (Leakage from openings) is

determined from the following formula:
Where ACH is the recommended number of air change per
hour , V is the volume of the room. C is the specific heat
capacity of air (say 1340 J/ kg.K.),  is the air density = 1.23
Kg/ m3.

 C
Qv   ACH V (t i  t o )
3600
Qv  0.333  ACH V (t i  t o )
 Review
Supplied Air for cooling
(Volume flow rate mS)
In order to determine the required air supply for cooling
a specific room, we should have the following information
and data:
1- Does the system require forced fresh air from
outside door, mixing box , etc. or is it just a split unit?
2- What is the total cooling load ? & the Sensible room
load ?
3- What is the RSHF ?
4- Locate the point S in the psychometric chart & find
supply temperature Ts. Approximately Ts is about (14-16
C)
 Location of point S , ( Ts)

Calculated

C.L.
ms  ( Kg / s )
(hR  hS ) 103
141
 Approximation

Determine maximum for each room (cfm).

Cfm= RSHG /1.08(trm-tsa) Carrier

where:
trm is the room temperature 75F°(24 °C)
tsa is the supply air temperature 55-60.8 F°(14-16°C)
determined from psy.
RSHG is the room sensible heat gain.
Practically :The above equation is used to size the ducts and branches for
each room . Whereas the main duct is sized based on the actual flow of the
selected unit. Let say the calculated cooling load is 60 000Bthu/hr & the
corresponding flow rate from catalogue is 2000 cfm. This value is used to size
the main duct
 Flow rate determination

CFM required for cooling (Us Units)

CL=4.5 CFM(h0-hi)
For heating using air
Q= 1.1 CFM(T0-Ti) ( sensible)
Using Water chiller
Q=500 gpm (T ) for cooling & heating
 Fan heat gain
Fan power input is almost entirely converted to heat energy within the fan.
If the fan motor is located in the supply or return air stream, the
temperature increase across the supply (or return fan)
T °F (°C), can be calculated as

0.37 Pt
T fan 
 fan  m

where pt fan total pressure, in. WC

f & m total efficiency of fan and efficiency of motor
If the motor is located outside the airstream, then, m= 1.
The  pt of the return fan for a central hydronic air conditioning system
in commercial buildings is usually 0.25 to 0.5 of the  pt of the supply fan.
Therefore, the temperature increase of the return fan is far smaller than
that of the supply fan.
 Duct heat gain

Duct heat gain is the heat transfer caused by the

temperature difference between the ambient air and the air
flowing inside the air duct. Duct heat gain is affected by this
temperature difference, the thickness of the duct insulation
layer, air volume flow rate, and the size and shape of the
duct.
A rough estimate of the temperature increase
of the supply air for an insulated duct is as follows:
 Duct & Fan heat gain

It is reasonable that the duct and Fan heat gain

be calculated as a percentage of the sensible
heat gain. This percentage is about 5 % as a
combined factor for the duct heat gain and Fan
heat gain.

QS = q (tot) x 1.05
 Approximate values for Cooling Load
“Residential Building” Check
up only

As a rule of thumb
· For Bed Room 1 m2  650 BTH/hr.
· For Salon or Dining 1 m2  850-950 BTH/hr.
· For Roof 1 m2  800- 900 BTH/hr. (rooms)
For Roof 1 m2  950- 1000 BTH/hr. (Salon)
For heating 1 m2  90 Kcal/hr. (Beirut)

( One Radiator plate  1-1.4 m2 )

Fresh air

No forced
fresh air.
Only heat
gain from
infiltration is
included in
the C.L.
calculation

No plenum box
 2

4&6
5
3&1
 forced fresh
air (ventilation)
+ infiltration
are included in
the C.L.
calculation

Mixing in the Plenum box

 2

5
3&4

1& 6

Room Cooling load

Part 2 72
 forced fresh
air (ventilation)
is not included
in the
calculation of
C.L.

No Mixing
Heating Load Estimation

• Is the Max. heat energy required to maintain

winter indoor design temp.
 Design Conditions in Beirut
The outdoor and the indoor conditions considered are:
Winter Conditions
Alt= 33.8 Deg. , Elevation 29 m
(January - Beirut )
Indoor (room) conditions:
Relative Humidity: 50%
Dry bulb temperature: 21-22 ˚ C
Wet bulb temperature : 14-15˚ C
hi  8.29 W/m2.˚C ( still air )
Outdoor (room) conditions:
Relative Humidity: 70%
Dry bulb temperature: 6-8˚ C
Wet bulb temperature: 7.5 ˚ C
ho 30 W/m2.˚C
Vair = 6.7 m/s 146
Design inside temperature (Winter)
Design inside temperature (Winter)
 Heating Load estimation
Assumptions:
1. All heating losses are
instantaneous heating loads
2. Solar heat gains & internal

H .L.  QT  QV loads , light ,equipment,

usually not considered
3. Latent heat often not
considered (unless w/
Where : humidifier)

QT  Is the heat loss through structures

QV  Is the heat of Ventilation or
QI  Is the heat of Infiltration.
 Heat loss through structures.

As mentioned before, the heat loss through structures is estimated

from the following equation:

Qt   U  A  (Ti  To)
where Q is the heat loss per second ( W ) ,
U is the overall heat transmission coefficient (W/m2.C)
A  Area .
To  Outside temperature (6  8 C ) [in Beirut ]
Ti  Inside temperature (21 C )
 Ventilation loss (Fresh air )

3 1
Qv  n ( L / s / person)10   (hi  ho ) 103. (W ) Or
o
3 1
Qv  n ( L / s / person)10   Cp  (Ti  To ) 103. (W )
o
 o  Specif volume ( from psych. Chart )
To  Outside temperature
Ti  inside temperature.
n  Number of Persons.
Cp  1.005 Kj / Kg .C
Infiltration Loss (leakage)
3 1
Q I  Sum L ( L / s / m ).10   ( hi  ho)  10 3 . (W )
o
Or sim lpy
3 1
Q I  Sum L ( L / s / m ).10   Cp  (Ti  To )  10 3 . (W)
νo
ν o  Specif volume (from psych. Chart )
To  Outside temperature
Ti  inside temperature.
Sum of L  Perimeter.
L/S/M  0.82 , Cp  1.005 Kj/Kg.
(for Glass window , Aluminum.Frame)
 Questions:

• What is the difference

between ventilation and
infiltration?
• Do you have forced
ventilation in your
residential buildings?
 Infiltration Loss
(Air change method)
Practical
The heat loss by infiltration (Leakage from openings) is
determined from the following formula:
Where N is the recommended number of air change per hour ,
V is the volume of the room. C is the specific heat capacity of
air (say 1340 J/ kg.K.),  is the air density = 1.23 Kg/ m3.

 C
Qv   N  V (ti  to )
3600
Qv  0.333  N  V (ti  to )
 Number of air change Winter ASHRAE 97
A27.4

ASHRAE 72

Large rooms 100 m3 up 1000 m3 , N = 0.5 m3/hr.

 Crack method
The outdoor air infiltration Q is calculated using the
following equation:


Q  A  C  P n

A = effective leakage area of cracks

C = flow coefficient (type of crack and flow in crack)
n = exponents function of flow nature: 0.4 < n < 1
 P = outside-inside pressure difference

Experimental data are needed in order to use this equation directly.

The pressure difference  P in the previous equation results
from three different effects.

P  Pwind  Pstack  Ppressuriza tion


Pwind  C p 2
V wind
2
P0 h  1 1 
Ps  C d g  
Pressure coefficient Ra  To Ti 

 2 P0 h  1 1 
P  C p Vwind  C d g    Ppressurization
2 Ra  To Ti 
 Pressure coefficient Cp
Wall

For low-rise building (H < 3 W) For high-rise building (H < 3 W)

Roof
 Stack effect
The stack effect occurs when the air density differs between the inside
and outside of a building. On winter days, the lower outdoor temperature
causes a higher pressure I at ground level on the outside and consequent
infiltration. Buoyancy of the warm
inside air leads to upward flow, a higher inside pressure at the top of the
building, and exfiltration of air. In the summer, the process reverses with
infiltration in the upper portion of the building and exfiltration in the
lower part.
Considering only the stack effect, there is a level in the building where no
pressure difference exists. This is defined as the neutral pressure level.
Theoretically, the neutral pressure level will be at the mid-height of the
building if the cracks and other
openings are distributed uniformly in the vertical direction. When larger
openings predominate in the lower portion of the building, the neutral
pressure level will be lowered .Similarly; the neutral pressure level will be
raised by larger openings in the upper portion of the building. Normally the
larger openings will occur in the lower part of the building because of doors.
The theoretical pressure difference with no internal
separations is given by:

P0 h  1 1
Pstack  g  
Ra  To Ti 

Po = outside pressure, Pa
h = vertical distance from neutral pressure level, m
To = outside temperature, K
Ti = inside temperature, K
Ra = gas constant for air, J/(kg-K)
 HEAT LOSS THROUGH BASEMENT WALLS & FLOORS BELOW THE GROUND LEVEL

The loss through the floor is normally small and relatively constant
because the ground temperature under the floor varies only a little
throughout the year. The ground is a very good heat sink and can absorb or
lose a large amount of heat without an appreciable change in temperature
at about the 8 ft (2.4 m) level . Above the 8 ft level, the ground
temperature varies with the outdoor temperature, with the greatest
variation at the surface and a decreasing variation down to the 8 ft depth.
The heat loss thru a basement wall may be appreciable and it is difficult to
calculate because the ground temperature varies with depth. Carrier -
tables 35 thru 37 have been empirically calculated to simplify the
evaluation of heat loss thru basement walls and floors. The heat loss thru a
slab floor is large around the perimeter and small in the center. This is
because the ground temperature around the perimeter varies with the
outdoor temperature, whereas the ground temperature in the middle
remains relatively constant, as with basement floors.
Part 2 92
Use of Tables 35 thru 37 carrier
Heat Loss thru Masonry Floors and Walls in Ground

The transmission coefficients listed in Table 35 may be used for any thickness of
un-insulated masonry floors where there is good contact between the floor and the
ground.
The perimeter factors listed in Table 36 are used for estimating heat loss thru
basement walls and the outside strip of basement floors. This factor can be used
only when the space is heated continuously. If there is only occasional heating,
calculate the heat loss using the wall or floor transmission coefficients as listed in
Tables 21 thru 33 (ref 3 ) and the temperature difference between the basement
and outdoor air or ground as listed in Table 37.
The heat loss in a basement is determined by adding the heat transferred thru the
floor, the walls and the outside strip of the floor and the portion of the wall above
the ground level.

Part 2 93
Part 2 94
Part 2 95
Example 5 Ref carrier

-Find: The Heat Loss from Basement

-Given: Basement - 100' X 40' X 9„ , Basement temp 65 F db, heated
continuously Outdoor temp 0° F db , Grade line 6 ft above basement floor
Walls and floors 12 in. concrete (U=0.18). Ref (3)

T0 = 0 F

Basement wall 3ft

above the ground

Tb = 65 F 9 ftt
6 ft
Basement floor
Tg = 55 F
100 ft
40 ft width
Part 2 96
Where U = Heat transmission coefficient of wall above ground (Table 5.1 text
book ) and floor (Table 35 Carrier) in Btu/(hr) (sq ft) (deg F)
A 1 = Area of wall above ground, sq ft= 2(100+40)x(9-6)
A 2 = Entire floor area, sq ft= (100x 40)
Lp = Perimeter of wall, ft = 2(100+40)
q = Perimeter factor (Table 36) = 1.05 Btu/(hr) (sq ft) (deg F)
Tb = Basement dry-bulb temp, = 65 F
Tg = Ground temp, F, (Table 37) = 55 F
Ta = Outdoor design dry-bulb temp, = 0 F
Solution:
Heat loss above ground
Q1 = U X A1 X (Tb – Ta ) = 0.18 X [2(100 + 40)] X 3 X (65 - 0) = 9828 Btu/hr
2. Heat loss thru walls and outside strip of floor below ground.
Q2 = Lp X q X (Tb – Ta ) = {2(100 + 40)} X 1.05 X (65 - 0)= 19100 Btu/hr
3. Heat loss thru floor
Q3 = U‟ X A2 (Tb – Tg ) = 0.05 X (100 X 40) X (65 - 55)= 2000 Btu/hr
Part 2 97
Total Heat Loss = 30,928 Btu/hr
 Class exercise

Estimate the heating & cooling load

Beirut conditioning
 CLTD/SCL/CLF Method
ASHRAE Cooling-Load Temperature-Difference (CLTD) method is
presented as an approximate hand-calculation method for determining
summer design cooling load.

ASHRAE Fundamentals 1997

in Chapter 28.39-28.56.
None residential building

99
Manual and Computer method
Derived from Heat Balance method
Depends on tabulated data
calculated using the TF method
Assumption made:
 Zone Air temperature is assumed
constant
 Sol-Air temperature is assumed for
outside
 One dimensional heat flow through
structure
Cooling Load Temperature Difference (CLTD) combines
the temperature difference between indoor and outdoor
and solar radiation and considers thermal capacity of the
enclosure.
CLTD method is a simplified version of the Transfer
function method, which can be used with certain types of
buildings for which application data are available. This one
step procedure uses cooling load temperature differences
(CLTD), solar cooling load factors (SCL), and internal
cooling load factors (CLF), to calculate the cooling loads
.Therefore, cooling load temperature differential data for
conduction heat gain through sunlit walls, cooling load
factors for solar and internal loads, and solar cooling load
factors are developed in the form of tables to produce a
direct one-step calculation for each process.
Part 2 101
 CLTD & CLF
Cooling load temperature difference & cooling load factor
are used to convert the space sensible heat gain to space
cooling load .
The CLTD values are found from tables (A 28-32) & (A 28-
34), which are designed for fixed conditions of outdoor /
indoor temperatures, latitudes , etc.. Corrections and
adjustments are made if the conditions are different.

The cooling load factor CLF is defined:

as the ratio cooling load to maximum solar heat gain;

Sensible coolingLoad Qs
CLF  
Sensible heat gain Qes

CLF is used to determine solar loads or internal loads . Example of the

use of CLF is shown in the accompanied tables.
Cooling load estimation
“CLTD”
 Walls & Roofs

CLTD = cooling load temperature difference;

tabulated for flat roofs, walls, glasses (Table A28-32, A28-34 )

A 28-32 ASHRAE97 Chapter 28-Pp44 , table 32

104
 Conventional method

Q  U  A  (To  Ti)
Fixed value
Lead to Maximum Load

CLTD/CLF method

Q  U  A  CLTD
Function of:

1. Direction , latitude & month

2. Time-of-day
3. Thermal storage in materials used
 Correction

An adjustment must be subjected to the CLTD values; since the values in the
following table are for indoor temperature 25.5˚C, outdoor temperature 35˚C
and daily range 11.6˚C , July at 40 ˚ North latitude

correction CLTD = (CLTD + LM) k+ (25.5 – tr) + (tm - 29.4)

where:
LM = Latitude/Month Correction Factor (Table )
k = Color Correction (Dark = 1.0, Med = 0.83, Light = 0.65)
tr = inside temp. and
tm= mean outdoor temp.
tm = maximum outdoor temp -(daily range)/2

106
 Adjust the CLTD values to fit your data .

Case of Wall type is 12 , South Orientation

Time under consideration is 9:00 and 13:00
Room dry-bulb temperature = 25 oC ,outside temp= 35 oC, daily range 8 oC
July at 40 ˚ North latitude where K=1 (dark color)

From Table A28-32, for south wall type 12 we get :

CLTD9:00 = 5 and CLTD 13:00 = 7.
CLTDcorrected = (CLTD+LM)*k + (25.5 - Tr) + (Tm - 29.4)
@ 9:00 am CLTDcorec =(5+0.5)*1+(25.5 - 25) +(35 -8/2 - 29.4) =7.6 oC
@ 13:00 am CLTDcorec =(7+0.5)*1+(25.5 - 25)+(35 -8/2 - 29.4) = 9.6 oC

LM=0.5 from table 16.7

K=1 for dark color
Table 28A-32 July at 40 ˚ North latitude

From Table A28-32, for south wall type 12 we get :

CLTD9:00 = 5 and CLTD 13:00 = 7.
LM Correction

Adjustment Factors for latitude & month (LM)

 Roofs

Q Roof U  A CLTD Roof

Typical Steps to calculate the Roof load as follows:
1-Determine roof construction and overall heat transfer
coefficient (U) (Chapter 28 ASHRAE 1997, Table A24-4,
A29-5)
2-Select roof  from ASHRAE Table 31 which is closest to
matching actual roof construction.
3- Select roof CLTD for time of interest, typically on an
hourly basis (Chapter 28 ASHRAE Table A28-32, A28-34)
4-Correction
5-Calculate Roof area (A) from architectural drawing
 Roofs CLTD tables

1997 ASHRAE Handbook, Fundamentals, Chapter 28

Roofs Number
 Walls

QWall U  A CLTDWall
Typical Steps to calculate the Wall load as follows:
1-Determine wall construction and overall heat transfer
coefficient (U) (Chapter 24 ASHRAE 1997, Table A24-4,
A29-5)
2-Select wall  from ASHRAE Table 33 which is closest to
matching actual wall construction.
3- Select wall CLTD for time of interest, typically on an
hourly basis (Chapter 28 ASHRAE Table A28-32, A28-34)
4-Correction
5-Calculate wall area (A) from architectural drawing
Code Number SI
Wall Number
1997 ASHRAE Handbook, Fundamentals, Chapter 28
Wall CLTD
 SOLAR LOAD THROUGH GLASS

Solar load through glass has two components:

1) Conductive and 2) Solar Transmission

Conduction, thru glass Solar radiation thru glass

Table 34 Table 36
Solar load thru glass window by conduction

Q=Aglass x U x CLTD

A= Glass area m2
U= Overall heat transition coefficient for glass
(W/m2K ) , table 5
CLTD = cooling load temp. difference W/m2 (Table
A28-34)
Conduction, thru glass

Q=Aglass x U x CLTD
 Conventional method
Solar radiation

QS  (U  A  TS )WALL  Aglass  ( SHG)  SC

TS  Additional Tem p. depends on sun direction
SHG Sun Heat gain (W / m 2) depends on sun direction.
Sc  Shade Coefficient

CLTD/CLF method

Conduction, thru glass Solar radiation thru glass

Table 34 Table 36

Case of conventional method :The heat loss thru window by conduction is calculated previously with the structure heat gain
 Solar Radiation

The instantaneous heat gain through a

fenestration

A=glass area m2
Sc = Shading Coefficient table 5
SCL = Solar cooling load factor (Table A28-36 Pp51)

1 ) Determine shading coefficient (SC) from ASHRAE 1997 Chapter 27,

Table 11
2) Determine zone type from ASHRAE 1997 Chapter 29, Table 35 B
3) Determine solar cooling load factor (SCL) from ASHRAE 1997 Chapter
28, Table A28-36
4) Calculate glass area (A) from architectural plans 122
 Sc is the Ratio of how much sunlight passes through relative to a clean glass
Depends on:
-Window coatings
-Actually a spectral property
-Frame shading, dirt, etc.
 Zone type determination for SCL

For example
A room in a single story building, having one or two expose walls ,concrete
block partitions, carpet over concrete ,no external or internal shading.
From Table 35 B . Glass solar will be zone type B , People & equipment
type C , light type C.
Solar Radiation thru glass SC L
 Example 7 from A28 Pp49.

Cooling load from south and west glass. Determine the cooling
load caused by glass on the south and west walls of a building at
1200, 1400, and 1600 h in July. The building is located at 40°N latitude
with outside design conditions of 35°C dry-bulb temperature and a 11°C
daily range. The inside design dry bulb temperature is 25°C.
Assume the glass zone is C category
The south glass has a U values is (3.63 W/m2K) with an area of 10 m2 and
Sc=0.82 . The west glass U values is (4.6 W/m2K) an area of 10 m2 and
Sc=0.53.
 Conduction heat gain thru Glass , CLTD correction
From Table 34 we get:
CLTD12:00 = 5 , CLTD 14:00 = 7, and CLTD 16:00 = 8.
CLTDcorrected = CLTD + (25.5 - Ti) + (Tm - 29.4)
@ 12:00 CLTDcorec = 5 + (25.5 - 25) + (35 -11/2 - 29.4) = 5.6 oC
@ 14:00 CLTDcorec = 7 + (25.5 - 25) + (35 -11/2 - 29.4) = 7.6 oC
@ 16:00 CLTDcorec = 8 + (25.5 - 25) + (35 -11/2 - 29.4) = 8.6 oC

Qcond=Aglass x U x CLTD

Time CLTD Area U U Q Q

corrected glass m2 (south)2 (West) (South) (West)
w/m K w/m2K Watt Watt

12:00 5.6 10 3.63 4.6 203.28 257.6

14:00 7.6 10 3.63 4.6 275.88 349.6
16:00 8.6 10 3.63 4.6 312.18 395.6
Conduction, thru glass

Q=Aglass x U x CLTD
SCL for South & West glass windows
 Qrad=Aglass x Sc x SCL

Aglass= 10 m2

Time SC SCL Qrad SC SCL Qrad

South South South west west West
Watt Watt

12:00 0.82 249 2041.8 0.53 177 620.1

14:00 0.82 221 1812.2 0.53 309 1637.7

16:00 0.82 126 1033.2 0.53 482 2554.6

Time Qrad +cond Qrad +cond

South West

Watt
Watt

12:00 2245.08 877.7

14:00 2088.08 1987.3

16:00 1345.38 2950.2

 Partition wall

Where Tb = adjacent space temperature

Ti = inside air temperature

Whenever a conditioned space is adjacent to a space with a different

temperature, transfer of heat through the separating physical
section must be considered. 131
 There are 2 aspects for selecting ∆T
If there is an conditioned
space near ( adjacent ) or
If there is an non-conditioned
above or below the room
space near ( adjacent ) or
under consideration
above or below the room under
∆T=0-4 °C
Consideration ∆T=4 -6°C
Design condition 50%,
For example Toilet , Void , Car
means that a 50%
parking
possibility the adjacent
rooms is not conditioned
(35+24) /2= 28.5-29.5 c

However if it is conditioned ( both room have the

same temperature ) or ducted central cooling in
the adjacent rooms ∆T=0 °C
where N = number of people in space (Sensible & Latent).Table (A28-3 Pp8)

CLF = Cooling load factor which is a function of: zone type, number of
hours after entry, and number of hours in space (Table A28-37)

1997 ASHRAE Handbook, Fundamentals, Chapter 28

133
 People

1997 ASHRAE Handbook, Fundamentals, Chapter 28

CLF for people
 Example 8: A28-Pp 52 Cooling load from occupants

Estimate the cooling load in a building at 12:00, 14:00, 16:00 from four moderately
active people occupying an office from 9:00 to 17:00 ( 8 hours in space)
The office temperature is 25°C, and the cooling system operates continuously. Assume
the conditions of the space as applied to table 33A; define it as type D.
The period of occupancy is 8 h.

Qsensible =N( sensible heat gain) x CLF From 9 to

QLatent =N( Latent heat gain) 12:00 is 3 hrs

From Table A28-37, & Zone C

CLF12:00 (3 hours into space) = 0.74
CLF14:00 (5 hours into space) =0.80
CLF16:00 (7 hours into space) =0.85

Time No. of Hours in Hours Watts Watts CLFp Cooling Cooling

after (Table 37
people space Load Load
(table 3) (table 3) zone D)
Entry
sen.,W Lat.,W
sensible Latent

12:00 4 8 3 75 55 0.74 222 220

14:00 4 8 5 75 55 0.80 240 220

16:00 4 8 7 75 55 0.85 255 220

CLF = cooling load factor from (Table A28-38 Pp52)
Ful = lighting use factor: ratio of wattage in use to total installed wattage. Similar
to D.F.

137
After 6 hours in work
Lighting

138
 Example 9 :A28-Pp53
Estimate the cooling load for a private office at 12:00 pm, 14:00 and
16:00 pm ,for fluorescent light (800Watt).
All the lights are turned on at 8 am, and turned off at 18:00 i.e. (remain
on for 10 hours).
Estimate the sensible heat gains from light.
Assuming zone type C

Solutions: QLight = W x Ful x Fsa x CLF

The total installed wattage is =800W.

The use factor is Ful =1.0 (all lights are on) and the special allowance factor
Fsa = 1.2 (fluorescent tubes ).The CLF from Table 38 for zone type C,
10h on, @ 12:00 means 4h after being turned on is 0.87.The values a@14:00 pm
(means 6 hours) and 16 :00 (8 hours) are 0.90 and 0.92 respectively .

Time watt Ful Fsa CLF Qlight W

12:000 800 1 1.2 0.87 835.2

14:00 800 1 1.2 0.90 864
16:00 800 1 1.2 0.92 883.2
 (Motor)

CLF = cooling load factor (a schedule factor) (Table A28-37)

P= Power rating & Ef=efficiency from Table A28-4 or Manufacturer catalogue

Motor & equipments such as fans, pumps, machine tools, elevators, escalators
and other machinery, which add significantly to the heat gain.

N.B. The motor location inside or outside the room will effect the 140
power load
 Appliance , equipments

Q Sens= qis x Fua x Fra x CLF (Sensible)

CLF = cooling load factor
Fra = radiation factor
Fua= usage factor
qis =Sensible rated energy input from
appliances
Qlatent = qil xFua
qil =Latent rated energy input from appliances

Fua= usage factor, See 1997 ASHRAE Fundamentals, Chapter 28, Table 6 and 7
Fra = radiation factor A28Tables 5-9
, qis =Sensible rated energy input from appliances –A28 Tables 5-9
Or use manufacturer‟s data .For computer ,monitors ,printers see 2001
ASHRAE Fundamentals, Chapter 29, Tables 8, 9, & 10.

CLF = cooling load factor (Tables A28-37, A28-39)

142
Example 10:A28-Pp53 Appliance cooling load.

Determine the cooling load in a building at 12.00, 14.00, and 16.00 caused
by an electric coffee brewer with one brewer and one warmer. The brewer
operates continuously from 9.00 to 15.00 h and does not have an exhaust hood.
The cooling system runs 24 h/day, including weekends.
Room categorized as type D
Q Sens= qis x Fua x Fra x CLF (Sensible)
Solution:
From Table 8, qs and qt for an unhooded, two-burner coffee
brewer is 1100 sensible and 560 W latent , respectively , and for a coffee
heater (per warming burner) is and 67 sensible and 32 W latent , respectively.
The brewer is ON for 6 h, and @ 12.00 h is 3 h after the brewer is turned on.
@ 14.00 h is 5 h after the brewer is turned on. @ 16.00 h is 7 h after the
brewer is turned on. From Table 37 & type D we get CLFs

Time Qs wat Hour in Hour CLFs Sens. Latent Total

use after Tab.37 Wat Wat Wat
start
12:00 1167 6 3 0.73 851.9 592 1443.9
14:00 1167 6 5 0.8 933.6 592 1525.6
16:00 1167 6 7 0.26 303.42 0 (off) 303.42
 Ventilation

Qsensible= 1 .23 xN xQ x(to - ti) watt

Qlatent = 3010x N xQ x (Wo - Wi) watt
Qtotal = 1.2xNxQx(ho – hi) watt

Where:
Q = L/s/person from ASHRAE standard tables, ventilation or infiltration.
to, ti = outside, inside air temp., o C.
Wo, Wi = outside, inside air humidity ratio, kg(water)/kg(dry air).
ho, hi = outside, inside air enthalpy, kJ/kg (dry air).

148
 CLTD/GLF Method

The method uses regression data of computer

generated transfer function solution
“Single & Multifamily Buildings”

Part 2 149
 CLTD/GLF Method
(Calculation procedure)

Cooling load through structural components:

Q = U A (CLTD)
U = overall heat transfer coefficient
A = area of roof, wall, or glass
CLTD = cooling load temperature difference;
tabulated for flat roofs, walls, glasses (Table A27-2
and A27-3 ,Table 1&2)
Cooling load through windows:
Glass Load Factor (GLF) includes effects of both
transmission and solar radiation.
Q = (GLF) A
GLF = glass load factor (Table A27-3 and A27-4)
Part 2 150
Heat gain through structure
Heat gain through structure
Heat Transmitted Through Glass:
Q = ∑ AxGLF
GLF for single family Residence
GLF for Multifamily Residence
Heat Gained By Occupant
Qocc.= Nocc. x ( Qsen. + Qlat.)
 Heat gained from light & Appliances:

W / m2 Type of Building Motor Power Efficiency

60 Office Less than 200 Watts. 0.6

45 Factory From 375 up to 750 0.7

Watts
40 School, University
From 1 Kw up to 4 Kw 0.8
20 Flat, theater, hotel,

From 5.5 Kw up to 15 0.85

17 Restaurant Kw.

15 Hospital, Library,
Museum Greater than 15 Kw. 0.88

Part 2 160
 Heat Gain by Equipment:
The table below gives an example of heat
generated for different types of equipment
used in residential buildings
 Heat gained from infiltration:
Q=1.2 q xT
q = 1000/3600 (ACH) Vroom
Q=0.333 (ACH ) Vroom x T
Table 8

A27-8
 Effect of infiltration on Latent load factor

Figure 1 may be used to estimate the total cooling load by reading LF as a

function of the design humidity ratio and air tightness .

LF = 0.58 + 42 x w

The total coil load will be

Q= Q sensible total x LF

W is the humidity ratio @ 35

C is = 0.0173 kgv/kgair.
If the humidity ratio is less
than 0.01 set LF=1

For latent cooling load estimation:

Calculate from individual components or estimate as 30% of the sensible load
Example 1.
A single-family detached house (Figure 2) is located in the south central United
States at 36°N latitude.

Roof construction. [U = 0.28 W/(m2·K)].

Wall construction. [U = 0.34 W/(m2·K)].

Ceiling height is 2.4 m throughout.

Floor construction. 100 mm concrete slab on grade.

Fenestration. Clear double glass, 3 mm thick, in and out. Assume closed, medium-
color venetian blinds. The window glass has a 600 mm overhang at the top.

Doors. Solid core flush with all-glass storm doors [U = 1.82 W/(m2·K)].

Outdoor design conditions. Temperature of 36°C dry bulb with a

13 K daily range and a humidity ratio of 0.0136 kg vapor/kg dry air
(23.7°C wet bulb).
U-factors for all external surfaces are based on a 3.4 m/s (12 km/h)
wind velocity.
Indoor design conditions. Temperature of 24°C dry bulb and 50% rh.
Occupancy. Four persons, based on two for the master bedroom and
one for each additional bedroom. Assign to the living room.
Appliances and lights. Assume 470 W for the kitchen, and assign
50% to the living room. Assume 470 W for the utility room, and assign
25% to the kitchen and 25% to the storage room.
The conditioning equipment is located in the garage, and the construction
of the house is considered medium.
Find the sensible, latent, and total cooling load; size the cooling
unit; and compute the air quantity for each room.
 References
1. McQuiston, Parker and Spitler “Heating, Ventilating
and Air Conditioning: Analysis and Design” by. Fifth
edition, 2000, John Wiley & Sons Inc.
2. Handbook of Air Conditioning and Refrigeration, 2nd
ed. (Wang, 2001)
3. Spitler, J.D., F.C. McQuiston, K. Lindsey. 1993. The
CLTD/SCL/CLF Cooling Load Calculation Method,
ASHRAE Transactions. 99(1): 183-192.
4. E.J.Dossat,” principles of refrigeration”. Second
edition 1981
5. E.G.Pita “ Air conditioning principles and systems An
energy approach. 1981, John Wiley & sons.
6. Norman C. Harris “ Modern Air conditioning
Practice”. Third edition Mc Graw hill 1983.
7. ASHRAE Handbook Fundamentals 1997 SI version
• ASHRAE Handbook Fundamentals 2001
– Chapter 26 – Ventilation and Infiltration
– Chapter 27 – Climatic Design Information
– Chapter 28 – Residential Cooling and Heating Load
Calculations
– Chapter 29 – Nonresidential Cooling and Heating
Load Calculations
– Chapter 30 – Fenestration
– Chapter 31 – Energy Estimation and Modeling
Methods
 Solar load thru glass window by conduction

Q=Aglass x U x CLTD

A= Glass area m2
U= Overall heat transition coefficient for glass
(W/m2K ) , table 5
CLTD = cooling load temp. difference W/m2 (Table
A28-34)

Total Cooling Load from Fenestration:

The total cooling load due to fenestration is the sum of the conductive
and radiant components =qcond + qrad.