13 May 2019

5-2
The Laval nozzle
Choked Nozzle ( col amorcé)
(Tuyère de Laval)

1- Wave Propagation :

Waves carry information in a flow. These waves travel at the local speed of sound. This brings a sharp
contrast between incompressible and compressible flows.
For an incompressible fluid the speed of sound is infinite (Mach number is zero). Consequently,
information in the form of pressure, density and velocity changes is conveyed to all parts of the flow
instantaneously. The flow too therefore changes instantaneously. Take any incompressible flow and
study its flow pattern. You will notice that the stream lines are continuous and the flow changes
smoothly to accommodate the presence of a body placed in the flow. It seems to change far upstream
of the body.
In compressible medium any disturbance travels only at finite speeds. Signals generate at a point in the
flow take a finite time to reach other parts of the flow . The smooth streamline pattern noticed for
incompressible flow may now be absent. In fact this stems from the compressibility effects which make
a compressible flow far more interesting than an incompressible flow.
In this section we derive an expression for the speed of sound. Then we study the difference in the
way a supersonic flow responds to the presence of an obstacle in comparison to a subsonic flow.
We then find out how shocks are formed in compressible flows.

2- Propagation of a Source of Sound

Let us now consider a point source of sound and the changes that occur when it moves at different
speeds.
Stationary Source
First consider a stationary source. This source emits a sound wave at every second, say. The waves
travels in the form of a circle with its centre at the location of the source as shown in the below Fig .
After 3 seconds we will see three concentric circles as shown. The effect of the sound source is felt
within the largest circle.
Source moving at Subsonic Speeds
Let the source move to the left at half the speed of sound, i.e.,M = 0.5. The source occupies various
position shown. In this case as well as the one above, sound travels faster than the particle,
Source moving at the Speed of Sound
Now consider the situation where the source moves at the speed of sound, i.e.,a. . Now sound travels
with the particle speed and it does not "outrun" it.
Consequently, the circles representing wave motion touch each other as shown. One can draw a line
which is tangential to each of these circles. Any effect of the sound wave is felt only to the right of this
line. In the region to the left of the line one does not see any effect of the source. These regions are
designated "Zone of Action" and "Zone of Silence" respectively.

Source moving at Supersonic Speeds

The situation becomes dramatic when the source moves at speeds greater than that of sound. Now the
boundary between the Zone of Silence and the Zone of Action is not a single straight line, but it two
lines meeting at the present position of the source. In addition, the Zone of Action is now a more
restricted region. An observer watching the flight of the source does not hear any sound till he is within
the Zone of Action. This is a common experience when one watches a supersonic aircraft fly past. The
observer on ground first sees the aircraft but hears nothing. He has to wait till the aircraft flies past him
and "immerses" him in the Zone of Action. But in case of a subsonic aircraft, the observer always hears
the sound. As shown in the above Fig .
The boundary between the two zones is called a Mach Wave and is a straight line when the source
moves at the speed of sound and is a wedge when it moves at supersonic speeds. The half angle of the

wedge is called the Mach Angle,

.

Example

Find M
3- Response of Subsonic and Supersonic Flows to an Obstacle
We now consider an obstacle placed in subsonic and supersonic flows and study its effect upon the flow.

Subsonic Flow
Consider a body placed in a subsonic stream. As the flow interacts with the body several disturbances
are created. These propagate at the speed of sound. The question is whether these disturbances can
propagate upstream. The answer is a "YES". Since the incoming flow is slower than sound, these
disturbances can propagate upstream. As they propagate upstream, they modify the incoming flow.
Consequently the flow adjusts itself to the presence of the body sufficiently upstream and flows past the
body smoothly. This is also what happens with incompressible flows where the speed of sound is
infinite.
Supersonic Flow
With a supersonic flow too disturbances are formed as a result of flow interacting with the body. But
now they cannot propagate upstream because the incoming flow is faster. Any signal that tries to go
upstream is pushed back towards the body. These signals, unable to go upstream, are piled up closed to
the body (see above Fig.). The incoming flow is therefore not "warned" of the presence of the body. It
flows as if the body is absent and encounters the region where the disturbances are piled up. Then it
suddenly modifies itself to accommodate the presence of the body. This marks a sharp difference
between subsonic and supersonic flows.
The example indicates that in a supersonic flow disturbances cannot propagate upstream. This
technically stated as "In a Supersonic flow there is no upstream influence". Further the region where the
Compressible Flow disturbances have "piled up" is a Shock Wave. These are regions of infinitesimally
small thickness across which flow properties such as pressure, density and temperature can jump,
orders of magnitude, sometimes depending upon the Mach Number of the flow.
…. Chap 5-1 :
4- Why the mass flow is still constant when the pressure is below p* in a convergent Nozzle

Document 1 : Nozzles Greg Dimitriadis

Le pression extérieure peut influencer le débit massique uniquement quand la tuyère est désamorcée
Si le col est sonique (choked flow) le débit massique dépend uniquement des conditions
dans le réservoir

Document 2 : Notes de cours de Gazodynamique

Finalement, si b p est diminuée au dessus de p* , comme les cas d et e, la tuyère ne peut
répondre plus puisqu’elle est suffoquée à sa valeur maximum du débit massique. Le col
reste sonique

Document 3 : Thermodynamics: An Engineering Approach, 5th edition

by Yunus A. Çengel and Michael A. Boles

For pressure ratios less than the critical value, the nozzle is said to be choked. When the nozzle is
choked, the mass flow rate is the maximum possible for the flow area, stagnation pressure, and
stagnation temperature. Reducing the pressure ratio below the critical value will not increase the mass
flow rate.
2-Effect of Back Pressure on Flow through a Converging –divergent Nozzle (Laval nozzle) :

Let's plot the ratio P/Po and the Mach number along the length of the nozzle as the back pressure Pb is
varied. Let's consider isentropic flow so that Po is constant throughout the nozzle.
PA = Po, or PA/Po = 1. No flow occurs. Pe = Pb, Me = 0.
Po > PB > PC > P* or P*/Po < PC/Po < PB/Po < 1. Flow begins to increase as the back pressure is lowered.
The velocity increases in the converging section but M < 1 at the throat; thus, the diverging section acts
as a diffuser with the velocity decreasing and pressure increasing. The flow remains subsonic through
the nozzle. Pe = Pb and Me < 1.
Pb = PC = P* or P*/Po = Pb/Po = PC/Po and Pb is adjusted so that M=1 at the throat. Flow increases to its
maximum value at choked conditions; velocity increases to the speed of sound at the throat, but the
converging section acts as a diffuser with velocity decreasing and pressure increasing. Pe = Pb, Me < 1.

PC > Pb > PE or PE/Po < Pb/Po < PC/Po < 1. The fluid that achieved sonic velocity at the throat continues to
accelerate to supersonic velocities in the diverging section as the pressure drops. This acceleration
comes to a sudden stop, however, as a normal shock develops at a section between the throat and the
exit plane. The flow across the shock is highly irreversible. The normal shock moves downstream away
from the throat as Pb is decreased and approaches the nozzle exit plane as Pb approaches PE. When Pb =
PE, the normal shock forms at the exit plane of the nozzle. The flow is supersonic through the entire
diverging section in this case, and it can be approximated as isentropic. However, the fluid velocity
drops to subsonic levels just before leaving the nozzle as it crosses the normal shock.

PE > Pb > 0 or 0 < Pb/Po < PE/Po < 1. The flow in the diverging section is supersonic, and the fluids expand
to PF at the nozzle exit with no normal shock forming within the nozzle. Thus the flow through the
nozzle can be approximated as isentropic. When Pb = PF, no shocks occur within or outside the nozzle.

When Pb < PF, irreversible mixing and expansion waves occur downstream of the exit plane or the
nozzle. When Pb > PF, however, the pressure of the fluid increases from PF to Pb irreversibly in the wake
or the nozzle exit, creating what are called oblique shocks.
4-Example 2
A converging-diverging nozzle has an exit-area-to-throat area ratio of 2. Air enters this nozzle with a
stagnation pressure of 1000 kPa and a stagnation temperature of 500 K. The throat area is 8 cm2.
Determine the mass flow rate, exit pressure, exit temperature, exit Mach number, and exit velocity for
the following conditions:
Sonic velocity at the throat, diverging section acting as a nozzle.
Sonic velocity at the throat, diverging section acting as a diffuser.