Work Environment

EH 262
 Objectives
y Become familiar with exposure limits,
their basis, and application in the
workplace.
y Be able to understand the various
acronyms, their basis and application
y Understand the regulatory structure as it
relates to exposure limits.
y Develop the ability to perform exposure
calculations through examples
 ACGIH
(Post Litigation Statements
Bold added by JHS)

y ACGIH® is a not-for-profit scientific association.

y ACGIH® proposes guidelines known as TLVs® and BEIs® for use by
industrial hygienists in making decisions regarding safe levels of exposure
to various hazards found in the workplace.
y ACGIH® is not a standards setting body. Regulatory bodies should view
TLVs® and BEIs® as an expression of scientific opinion. TLVs® and BEIs® are
not consensus standards
y . ACGIH® TLVs® and BEIs® are based solely on health factors; there is
no consideration given to economic or technical feasibility. Regulatory
agencies should not assume that it is economically or technically feasible to
meet established TLVs® or BEIs®.
y ACGIH® believes that TLVs® and BEIs® should NOT be adopted as
standards without an analysis of other factors necessary to make
appropriate risk management decisions. TLVs® and BEIs® can provide
valuable input into the risk characterization process.
y Regulatory agencies dealing with hazards addressed by a TLV® or BEI®
should review the full written documentation for the numerical TLV® or
BEI®.
 TLV- Threshold Limit Value

y Refer to airborne concentrations of substances and

represent conditions under which it is believed that nearly
all workers may be repeatedly exposed day after day
without adverse health effects
y Because of wide variation in individual susceptibility,
however, a small percentage of workers may experience
discomfort from some substances at concentrations at or
below the threshold limit; a smaller percentage may be
affected more seriously by aggravation of a pre-existing
illness.
y Notice of intended changes - proposed actions for the
coming year. The proposed TLVs are to be used during
that year.
 TLVs- Threshold Limit Values
y Three types of TLVs
‚ TLV-TWA Threshold Limit Value- Time Weighted
Average
‚ is the time weighted average concentration for an
average 8-10 hour day AND 40 hour workweek.
‚ TLV-STEL Threshold Limit Value- Short-Term Exposure
Limit
‚ is the concentration to which workers can be exposed
continuously for a short period of time without
suffering from irritation, chronic or irreversible
damage, narcosis sufficient to increase likelihood of
injury PROVIDED that the TLV-TWA is not exceeded. It
supplements the TLV-TWA not a separate exposure
limit.
 TLVs- Threshold Limit Values
y TLV-C
‚ TLV-Ceiling is the concentration that should not be
exceeded during any part of the workday. May be
measured instantaneously Direct reading instrument,
e.g., colorimetric tubes, or more often sampling over a
15 minute period.
‚ Some materials only have a TLV-C, e.g., HCl, HBr and
glutaraldehyde often due to irritant properties
y The difference between the TLV-C and TLV-TWA
‚ is that excursions above the TLV-TWA are allowed
as long as other periods or exposure are low enough that
the time weighted average is less than or equal to the
TLV-TWA.
y No excursions above the TLV-C are allowed.
 TLVs (continued)
y TLV-STEL is a 15 minute TWA exposure which should not be exceeded at
any time during the workday , even if the TLV-TWA is still acceptable.
y Exposures above the TWA and up to the STEL should be no longer than
15 minutes and not occur more than 4 times per day with at least 60
minutes between successive exposures.
y What sampling time would you use to assess compliance with a TLV-C?
(instantaneous is possible, usually 5-15 minute sample)
y Excursions above the TLV-TWA should be limited to 5 times the TLV but
may be exceeded by 3X for a total of 30 minutes. TLV-STEL takes
precedence if available.

TLV-C
TLV-STEL

TLV-TWA
ppm

Time
 TLVs (continued)
y “Skin” notation -- Skin contact can be a major contributor to
overall exposure. Chemicals that readily penetrate the skin often
have high octanol-water partition coefficients. Other
factors such as MW also impact the skin Permeability
Constant (Kp in cm/hr).

log Kp = -2.72 + 0.71 (log Kow) - 0.0061 (MW)

From EPA, 1992, EPA Dermal Exposure Assessment Handbook

Note: There are many gaps in our understanding of dermal
absorption.
y If a chemical has a high octanol water partition coefficient and
has a low dermal LD50 , e.g., 1000 mg/Kg a skin notation is
considered.
 Unusual Workshifts:
Brief and Scala Model

Brief R, Scala R. Occupational Exposure Limits for Novel Work Schedules. American Industrial Hygiene Association
Journal. 36:467-469, 1975

y Must know the number of hours worked per 24 hour day.

y A simple calculation and is the most conservative model. No detailed knowledge about the substance is
needed.
y Formula:
Adjusted (TWA) = 8 x (24 - h) x Exposure Standard (8-hour TWA)
16 x h
where h = hours worked/day
y What is the adjusted TWA for Ethyl alcohol if the 8 -hour TWA is 1000 ppm and the actual workshift is 12
hours?

Adjusted TWA = 8 x (24 - 12) x 1000 ppm

16 x 12
= 500 ppm (12-hour TWA)

y No adjustment of the exposure standard is made for substances assigned with a Peak Limitation, e.g.,
chlorine or hydrogen chloride
 Unusual Workshifts,
Weekly Adjustments:
Brief and Scala Model
Brief R, Scala R. Occupational Exposure Limits for Novel Work Schedules. American Industrial Hygiene Association
Journal. 36:467-469, 1975

y Must know the number of hours worked per week.

y Weekly Reduction Factor = (40/h) x (168-h)

128
where h = hours worked per day
y Adjusted Exposure Limit = 8 hr OEL x Weekly Reduction Factor

where h = hours worked/day What is the adjusted TWA for Ethyl alcohol if the 8 -hour TWA is 1000 ppm and the
actual workweek is 10 hours, 5 days a week?

Adjusted TWA = 1000 ppm x (40/50) x (168-50)

128
= 738 ppm

y No adjustment of the exposure standard is made for substances assigned with a Peak Limitation, e.g., chlorine or
hydrogen chloride
 Calculations
y TWA for one substance
[T1(C1)+T2(C2)+…Tn(Cn)]
----------------------------- = TWA
Ttotal
y TWA for a mixture (Additive)
C1 C2 …Cn
----- + --------- + ------- =?
TLV1 TLV2 TLVn..

If the result exceeds 1, above TLV

y TWA for a mixture (Independent)
C1 C2
---- or -----
T1 T2
Result of either one cannot exceed 1.
 Calculations
y A worker is exposed to 4 ppm of hydrogen chloride
gas (TLV-C 5 ppm) and simultaneously to 2 ppm
of hydrogen bromide (TLV-C 3 ppm). Assuming
additivity (based on irritant effects) does the
exposure exceed the TLV?

C1 C2 Cn
----- + --------- +…------- =
TLV1 TLV2 TLVn

4 ppm 2 ppm
----- + --------- = 1.47 = 1.5
5 ppm 3 ppm
Therefore, TLV for mixture is exceeded.
 Calculations
y A worker is exposed to 4 ppm of hydrogen
chloride gas (TLV-C 5 ppm) and
simultaneously to 2 ppm of hydrogen bromide
(TLV-C 3ppm). Assuming INDEPENDENCE of
effects does the exposure exceed the TLV?

C1 C2
Is ----- or --------- > 1
TLV1 TLV2
4 ppm 2 ppm
----- = 0.8 , --------- = 0.67
5 ppm 3 ppm

How does this compare when additivity is

assumed for this set of exposures?
 Calculations
y TLV of a mixture of liquids 35% toluene, 35%
xylene and 30% hexane. (Units MUST BE
mg/m3)
1
TLV mix =
F1 F2 Fn
+ + ..
TLV 1 TLV 2 TLV n

1
TLV mix =
0.35 0.35 0.30
3
+ 3
+ 3
188 mg/m 434 mg/m 176 mg/m

1
TLV mix = 3
0.00437 mg/m
TLV mix = 230 mg/m 3
 Other Topics Covered in
TLV Booklet
y Carcinogens (Appendix A)
‚ A1 Confirmed Human
‚ A2 Suspected Human
‚ A3 Animal
‚ A4 Not classifiable as a human carcinogen
‚ A5 Not suspected as a human carcinogen
y Notice of Intended Changes
‚ Exposure levels can be changed as well as the classification, e.g., benzene is
proposed to change from an A2 carcinogen to A1.
y Substances Variable Composition
‚ Welding fume
‚ Polytetrafluoroethylene Decomposition Products
y Chemical Substances Under Study
y Particle Size Selective TLVs
‚ Inhalable Particulate Mass
‚ Deposited anywhere in the respiratory tract (<100 um)
‚ Thoracic Particulate Mass (<25 um)
‚ Deposited in the lung airways or the gas exchange region
‚ Respirable Particulate Mass (<10 um)
‚ Deposited in the gas exchange region
y Example: Silica respirable dust
 Biomonitoring

y BEI - Biological Exposure Indices

Complements air monitoring .
‚ Useful when there is an advantage over air sampling alone
‚ Useful for substantiating air monitoring
‚ Evaluating PPE
‚ Evaluating skin absorption

y Sampling media
‚ Blood (venous, arterial) e.g. mg/100 deciliter of blood
‚ Urine (mg/100 ml urine, 5.0 mg/g creatinine)
‚ Exhaled air (ppm)
‚ Nails, Hair (ppm, mg/g...)

y Because there is a BEI, it does not imply a necessity for

biomonitoring
 Biomonitoring (Continued)
y When the sample is taken, strictly adhere
to the method. These are examples of
different sample collection times for the
ACGIH BEIs.

‚ End of shift (Phenol)

‚ End of shift at end of workweek (Co, Cr)
‚ During or end of shift (Methemoglobin inducers)
‚ End of workweek (Perchloroethylene)
‚ Prior to next shift (Styrene)
‚ Discretionary (organophosphates)
‚ Not critical (Pb)
 BEIs (Continued):
Issues on Interpretation
y Interindividual variability
y Intraindividual variability
y Background levels (B)
y Susceptible groups (Sc)

y What do you do when the biomonitoring data do not

support the air monitoring data?
y May be due to:
‚ Physiological/health status of worker
‚ Exposure by other routes, e.g. dermal, ingestion
‚ Environmental sources (outside work) life style (after
work activities)
‚ Sample collection, handling etc.
 BEIs
y Documentation of TLVs and BEIs is a very valuable
resource
‚ Metabolic pathways, metabolites, percentage of total by
each pathway …..
‚ Routes of excretion and relative amounts
‚ References
‚ Rationale for BEI and how it relates to the TLV-TWA
‚ Background exposures, their significance and sources
‚ Susceptible groups (high risk groups)
Methanol BEI Example

Please review the methanol BEI document

provided in the class folder. Note the
types and depth of data.
 TLVs for
Physical Agents
y Ultrasonics
y Cold Stress
y Hand-Arm Vibration
y Heat Stress
y Ionizing Radiation
y Lasers
y Light and Near Infrared
y Noise
y Rf and Microwave
y Static Magnetic Fields
y Sub-radiofrequency Magnetic Fields
y Ultraviolet Light
y Lifting, Whole Body Vibration are being added

y Example: Ultraviolet Light (weighting of

wavelengths)
WL TLV
(nm) (mJ/cm2)
200 100
210 40
220 25
230 16
240 10
Ultraviolet Light: Exposure
250 7.0
254 6.0 Limits by Wavelength
260 4.6
270 3.0
280 3.4
290 4.7
300 10
305 50
310 200
315 1000
UVA 400 nm - 320 nm
UVB 320 nm - 290 nm
UVC 290 nm - 100 nm
 OSHA Exposure Limits
y PEL Permissible Exposure Levels
y Legally enforceable
y Contained in the following tables:
‚ 1910.1000+
‚ Table Z-1
‚ Table Z-2
‚ Table Z-3
y Derived from 1968 ACGIH TLVs and ANSI consensus standards.

y PELs are TWAs calculated for an eight hour exposure

2hr(100 ppm) +4hr(200ppm)+2hr(200ppm) = TWA= 175 ppm

8 hr

y Denominator in OSHA PEL calculation is always 8 hours regardless of how long the
sample was taken.

y Action Level is usually but not always 50% of PEL (e.g., lead). If Action Level is
exceeded certain actions are triggered, e.g., medical monitoring, air sampling etc.

y Newer OSHA standards include provisions for: medical monitoring, required exposure
monitoring, training, recordkeeping, housekeeping procedures....etc (see asbestos
and arsenic standards for examples)
 Individual Standards Under OSHA: Lead
Standard 1910.1025
(Not Complete)
y 1910.1025(a)

y Scope and application.

y 1910.1025(a)(1)

y This section applies to all occupational exposure to lead, except as provided in paragraph (a)(2).

y 1910.1025(a)(2)

y This section does not apply to the construction industry or to agricultural operations covered by 29 CFR Part 1928.

y 1910.1025(b)

y Definitions.

y "Action level" means employee exposure, without regard to the use of respirators, to an airborne concentration of lead of 30
micrograms per cubic meter of air (30 ug/m(3)) averaged over an 8-hour period.

y "Assistant Secretary" means the Assistant Secretary of Labor for Occupational Safety and Health, U.S. Department of Labor, or
designee.

y "Director" means the Director, National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH), U.S. Department of Health, Education,
and Welfare, or designee.

y "Lead" means metallic lead, all inorganic lead compounds, and organic lead soaps. Excluded from this definition are all other organic
lead compounds.

y 1910.1025(c)

y Permissible exposure limit (PEL).

y 1910.1025(c)(1)

y The employer shall assure that no employee is exposed to lead at concentrations greater than fifty micrograms per cubic meter
of air (50 ug/m(3)) averaged over an 8-hour period.
 OSHA PELs
Table Z-1 (1910.1000)
 OSHA PELs
Table Z-2 (1910.1000)
 OSHA PELs
Table Z-3 (1910.1000)
 Silica Calculation
y Sample collected with a personal cyclone placed in the
breathing zone of the worker. The lab analyzed the
sample by x-ray diffraction. The lab reported that the
sample contained 23% quartz (a form of silica) and the
total mass collected in your 8 hour sample collected by a
cyclone sampler operating at 1.7 liter/min was 4 mg. Is
the exposure in compliance with the OSHA PEL for
respirable Silica dust?
 Silica Calculation
y OSHA PEL for respirable silica (quartz) is calculated as follows:
10 mg/m3 10 mg/m3
------------------ = PEL, -------------------- = 0.4 mg/m3
% Silica + 2 23 + 2

Volume sampled = (1.7 liters/min) x (480 min)

= 816 liters

(816 liters) x (1 m3/1000 liters) = 0.816 m3

4 mg
Concentration in sample = --------------- = 4.9 mg/m3
0.816 m3
Very significant over exposure to respirable crystalline silica
 NIOSH RELs
y REL Recommended Exposure Limit
y Not Legally Enforceable
y Based on the health related data, does not consider
feasibility.
y REL can be expressed as a TWA, STEL or Ceiling
y Applies to situations with up to 10 hour workday and 40
hour week.
 WEELs and ERPGs
y Work Environmental Exposure Levels (WEEL)
y Emergency Response Planning Guidelines (ERPG)
y Both published by the AIHA and contain rationale
for selecting the level, background information
and user guidance
y Only 100+ available
Occupational Exposure Limits
(OEL)
In Alphabetical order

y Australia
y China
y EU
y Germany
y Japan
y Norway
y Portugal
y Russia
y Singapore
y ……many others
 Global Samples of OELs
Acrylamide
PRIME NAME: ACRYLAMIDE
CAS: 79-06-1
RTECS NUMBER: AS3325000

INTERNATIONAL OCCUPATIONAL EXPOSURE VALUES

-AUSTRALIA:TWA 0.3 mg/m3; Skin; Carcinogen JAN93.

-BELGIUM:TWA 0.3 mg/m3; Skin; Carcinogen JAN93.
-DENMARK:TWA 0.3 mg/m3; Skin; Carcinogen JAN93.
-FINLAND:TWA 0.3 mg/m3; STEL 0.9 mg/m3 JAN93.
-FRANCE:TWA 0.3 mg/m3 JAN93.
-HUNGARY:STEL 0.3 mg/m3; Skin; Carcinogen JAN93.
-IRELAND: TWA 0.3 mg/m3; Skin; Carcinogen JAN-97
-JAPAN (JSOH) [1999-2000]:TWA 0.3 mg/m3; Skin
-THE NETHERLANDS [1999]:TWA 0.3 mg/m3 JAN93.
-THE PHILIPPINES:TWA 0.3 mg/m3; Skin JAN93.
-POLAND: TWA 0.1 mg/m3; Skin 1998
-RUSSIA:STEL 0.2 mg/m3; Skin JAN93.
-SWEDEN:TWA 0.3 mg/m3; STEL 0.9 mg/m3; Skin JAN93.
-SWITZERLAND:TWA 0.3 mg/m3; Skin; Carcinogen JAN93.