Andhra Pradesh Human Resource Development Institution

INDUCTION TRAINING PROGRAMME TO NEWLY RECRURED AEES

12th September 2017 at Bapatla

SELECTION, PLANNING, DESIGN, LOATION, OPRATION AND MAINTRNNCE OF PARSHALL

FLUME AND CUT-THROAT FLUMES IN IRRIGATION CANALS

EXAMPLES AND EXERCISES

BY
ROUTHU SATYANARAYANA,
CHIEF ENGINEER (Retired.)
FORMER ADVISOR(Designs), MEMBER TECHNICL ADVISORY COUNCIL,
Government of Andhra Pradesh
Metering Flumes – Measuring Structures

Introduction:

Irrigation efficiency largely depends upon the measurement of water. It gives an

idea about the amount of silt and canal losses. The methods commonly used to
measure the discharges:
1. Area Velocity method
2. Weir method
3. Meter flume method
4. Stage discharge curve method
5.Telemetering
6. Chemical method.

Area Velocity method:

General method and applicable for both canals and rivers. It consists of
measuring area of the channel and the mean velocity of flow. The sum of the area
and the velocity yields the discharge. Current meters, Surface floats, Pitot tube,
velocity rod are used to measure the mean velocity.

Weir method:

Water is allowed to flow over a broad crested or sharp crested weir and the head
over the crest is measured to find the discharge.

Stage discharge curve:

It is curve between discharge and depth of flow in a channel.

Meter flumes:

A device built at the head of the canal to measure the discharge Accurately. It is
an artificially flumed section of the channel. Discharge measurement by meter
flume in open channel restricted channel width called Throat with smooth entry
and exit transitions on both sides. The normal u/s section of the channel is
narrowed by masonry with a splay of 1:1 to 2:1 to a rectangular section called
throat. from there the section is slowly diverged to attain its normal section by
masonry walls with a splay of 2:1 to 10:1. More gradual the convergence and
divergence. The head loss shall be small
Works on the principles of Venturi meters.
Types of Metering Flumes:
1. Non-Modular or Drowned Venturi flumes called Venturi flumes
2. Standing wave flume or Modular Venturi flume or free flow venture flume.

Selection of Site:

A preliminary survey should be made of physical and hydraulic features of the

proposed site to check that it conforms to the requirements necessary for
measurements by standing wave flumes. Particular attention should be paid to the
following features in the selection of site:
a). Availability of adequate length of straight channels;
b) Reasonably symmetrical and regular velocity distribution;
c) Avoidance of super critical flow immediately upstream;
d) Rise in upstream water levels due to the measuring structure; and
e) Absence of conditions downstream of standing wave flumes which
may affect the working by drowning, such as by a controlling
structure.
If the site does not possess the characteristics (a), (b) and (c) which are necessary
for satisfactory measuring, it should be rejected unless suitable improvements are
practicable. If an inspection of the channel shows that existing velocity
distribution is regular then it may be assumed

Installation Conditions:

The complete measuring installation consists of an approach channel, a

measuring structure (standing wave flume) and a downstream channel. The
condition of each of these three components affects the overall accuracy of the
measurement.

Venturi Flumes:
Consists of gradually contracting channel leading to the throat and a gradually
expanding channel leading away from the throat. Stilling walls are provided at
entrance and throats.
Then Discharge:
Q = C {a1.a2/ (a1 2- a22)}(2gh)1/2
Where
‘h’ is the difference in the head between walls.
C = Coefficient varies from 0.95 to 1.00
a1 = Area at entrance
a2 = area of throat.
STANDING WAVE FLUME:
Types of measuring structures shall be broadly classified as:
1. "Standing Wave Flumes” in concrete (SWF) and
2. Parshall Flumes & Cut-Throat Flumes (CTF)

Standing Wave Flumes may be provided in the main & branch canals. Cut
Throat Flumes /Parshall Flumes in the majors/distributaries, while Cut
Throat Flumes may be provided in the minors/sub-minors.
The Parshall and Cut -Throat Flumes in fiber glass reinforced plastic (FRP)
material shall have engraved gauge markings in centimeters as well as in
liter/second. Division Boxes shall be constructed in concrete. Likewise, turn-outs
shall be constructed in concrete.

THE PARSHALL FLUME:

The Parshall flume is a fixed hydraulic structure used to measure the flow of sub-
critical
waters in open channels. Although originally developed to measure irrigation /
water
rights flow, the use of the flume has been expanded and now includes:

Cooling water discharge

Dam seepage
Industrial effluent
Irrigation / water rights
Landfill leachate
Mine discharge / dewatering
Sanitary sewage (piped and treatment plant)
Storm water

Development:
While working at the U.S. Soil Conservation Service, Dr. Ralph L. Parshall saw
a need
for a more accurate way to measure surface waters – particularly those used for
irrigation / water rights. At the time, flows were commonly measured with weirs
or
Venturi flumes – both of which had sizeable shortcomings.
Starting in 1915 with the sub-critical Venturi flume, Dr. Parshall made a series of
modifications which lead, six years later, to his filing of a patent for his new
“Parshall Flume”.
Accuracy:

Under controlled, laboratory conditions, Parshall flumes have been observed to

accurate to within +/-2%.
However, the free-flow accuracy of Parshall flumes under field conditions is
usually
within +/- 5% when practical considerations such as approach flow, installation,
and
dimensional tolerance accounted for.

Installation of Parshall Flumes:

Once a site has been selected, the flume must then be installed correctly:

The flume should be set so that it is centered in the flow stream.

The upstream floor of the flume should be set high enough so that the flume
does not operate under submerged flow conditions.

The outlet of the flume should be set at or above (ideally) the invert of the outlet
channel / pipe to help transition solids out of the flume.

The flat floor of the converging section must be set upstream.

The flat floor must be level from front-to-back and from side-to-side (using a
level on the floor - not the top - of the flume)

The flume must be braced internally (plywood and lumber are typically used)
during installation to ensure that distortion does not occur.

The flume must not float out of its intended final position during installation.
 Parshall flume

Maintenance of Parshall Flume:

For a Parshall flume to accurately measure flow, it must be periodically

inspected and maintained.

This inspection should be done six (6) months after installation and each
following year.

The inspection should include the channel in which the flume is installed, the
flow entering / exiting the flume, and the flume itself.
Channel Inspection:

The upstream channel banks should be clear of vegetation or debris that could
affect the flow profile entering the flume (upstream) or restrict flow out of the
flume (downstream).

Inspect the upstream channel to make sure that flow is not bypassing the flume.

Inspect the downstream channel to make sure that scouring is not occurring.

Any hydraulic jump should be at least 30 times the maximum head

(Hmax)upstream of the flume.

Flow Inspection:

Flow entering the flume should be tranquil and well distributed.

Turbulence, poor velocity profile, or surging should not be present.

The Froude (Fr) number should, ideally, be 0.5.

As the Froude number increases so does surface turbulence.

Flumes accelerate sub-critical flow (Fr < 1) to a supercritical state (Fr 1>) .

Flumes experiencing flows greater than unit (Fr = 1) will not accurately
measure flow.

Flume Inspection:

Flumes must be level from front-to-back and from side-to-side.

Earthen installations are particularly susceptible to settling due to wet / dry

and freeze / thaw cycles.

Flow surfaces are to be kept clean of surface build up or algal growth. Scrubbing
or a mild detergent can be used.

Galvanized flumes should be checked for corrosion.

Any corrosion should be removed and then cold galvanization applied to the
Standing Wave flume:
Standing wave flume is a critical depth flume. The discharge through this is
independent of water level on downstream and varies with water levels on
upstream. The hydraulic behavior is same as that of a broad crested weir. Since
only one-gauge reading is required to be taken for measuring the discharge and
due to ease of construction, standing wave flumes are recommended as a flow
measuring device.

The following are the three types of flumes proposed for adoption
1. Standing wave flume
2. Standing wave flume fall (associated with drop)
3. Rectangular throat flume

Design criteria:

The design is as per IS.6063 - 1971 "Method of measurement of flow of water in

open channels using standing wave flume”
Standing Wave Flume:
When a standing wave (Hydraulic jump) form on the d/s glacis in the diverging
channel, the flume is called sanding wave flume. The discharge depends on the
u/s head over the throat. The length of the throat shall be at least 2 to 3 times the
head over the crest. One-gauge observation on the upstream as compared to two
in the case of Venturi Flumes. Discharge Q is computed using the Standard
formula.

3/2
Q= 1.705 Cf Bt H
Where Bt=Throat width
H = Height of specific energy over the crest in ‘m’.
Ie. Depth of flow over the crest on upstream (d1) + head due
to velocity of approach (v)
2
= d1 - Z + v /15.2
Where Z is head hump over upstream side of canal bed level.
Where Z = Height of hump over U/S canal bed level,
1
cumecs)
It is required to provide a hump in the canal to maintain proportionality between
the rate of change of depth of flow over sill of the throat and the rate of change
depth of flow in the canal.

Where Z = height of hump

d1 = depth of flow in the canal
D1 = u/s depth of flow over the sill of throat
m = any fraction of discharge
x = approach channel index (varies from 1.5 to 2)
Discharge equation of the approach channel is given by:
x
Q = C1 d1
Discharges Q1,Q1',Q1'',Q1''', etc are worked out for the flow of depths of d 1,d1',
d1'',d1''', etc respectively and the value of x in the equation is estimated by least
square method by considering these sets of d1 and corresponding Q.

∑ log Q . Log d1 - (∑ log Q ) ( ∑ log d1 )/M

x = -------------------------------------------
2 2
∑ ( log d1) - ( ∑ log d1) /M
M
Where M is the no. of sets.

Throat Width:
The throat width is calculated from the formula
1.5 1.5
Q = 2/3 √ 2/3 x g . C f. (Bt ). H = 1.705 C f Bt H
where
C f = co-efficient of friction = 0.97
Bt= throat width
H = Specific Energy over the sill
Specific Energy over sill ‘H’ = D1 + hv = d1 –Z + hv
hv = Mean approach Velocity = v^2 / 15.2
Throat Length:
L2 = 2.5 H ^ 3/2
Length of Inlet Transition:
L1 = ((2R – (B1 – Bt)^2 / 2 ))^ ½ Where B1 is Canal BW at inlet
Head loss:

The head loss consists of the following losses:

(i) Approach transition,
(ii) Exit transition,
(iii) Friction in structure, and
(iv) Hydraulic jump
The loss in approach and exit transitions depends on the amount of fluming and
its gradualness. The friction loss is usually very small. The loss in hydraulic
jump is given by the equation:
2
HL = (d2 – d1) / 4 d1 d2
Where d1 = depth of flow before jump
d2 = depth of flow after jump

Approach transition:
1.5
The radius of side walls of the bell mouth entrance should be 3.6 H meters. If
‘H’ is less than 0.30m, the radius may be 2H from the throat. The curvature
0
(formed from the throat) should continue till it subtends an angle of 60 , from
where, it should be continued tangentially to meet the side of the channel
upstream.
The bed convergence should begin on the same cross section as the side
convergence. The radius of curvature of hump in the bed should be:
2 2
rh = L1 + Z / 2 Z
Where rh = radius of curvature of hump
L1 = length between the junction of side wall with the bed of m
upstream channel and upstream end of the throat measured along the
axis.
Z = height of hump above u/s bed level.

Throat:
Sides of throat should be vertical and length should be 2.5 H. Width of the throat
way be calculated from the formula given in sub-para (1) of 6.1.1
Downstream glacis;
The length of downstream glacis should be equal to 4H, which is also the length
of the side walls along the glacis. The slope of the glacis is usually 1 in 20
or flatter. The divergence of side walls should be 1 in 10 or flatter so as to
make the width at the toe of the glacis equal to or less than the downstream
canal bed width.

Gauge (Stilling) well:

The stilling well should be so located as to measure the water upstream of the
sill, where there is no curvature of flow. This could be ensured by locating
the stilling well intake pipe at a distance of 4 Hmax upstream of the bell
mouth entrance. Hmax is the maximum value of upstream head over the sill
(including velocity head).

RECTANGULAR THROAT FLUME:

The discharge in a open channel may be measured by means of a flume.

Consisting essentially of contractions in the sides and / or bottom of the channel
forming throat. When the dimensions are such that critical flow occurs in the
downstream, (in other words it is free flowing) discharge can be determined from
the single upstream depth measurement. This device is called “Critical Depth
Measuring Flume ".This structure may be adopted for measuring smaller
discharges less than 1 cumecs.

Design criteria:
(a) Rectangular throat with hump
Let 'Y' be the depth of flow and velocity be" V" m/sec in the normal
section. Then total energy
head is equal to depth of flow and due to velocity of approach i.e
2
E = Y + V / 2g
Take the value of 2 g equal to 19.2
In Rectangular section , critical depth (Yc ) is equal to two thirds the Total
Energy head ,i.e Yc = 2/3 E
The throat width is worked out by discharge equation , which is given as
follows :-
 1.5 1.5
Q = 2/3 √ 2/3 x g . C f . b . H = 1.705 C f b H
where C f = co-efficient of friction = 0.97
b= throat width
H = Yc = depth of flow at critical section
Length of the crest is equal to 2H.

DESIGN FEATURES OF CUTTHROAT FLUME:

The Cutthroat flume was developed to overcame the limitations of the Parshall
flume in flat gradient applications.

Rectangular Cutthroat flumes are available in four different lengths (18, 36, 54,
and
108-inches L) and four throat widths for each length.

Trapezoidal Cutthroat flumes come in three different throat widths.

Rectangular Cutthroat flumes have a distinct advantage over similar flumes in

that, for a given length, intermediate throat widths can be developed without the
need to laboratory or field rate the new flume size.

The cut-throat flume (CWF) consists of a converging section and a diverging

section. It has a flat bottom and vertical side walls and can be operated under
both free flow and submerged conditions.

However, it is preferable to have the cut-throat flume operated under free flow
conditions. This enables a single measurement and ensures high degree of
accuracy.
Under free flow condition, the flow rate is derived from the upstream water level
measured at a distance of 2L/ 9 from the neck, where L is the length of the flume.
Under submerged condition, downstream water measured at a distance of 5L/ 9
from the neck is also required.
Free flow occurs when the flow is critical near the throat section and the
downstream water depth does not influence the upstream water depth. For free
flow condition, the ratio (hb/ ha) between the water depth at the exit (hb) and that
at the entrance (ha) should not exceed a certain limit called the “transition
submergence” (St), which can be determined for each flume from figure 3.
If this ratio exceeds the value of St, the flume has to be designed for submerged
flow condition.
The angle of convergence is 3:1 and the angle of divergence is 6:1 for all the
flumes. The convergence part of the flume consists of 1/3 length of the flume
(L/3) and the divergence part consists of 2/3 length (2L/3).
For accurate discharge measurements, the recommended ratio of upstream flow
depth (ha) to flume length (L) i.e., ha/ L should be equal to or less than 0.4.
Increasing value of this will result in greater inaccuracies.
There is no established rule for proportion between throat width (W) and length
(L) or W and ha.
However, it is preferable to adopt the range of proportions given in table1, which
have been laboratory tested.
The upstream depth of flow in the channel will increase to the extent of head loss
due to installation of the flume. This head loss needs to be kept within the
allowable limit.
Function:

Sub-critical flumes like the Cutthroat flume operate by accelerating slow, sub-
critical
flow (Fr<1) to a supercritical state (Fr>1) by restricting the flow as it passes
through the
flume. The Cutthroat flume accomplishes this restriction by contracting the side
walls of the – while keeping a constant floor elevation.
Design:

When viewed from above, the Cutthroat flume has an hourglass shape.
As flow enters the flume it is accelerated in the short, uniformly converging (inlet)
section. Upon reaching the throat – the narrowest portion of the flume – the flow
immediately expands into the diverging (outlet) section. Unlike many other
flumes, the
Cutthroat flume lacks an extended throat – hence the name “Cutthroat”.

Installation of Cutthroat Flume:

Once a site has been selected, the flume must then be installed correctly:

The flume should be set so that it is centered in the flow stream.

The floor of the flume should be set high enough so that the flume does not
operate under submerged flow conditions.

The outlet of the flume should be set at or above (ideally) the invert of the outlet
channel / pipe to help transition solids out of the flume.

The shorter section of the flume must be set upstream.

The floor must be level from front-to-back and from side-to-side (using a level
on the floor - not the top - of the flume)

The flume must be braced internally (plywood and lumber are typically used)
during installation to ensure that distortion does not occur.

The flume must not float out of its intended final position during installation.

Maintenance of Cutthroat Flume:

For a Cutthroat flume to accurately measure flow, it must be periodically

inspected and maintained.

This inspection should be done six (6) months after installation and each
following year.

The inspection should include the channel in which the flume is installed, the
flow entering / exiting the flume, and the flume itself.
Channel Inspection:

The upstream channel banks should be clear of vegetation or debris that could
affect the flow profile entering the flume (upstream) or restrict flow out of the
flume (downstream).

Inspect the upstream channel to make sure that flow is not bypassing the flume.

Inspect the downstream channel to make sure that scouring is not occurring.

Any hydraulic jump should be at least 30 times the maximum head (Hmax)
upstream of the flume.

Flow Inspection:

Flow entering the flume should be tranquil and well distributed.

Turbulence, poor velocity profile, or surging should not be present.

The Froude (Fr) number should, ideally, be 0.5.

As the Froude number increases so does surface turbulence.

Flumes accelerate sub-critical flow (Fr < 1) to a supercritical state (Fr 1>) .

Flumes experiencing flows greater than unit (Fr = 1) will not accurately
measure flow.

Flume Inspection:

Flumes must be level from front-to-back and from side-to-side.

Earthen installations are particularly susceptible to settling due to wet / dry

and freeze / thaw cycles.

Flow surfaces are to be kept clean of surface build up or algal growth. Scrubbing
or a mild detergent can be used.

Galvanized flumes should be checked for corrosion.

Any corrosion should be removed and then cold galvanization applied to the flow
are.
Design procedure:
The following data is required for the design of cutthroat flume:
Max. Flow depth (downstream) hb in m
Head loss (the max. limit to which Upstream water level can be raised f
in m
Max upstream depth hb + f = ha
Length of flume L in m
Throat width W in m

A) Design for free flow condition:

Read the value of transition submergence St in percentage from figure 3 for the
given flume length.
Calculate ratio of submergence (hb / ha ) x 100 (percent)

If it is more than or equal to St, the flow is free.

If it is less than St, the flow is submerged.
For free flow condition, flume is designed using the equations:
n
Qf = Cf(ha) f
1.025
Cf = Kf W
Where Qf = free flow discharge in cumecs
Cf = free flow coefficient
hf = upstream flow depth in m
nf = free flow exponent
Kf = free flow flume length coefficient
Wf = throat width in m.
Values of nf and Kf can be read from the graph in figure 3.

If Qf as calculated is equal to or more than the required discharge, it is OK.

Otherwise, the variable parameters have to be changed till satisfactory result is
obtained.
(B) Design or submerged flow condition:

The flume is designed for the submerged flow condition using the following
equation:
n n
Qs = Cs (ha – hb) f / (- log St) s

Where Qs = submerged flow discharge in cumec

ha = upstream flow depth in m
hb = downstream flow depth in m
Cs = submerged flow coefficient
nf = free flow exponent
ns = submerged flow exponent
St = transition submergence
Ks = submerged flow flume length coefficient
St, nf and ns can be read from the graph in figure 3. The discharge Q s under
submerged condition can be calculated for any combination of ha and hb using the
above equation.
Flume proposed with 40 cm throat width x 180 cm flume length
From graph in figure 3,
nf = 1.67
Kf = 2.60
St = 75% for free flow
1.025
Cf = 2.60 x 0.40
= 1.0164
n
Qf = Cf(ha) f
1.67
0.208 = 1.0164 x ha
1.67
ha = (0.208/ 1.0164) = 0.2046
ha = 0.387 say 0.39
The ratio hb/ ha should not exceed value of St for free flow condition, where
hb is downstream flow depth
hb = ha x St = 0.390 x (75/100) = 0.2925 or say 0.29 m
 Hence, the floor of the flume is raised by 21 cm above the canal bed level
From table 1, the free flow discharge for the selected cutthroat flume size
of 40 cm x 180 cm and ha value of 0.39m works out to 0.206 cumec, which
is approximately equal to the required discharge.

Design of Cutthroat Flume for Sub-Merged Condition: A cut-throat

flume is to be installed to function under submerged flow condition.
3
The maximum flow rate in the channel = 0.1982 m /s
The maximum flow depth in the channel (D) = 0.457 m
The maximum amount that the u/s depth can rise (Δh) = 0.061 m
∴ upstream depth h in the flume = depth in the channel (D) + permissible
rise in the u/s depth (Δh) = 0.457 + 0.061
= 0.518 m
Adopt a flume length of 2.70 meters
∴ ha = 0.518 and Ha/L = 0.518/2.70 = 0.19 < 0.4
L 2.70
Hence the flume length is OK.
From figure 3,
Transitions submergence St = 80% or 0.80
Free flow exponent nf = 1.56
Submerged flow exponent ns = 1.39
 Submerged flow flume length coefficient Ks = 1.03
Upstream water depth ha = 0.518 m
Downstream water depth hb = 0.457 m
From formula
n n
Qs = Cs (ha – hb) f
/ (-log st) s
………………….(1)

n n
∴ Cs = Qs (-log st) s
/ (ha - hb) f ……………………...(1)

1.56
= 0.1982 (0.0969)1.39 / (0.61)
= 0.1982 x 0.039 / 0.0126 = 0.611
Cs = 0.611
1.025
Cs = Ks W …. ……………………. ………………..(2)
•
1.025
• W = Cs / Ks

1/1.25
W = ( Cs / Ks )
0.926
= (Cs / 1.03 )

W = 0.60M
Therefore, a flume width of 6.0 m should be used. Hence, the flume
of 0.60 x 2.70 m may be used.
hc / hs = St
ha = 0.518
St = 0.80
hb =?
hb = 0.518 x 0.80 = 0.41 m
Hence the floor of the flume cannot be placed lower than 0.41 m from the
maximum water level observed in the canal before installation of the flume
Telemetering:

Telemetering is a process that is used to receive data from technical instruments.

This technique also sometimes called remote metering, while the information
gathered is referred as telemetry. Data collected through telemetering can be sent
via physical cables, radio signals, or other remote transmission methods.

The word telemetering comes from the Greek term for "remote measure." Remote
metering was first developed in the mid-1800s.

Several methods of telemetering are available. Signals can be sent over long
distances using radio waves. Similarly, infrared signals can also be used. Infrared
telemetry requires a direct line of sight to be available between the receiver and
the transmitting location. Despite this disadvantage, infrared remote metering
signals are less prone to interference than radio telemetry.

References:
1 IS:6062-1971 Method pf measurement of flow of water in open channels
using
Standing wave flume.
2. IS: 6063-1971 Method pf measurement of flow of water in open channels
using
Standing wave flume.
3. CDO AP Guide lines for Canal Designs and CM&CD Works
4. Parshall Flume – User’s Manual
5 Cutthroat Flume-User’s Manual.