Annals of Warsaw University of Life Sciences – SGGW

Forestry and Wood Technology No 68, 2009:

(Ann. WULS-SGGW, Forest and Wood Technol. 68, 2009)

Theatrum machinarum lignum – some remarks concerning wood

significance in machine construction
MACIEJ SYDOR
Faculty of Wood Technology, Poznan University of Life Sciences

Abstract: The aim of this article was to evaluate the importance of wood for the development of “machine”
technical thought. The author presented the significance of wood against the background of other engineering
materials. In conclusion, the unique characters of wood were emphasised which marked out this material as an
element of machine constructions.

Key words: wood, machine

INTRODUCTION
Wood is obtained from debarked trunks, less frequently, branches and roots of felled
trees and bushes and formed by means of appropriate processing into proper assortments.
Wood is one of many construction materials employed in technology; it can be used as solid
wood or in the form of, so called, wood-derived materials. Construction wood is obtained
from specific species of coniferous and broad-leaved trees. There are from over 30 000
(Zielski and Krąpiec 2004, Kokociński 2005) to 40 000 (Wagenführ 1984) species of
arborescent plants in the world of which 3000 to 5000 are of practical importance. In
technical literature on the subject, detailed descriptions of the main construction properties of
approximately 1500 wood species can be found of which more or less 500 species are subject
of world trade (Zielski and Krąpiec 2004) and about 200 are of significant importance in
technology (Kokociński 2005).
World timber production is almost identical with the production of iron alloys and
amounts to approximately 109 t annually (Ashby and Jones 1996). In Poland, the proportion of
production of timber and wood-derived products (without paper and paper pulp) in the value
of industrial production amounted to about 3% in years 2005-2006. This proportion equalled
that of plastics and rubber and was smaller than metal production which reached about 4.5%
(Mały Rocznik... 2007).

WOOD, THE MOST IMPORTANT CONSTRUCTION RAW MATERIAL IN MACHINE

DESIGNING?
The manufacturing process of articles from wood does not require as complex and
complicated equipment as the production of similar objects from metal or ceramics and,
therefore, wood - which was widely used in the past -continues to find thousands of
applications in machine construction also today. From the very beginnings of their existence,
machines have always been associated with wood. There is no doubt that among the first
devices of machine nature in human history were, the so called, simple machines and they
were certainly made of wood. Also the first more complex machine in human history, namely
the bow invented about 30 000 years ago (which was used to transfer the elasticity energy of
the bow-wood into kinetic energy of the arrow) was also made of wood (Sydor 2009).
The etymology of the word machine goes back to the Greek word mākhanā which the
Greeks may have developed from the Hindu mankana1 where man - means work and kana

1
In literature, we can find the word ‘mēkhanē’ instead of ‘mākhanā’ (e.g. THE AMERICAN HERITAGE DICTIONARY…
2006) and maghana instead of mankana (e.g. HOAD 1986)
means - simple, wooden turning cylinder, part of the prayer wheel. In Doric dialect, the word
mākhanā means something that has a possibility, capability. The Latin word machina was
formed from the Greek word and next found its way to many European languages (LIEBFELD
1964).
The oldest known definition of a machine describes it as an object manufactured from
wood (Witruwiusz’s definition: “A machine is a compact assembly of wooden parts showing
all its merits when lifting weights. It is set in motion artificially by means of wheels [...]2”. The
oldest Polish definition was given by Stanisław Solski3: Machine. An assembly made of wood
or other material (Solski 1683, Zabawa I. Part I, p. 4)4.

WOOD AND OTHER ENGINEERING MATERIALS APPLIED IN MACHINE

CONSTRUCTION
One of the more important fields of technique is mechanical engineering, in other
words, branch of knowledge comprising the construction and operation of machines. All
contemporary construction engineering materials can be allocated into one of the following
four groups: (1) metal alloys, (2) ceramics and minerals, (3) polymers and (4) composites.
Wood should be included in the group of composites (foamed, fibrous composite). Technical
usefulness of a material in machine construction depends on its construction properties which:
‘comprise minimal set of variable affecting [...] relationships of the object to its surroundings’
(TARNOWSKI 2004) and determine functional characteristics of the article manufactured from it.
More than seventy different types of construction properties can be distinguished (Sydor
2009) of which the most important groups include:
• Group of physical properties (including: strength, acoustic, thermal, electrical and
other properties),
• Group of technological properties (associated with the sensitivity of the material to
processing, i.e. physical realisation of technology),
• Group of operational properties (affecting product reliability, repairability, utilisability
as well as functional properties of the article),
• Group of economical properties (i.e. the ratio of the cost of manufacture to the value
of the selected property or to the value of selected set of properties).
Values of composite construction properties constitute a kind of resultant of properties
of their structural constituents (phases). A natural characteristic of composites is anisotropy of
their strength parameters which need not always be treated as a disadvantage. A complex
structure of anisotropic material gives possibilities of adjusting directions of anisotropy (in
other words, values of individual strength indices) to the state of strain in the material.
All properties of natural “foamed fibrous composite” – wood - must be considered
from the point of view of its heterogeneous “directional” structure which means that majority
of the values of these properties can additionally be decomposed into three constituents (in
accordance with wood anatomical directions, e.g. Young’s modulus, tensile strength etc.).
Certain groups of features are mutually interdependent (e.g. strength and moisture content
properties).
2
The original text runs as follows: “Machina est continens e materia coniunctio maximas ad onerum motus
habens virtutes. Ea movetur ex arte circulorum rotundationibus [...] ” and can be found in the treatise ‘De
architectura’ (Liber X, Capitulum 1) written by Witruwiusz (Marcus Vitruvius Pollio, 70/80? – about 25 BC).
3
Stanisław Solski (1620-1670) – theologian, mathematician, mechanic, architect, author of handbooks:
Geometry of Poland (1-3, Krakow 1683-86) and Architecture of Poland (Krakow, 1690).
4
The quoted definition was taken from the first Polish handbook of surveying and geometry by Stanisław Solski
entitled: Geometry of Poland. The title page says: Geometry of Poland is a Science of Drawing, Division,
Change and Measurement of Lines, Angles, Figures and Solids. Given to print by X. Stanisław Solski, Societatis
Jesu. Facsimile of the handbook is available, among others, on the website of the Library of the Gdańsk
Polytechnic (www.wbss.pg.gda.pl).
 When analysing historical development and contemporary condition of technique, it
can be stated that, in the past, the application of wood in machine construction depended on
its favourable, in comparison with other available materials, objective (measurable)
parameters, whereas in modern times, in majority of cases, it is its subjective, mainly aesthetic
values, that are decisive.
Unique wood characteristics, significant from the point of view of both its historical
and contemporary application in machine construction are presented in the Table 1.

Table 1. Wood characteristics significant from the point of view of its application in machine construction
(Sydor 2009).
Group of attributes Description
 High specific strength along fibres
 Relatively small energy consumption In production
 Low thermal conductivity
 Acoustic properties (resonant and sound absorbing).
Merits  Ease of transport
 Ease of processing, low tool requirements (traits particularly
important in the past but also at present when designing e.g.
pattern models).
Construction and  Universal application
technological
 Usefulness when preparing prototypes.
parameters
 Lack of dimensional stability (hygroscopicity and swelling,
shrinkage and cracking connected with it).
 Limited life
Shortcomings  Anisotropy and scatter of strength properties
 Large number of factors which can change negatively mechanical
parameters (e.g. tree position in the stand, felling time, drying
process)

 Sense of warmth, peace and harmony, pleasantness of touch and

smell
Subjective quality Merits
 Uniqueness of colour and pattern
features (aesthetics,  Timelessness (low sensitivity to fashion trends)
quality, friendliness)
Shortcomings  Need for preservation treatment

 Price competitiveness in comparison with other materials

Merits
 Considerable species diversity differing with regard to properties
Availability
Shortcomings  Terminological mess in nomenclature of tropical species

 Renewability
 Application of wood in combination with appropriate forest
management has a positive impact on CO2 balance in the
atmosphere
Merits
 Unonerous for environment, possibility of repeated utilisation (e.g.
Ecological and social in power plants).
features  Planned and well-thought forest management increases forest area
and exerts a positive influence on landscape
 Need to employ coatings, glues and other substances which may
Shortcomings not be neutral to health
 Unfavourable impact of juices and dusts on human organism

SUMMING UP
 The contemporary wide concept of the word machine contains many meanings
(mechanism, tool, electro-tool, instrument, apparatus, automat mechanism, device, robot,
machine tool), other meanings overlap, e.g. equipment, installation, fixtures, utensils, fittings,
gear etc. All machines in technical literature are divided into four classes5:
• Driving machines (transducers, motors, engines) changing various forms of energy
into mechanical work (combustion engine, capstan),
• Transport machines (e.g. ships, vehicles, cranes, airplanes),
• Production machines changing the shape of materials or objects (e.g. machine tools,
crushers, welding machines),
• Energetic machines changing parameter values of the state of matter (e.g. pumps,
compressors, furnaces, musical instruments)6.
The oldest constructions of all the above-mentioned machine classes were
manufactured completely or with considerable participation of wood.
The above information justifies the thesis that wood is the most important material in
machine construction. It is true, not at the present time, but of all time.

REFERENCES
ASHBY M.F., JONES D.R.H., 1996: Materiały inżynierskie. Kształtowanie struktury i
właściwości, dobór materiałów. T. 1. WN-T, Warszawa
HOAD T.F. (1986): The Concise Oxford Dictionary of English Etymology. Oxford
University Press, Oxford
KOKOCIŃSKI W., 2005: Anatomia drewna. Nakładem autora, Poznań.
LEKSYKON Naukowo-techniczny z Suplementem. (1989). T. 1-2, WN-T, Warszawa.
Liebfeld A., 1964: Polacy na szlakach techniki. WKiŁ, Warszawa
MAŁY ROCZNIK statystyczny Polski, 2007. Zakład Wydawnictw Statystycznych GUS,
Warszawa
SOLSKI S., 1683: Geometra polski [Faksymile: Biblioteka Politechniki Gdańskiej,
www.wbss.pg.gda.pl oraz Dolnośląska Biblioteka Cyfrowa, www.dbc.wroc.pl], (01.08.2009).
SYDOR M., 2009: Drewno w budowie maszyn. Historia najważniejszego tworzywa.
Wydawnictwo Uniwersytetu Przyrodniczego. Poznań
THE AMERICAN HERITAGE DICTIONARY of the English language (2006). Houghton
Mifflin. Boston
WAGENFÜHR R., 1984: Anatomie des Holzes. VEB Fachbuchverlag, Leipzich.
ZIELSKI A., KRĄPIEC M. 2004: Dendrochronologia. Wydawnictwo Naukowe PWN,
Warszawa

Streszczenie: Przedmiotem artykułu jest znaczenie drewna dla rozwoju „maszynowej” myśli
technicznej. Ukazano znaczenie drewna na tle innych materiałów inżynierskich. W konkluzji
podsumowano unikalne cechy drewna, predysponujące je do zastosowania jako element
konstrukcji maszyny.

Author’s address: Maciej Sydor (PhD., eng), University of Life Sciences, ul. Wojska Polskiego 28, 60-637
Poznań; email: sydor@up.poznan.pl

5
In some publications, driving machines and energy machines are treated jointly (e.g. Leksykon… 1989)
6
On top of the above-mentioned four groups, two additional ones can be distinguished: electronic (digital)
machines transforming information and biological machines. ‘Transport machines’, ‘production machines’ and
‘energetic machines’ are frequently referred to as ‘working machines’. Machine construction is a rapidly
developing discipline and even its general classification cannot be precise – certain machines can fulfill
“intermediate” functions; they can, for example, function as a transport and work machine.