Engineering Materials

for
Electronics and Communication Engineering

Prepared by
Dr. Abdelhamid Samy
 Institute Vision

Pyramids Higher Institute of Engineering and Technology seeks to become one

of the leading and internationally ranked institutes in the field of engineering and
technological education that balances the needs of local development with global
changes and challenges

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Pyramids Higher Institute of Engineering and Technology is committed to
preparing highly qualified graduates, committed to professional ethics and
qualified to meet the needs and requirements of the local labor market,
able to keep pace with engineering developments and modern technology
to participate effectively and constructively in the development and
.development of society

Institute Mission

Our mission is to produce creative and technically strong engineers and to

research pioneering solutions to global challenges. We do this with an
unprecedented commitment to integrating across engineering, sciences, arts,
business and other disciplines to yield transformative results
 Engineering Materials
for
Electronics and Communication Engineering

Course out line

Page
Lecture ( No. ) Subject No.
Lecture ( 1 ) Introduction to Engineering materials 1
Lecture ( 2 ) Advanced Materials 7
Lecture ( 3 ) Physical properties of metal 16
Lecture ( 4 ) Mechanical properties of metals 21
Lecture ( 5 ) Atomic Structure and Atomic Packing Factor 29
( Mass fraction )
Lecture ( 6 ) Introduction to Material testing and 62
Tension test and Compression test
Lecture ( 7 ) Bending 80
Lecture ( 8 ) Material behavior under repetitive load 85
) Fatigue ( Fatigue test
Lecture ( 9 ) Pulsed load ( Impact Load ) and Impact test 94
Lecture ( 10 ) Creep test and Temperature effect on materials 100
properties
Lecture ( 11 ) Failure (Theory of breakdown) 109
Lecture ( 12 ) Electrical properties of engineering materials. 119
and Conductors materials
Lecture ( 13 ) Semiconductors materials 124
Lecture ( 14 ) Insulators materials. Polymers, Ceramics, and 129
Composite materials
Sheets 160
References 166
 1- Introduction to Engineering materials
Let’s now start by looking at the basic requirements for selecting
materials that are suitable for a particular application. For example Next
Figure shows a connecter joining electric cables. The plastic casing has been partly
cut away to show the metal connector. Plastic is used for the outer casing because it
is a good electrical insulator and prevents electric shock if a person touches it. It
also prevents the conductors touching each other and causing a short circuit. As
well as being a good insulator the plastic is cheap, tough, and easily moulded to
shape. It has been selected for the casing because of these properties – that is,
the properties of toughness, good electrical insulation, and ease of moulding to
shape. It is also a relatively low cost material that is readily available.

The electrical connector.

The metal joining piece and its clamping screws are made from brass. This
metal has been chosen because of its special properties. These properties are
good electrical conductivity, ease of extruding to shape, ease of machining
(cutting to length, drilling and tapping the screw threads ), adequate strength
and corrosion resistance. The precious metal silver is an even better
conductor, but it would be far too expensive for this application and it would
also be too weak and soft.

Another example as in Next Figure shows some parts of a motor car engine.
Each part is made from a special alloy. This alloy has been chosen because it
combines the properties of strength and toughness with the ability to be readily
forged to shape and finished by machining.

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 Some parts of motor car engine.

Thus the reasons for selecting the materials in the above examples can be
summarized as :

 Commercial factors such as:

Cost, availability, ease of manufacture.
 Engineering properties of materials such as:
Electrical conductivity, strength, toughness, ease of forming by

extrusion, forging and casting, machinability and corrosion resistance.

1.1- Engineering materials:

Almost every substance known to man has found its way into the
engineering workshop at some time or other. The most convenient way to study
the properties and uses of engineering materials is to classify them into ‘families’
as shown in figure below:

Classification of engineering materials.

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1.2 Metals
1.2.1 Ferrous metals
 These are metals and alloys containing a high proportion of the
element iron.

 They are the strongest materials available and are used for
applications where high strength is required at relatively low cost and where
weight is not of primary importance.
 As an example of ferrous metals such as : bridge building, the
structure of large buildings, railway lines, locomotives and rolling stock
and the bodies and highly stressed engine parts of road vehicles.
 The ferrous metals themselves can also be classified into "families', and
these are shown in Next Figure.

Classification of ferrous metals.

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1.2.2 Non – ferrous metals
 These materials refer to the remaining metals known to mankind.
 The pure metals are rarely used as structural materials as they lack
mechanical strength.
 They are used where their special properties such as corrosion
resistance, electrical conductivity and thermal conductivity are required.
Copper and aluminum are used as electrical conductors and, together with
sheet zinc and sheet lead, are use as roofing materials.
 They are mainly used with other metals to improve their strength.
 Some widely used non-ferrous metals and alloys are classified as
shown in Next Figure.

Classification of non-ferrous metals and alloys.

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1.3- Non – metallic materials
1.3.1 Non – metallic (synthetic materials)
These are non – metallic materials that do not exist in nature, although they are
manufactured from natural substances such as oil, coal and clay. Some typical
examples are classified as shown in Next Figure.

Classification of synthetic materials.

They combine good corrosion resistance with ease of manufacture by moulding to
shape and relatively low cost.  Synthetic adhesives are also being used for the
joining of metallic components even in highly stressed applications.

1.3.2 - Non – metallic (Natural materials )

Such materials are so diverse that only a few can be listed here to give a basic
introduction to some typical applications.

 Wood: This is naturally occurring fibrous composite material used

for the manufacture of casting patterns.

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 Rubber :This is used for hydraulic and compressed air hoses and oil
seals. Naturally occurring latex is too soft for most engineering uses but it is
used widely for vehicle tyres
when it is compounded with
carbon black.
 Glass : This is a hardwearing,
abrasion-resistant material with
excellent weathering properties.
It is used for electrical insulators,
laboratory equipment, optical
components in measuring
instruments eta and, in the form
of fibers, is used to reinforce
plastics. It is made by melting
together the naturally occurring
materials : silica (sand),
limestone (calcium carbonate )
and soda (sodium carbonate).
 Emery : This is a widely used
abrasive and is a naturally
occurring aluminum oxide.
Nowadays it is produced
synthetically to maintain
uniform quality and
performance.
 Ceramic: These are produced by
baking naturally occurring clays
at high temperatures after
moulding to shape. They are
used for high – voltage
insulators and high –
temperature – resistant cutting tool tips.
 Diamonds: These can be used for cutting tools for operation at high speeds
for metal finishing where surface finish is greater importance. For example,
internal combustion engine pistons and bearings. They are also used for
dressing grinding wheels.
 Oils : Used as bearing lubricants, cutting fluids and fuels.
 Silicon : This is used as an alloying element and also for the manufacture of
semiconductor devices.
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2- Materials Science and Engineering
• There are six different property classifications of materials that determine their
applicability: mechanical, electrical, thermal, magnetic, optical, and deteriorative.

• One aspect of materials science is the investigation of relationships that exist

between the structures and properties of materials. By structure we mean how some
internal component(s) of the material is (are) arranged. In terms of (and with
increasing) dimensionality, structural elements include subatomic, atomic,
microscopic, and macroscopic.

• With regard to the design, production, and utilization of materials, there are four
elements to consider—processing, structure, properties, and performance.The
performance of a material depends on its properties, which in turn are a function of
its structure(s); furthermore, structure(s) is (are) determined by how the material
was processed.

• Three important criteria in materials selection are in-service conditions to which

the material will be subjected, any deterioration of material properties during
operation, and economics or cost of the fabricated piece.

2.1- Material Families and Classes

• On the basis of chemistry and atomic structure, materials are classified into three
general categories: metals (metallic elements), ceramics (compounds between
metallic and nonmetallic elements), and polymers (compounds composed of
carbon, hydrogen, and other nonmetallic elements). In addition, composites are
composed of at least two different material types.

Next Figure, called a “bubble” chart, represents Young’s modulus E plotted against
density ρ. The line ranges for each material property plotted two-dimensionally
now form ellipses, or bubbles. This plot is more useful than the two separate bar
charts of each property. Now, we also see how stiffness/weight for various
materials relate. Next Figure also shows groups of bubbles outlined according to
the material families of Next Table. In addition, dotted lines in the lower right
corner of the chart indicate ratios of Eβ/ρ, which assist in material selection for
minimum mass design. Lines drawn parallel to these lines represent
different values for Eβ/ρ. For example, several parallel dotted lines are shown in
Fig. that represent different values of E/ρ(β = 1). Since ( E/ρ)1/2 represents the
speed of sound in a material, each dotted line, E/ρ, represents a different speed as
7
indicated. To see how β fits into the mix, consider the following. The performance
metric P of a structural element depends on (1) the functional requirements, (2) the
geometry, and (3) the material properties of the structure. That is,

Young’s modulus E versus density ρ for various materials.

8
Family Classes Short Name

9
Family Classes Short Name

Next Figure shows Strength S versus density ρ for various materials. For metals, S
is the 0.2 percent offset yield strength. For polymers, S is the 1 percent yield
strength. For ceramics and glasses, S is the compressive crushing strength. For
composites, S is the tensile strength. For elastomers, S is the tear strength.

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2.2 - Advanced Materials
Materials that are utilized in high-technology (or high-tech) applications are
sometimes termed advanced materials. By high technology we mean a device or
product that operates or functions using relatively intricate and sophisticated
principles; examples include electronic equipment (camcorders, CD/DVD players,
etc.), computers, fiber-optic systems, spacecraft, aircraft, and military rocketry.
These advanced materials are typically traditional materials whose properties have
been enhanced, and also newly developed, high-performance materials.
Furthermore, they may be of all material types (e.g., metals, ceramics, polymers),
and are normally expensive. Advanced materials include semiconductors,
biomaterials, and what we may term “materials of the future” (that is, smart
materials and Nano engineered materials), which we discuss next. The properties
and applications of a number of these advanced materials—for example, materials
that are used for lasers, integrated circuits, magnetic information storage, liquid
crystal displays (LCDs), and fiber optics—are also discussed in subsequent
chapters.

2.2.1 –Semiconductors
Semiconductors have electrical properties that are intermediate between the
electrical conductors (i.e., metals and metal alloys) and insulators (i.e., ceramics
and polymers). Furthermore, the electrical characteristics of these materials are
extremely sensitive to the presence of minute concentrations of impurity atoms, for
which the concentrations may be controlled over very small spatial regions.
Semiconductors have made possible the advent of integrated circuitry that has
totally revolutionized the electronics and computer industries (not to mention our
lives) over the past three decades.

2.2.2-Biomaterials
Biomaterials are employed in components implanted into the human body to
replace diseased or damaged body parts. These materials must not produce toxic
substances and must be compatible with body tissues (i.e., must not cause adverse
biological reactions). All of the preceding materials—metals, ceramics, polymers,
composites, and semiconductors—may be used as biomaterials. For example,
some of the biomaterials that are utilized in artificial hip replacements are discussed
in the online Biomaterials Module.

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2.2.3-Smart Materials
Smart (or intelligent) materials are a group of new and state-of-the-art materials
now being developed that will have a significant influence on many of our
technologies. The adjective smart implies that these materials are able to sense
changes in their environment and then respond to these changes in predetermined
traits that are also found in living organisms. In addition, this “smart” concept is
being extended to rather sophisticated systems that consist of both smart and
traditional materials. Components of a smart material (or system) include some
type of sensor (that detects an input signal), and an actuator (that performs a
responsive and adaptive function). Actuators may be called upon to change shape,
position, natural frequency, or mechanical characteristics in response to changes in
temperature, electric fields, and/or magnetic fields. Four types of materials are
commonly used for actuators: shape-memory alloys, piezoelectric ceramics,
magnetostrictive materials, and electrorheological/magnetorheological fluids.
Shape-memory alloys are metals that, after having been deformed, revert back to
their original shape when temperature is changed. Piezoelectric ceramics expand
and contract in response to an applied electric field (or voltage); conversely, they
also generate an electric field when their dimensions are altered.

The behavior of magnetostrictive materials is analogous to that of the

piezoelectrics, except that they are responsive to magnetic fields. Also,
electrorheological and magnetorheological fluids are liquids that experience
dramatic changes in viscosity upon the application of electric and magnetic fields,
respectively.

Materials/devices employed as sensors include optical fibers, piezoelectric

materials (including some polymers), and microelectromechanical systems.

For example, one type of smart system is used in helicopters to reduce aerodynamic
cockpit noise that is created by the rotating rotor blades. Piezoelectric sensors
inserted into the blades monitor blade stresses and deformations; feedback signals
from these sensors are fed into a computer-controlled adaptive device, which
generates noise-canceling anti-noise.

2.2.4-Nanomaterials
One new material class that has fascinating properties and tremendous
technological promise is the nanomaterials. Nanomaterials may be any one of the
four basic types—metals, ceramics, polymers, and composites. However, unlike

12
these other materials, they are not distinguished on the basis of their chemistry, but
rather, size; the nano-prefix denotes that the dimensions of these structural entities
are on the order of a nanometer (10–9 m)—as a rule, less than 100 nanometers
(equivalent to approximately 500 atom diameters). Prior to the advent of
nanomaterials, the general procedure scientists used to understand the chemistry
and physics of materials was to begin by studying large and complex structures,
and then to investigate the fundamental building blocks of these structures that are
smaller and simpler. This approach is sometimes termed “top-down” science. On
the other hand, with the development of scanning probe microscopes, which permit
observation of individual atoms and molecules, it has become possible to design
and build new structures from their atomic level constituents, one atom or molecule
at a time (i.e., “materials by design”). This ability to carefully arrange atoms
provides opportunities to develop mechanical, electrical, magnetic, and other
properties that are not otherwise possible. We call this the “bottom-up” approach,
and the study of the properties of these materials is termed nanotechnology. Some
of the physical and chemical characteristics exhibited by matter may experience
dramatic changes as particle size approaches atomic dimensions. For example,
materials that are opaque in the macroscopic domain may become transparent on
the nanoscale; some solids become liquids, chemically stable materials become
combustible, and electrical insulators become conductors. Furthermore, properties
may depend on size in this nanoscale domain. Some of these effects are quantum
mechanical in origin, others are related to surface phenomena—the proportion of
atoms located on surface sites of a particle increases dramatically as its size
decreases. Because of these unique and unusual properties, nanomaterials are
finding niches in electronic, biomedical, sporting, energy production, and other
industrial applications.

Whenever a new material is developed, its potential for harmful and toxicological
interactions with humans and animals must be considered. Small nanoparticles
have exceedingly large surface area–to–volume ratios, which can lead to high
chemical reactivities. Although the safety of nanomaterials is relatively unexplored,
there are concerns that they may be absorbed into the body through the skin, lungs,
and digestive tract at relatively high rates, and that some, if present in sufficient
concentrations, will pose health risks—such as damage to DNA or promotion of
lung cancer.

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3-Materials Science and Engineering
Sometimes it is useful to subdivide the discipline of materials science and
engineering into materials science and materials engineering subdisciplines.
Strictly speaking, materials science involves investigating the relationships that
exist between the structures and properties of materials. In contrast, materials
engineering is, on the basis of these structure–property correlations, designing or
engineering the structure of a material to produce a predetermined set of properties.
From a functional perspective, the role of a materials scientist is to develop or
synthesize new materials, whereas a materials engineer is called upon to create new
products or systems using existing materials, and/or to develop techniques for
processing materials. Most graduates in materials programs are trained to be both
materials scientists and materials engineers.

Structure is at this point a nebulous term that deserves some explanation. In

brief, the structure of a material usually relates to the arrangement of its internal
components. Subatomic structure involves electrons within the individual atoms
and interactions with their nuclei. On an atomic level, structure encompasses the
organization of atoms or molecules relative to one another. The next larger
structural realm, which contains large groups of atoms that are normally
agglomerated together, is termed microscopic, meaning that which is subject to
direct observation using some type of microscope. Finally, structural elements that
may be viewed with the naked eye are termed macroscopic.

The notion of property deserves elaboration. While in service use, all materials
are exposed to external stimuli that evoke some type of response. For example, a
specimen subjected to forces will experience deformation, or a polished metal
surface will reflect light. A property is a material trait in terms of the kind and
magnitude of response to a specific imposed stimulus. Generally, definitions of
properties are made independent of material shape and size.

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Virtually all important properties of solid materials may be grouped into
six different categories:
mechanical, electrical, thermal, magnetic, optical, and deteriorative.
For each there is a characteristic type of stimulus capable of provoking different
responses. .

Mechanical properties relate deformation to an applied load or force; examples

include elastic modulus (stiffness), strength, and toughness. For electrical
properties, such as electrical conductivity and dielectric constant, the stimulus is an
electric field.

The thermal behavior of solids can be represented in terms of heat capacity and
thermal conductivity.

Magnetic properties demonstrate the response of a material to the application of a

magnetic field. For optical properties, the stimulus is electromagnetic or light
radiation; index of refraction and reflectivity are representative optical properties.

Finally, deteriorative characteristics relate to the chemical reactivity of materials. In

addition to structure and properties, two other important components are involved
in the science and engineering of materials—namely, processing and performance.
With regard to the relationships of these four components, the structure of a
material will depend on how it is processed. Furthermore, a material’s performance
will be a function of its properties. Thus, the interrelationship between processing,
structure, properties, and performance is as depicted in the schematic illustration
shown in Next Figure.

The four components of the discipline of materials science

and engineering and their interrelationship.

We draw attention to the relationships among these four components in terms of the
design, production, and utilization of materials.

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3- Physical Properties of Engineering Materials
These properties concerned with such properties as melting, temperature, electrical
conductivity, thermal conductivity, density, corrosion resistance, magnetic
properties, etc. and the more important of these properties will be considered as
follows:-

3.1- Density
Density is defined as mass per unit volume for a material. The derived unit usually
3
used by engineers is the kg/m . Relative density is the density of the material
compared with the density of the water at 4˚C. The formulae of density and relative
density are:

𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 ( 𝑚 )
𝐷𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 ( 𝜌 ) =
𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 ( 𝑉 )

𝐷𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑚𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑎𝑙

𝑅𝑒𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 (𝑑) =
𝐷𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑝𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑎𝑡 40 𝐶

The next Figure Shows Bar chart of room temperature density values for various
metals, ceramics, polymers, and composite materials.

16
3.2- Electrical conductivity
Next Figure shows a piece of electrical cable. In this example copper wire has been
chosen for the conductor or core of the cable because copper has the property of
very good electrical conductivity. That is, it offers very little resistance to the flow
of electrons (electric current) through the wire. A plastic material such as
polymerized has been chosen for the insulating sheathing surrounding the wire
conductor. This material has been chosen because it is such a bad conductor, where
very few electrons can bass through it. Because they are very bad conductors they
are called as insulators. There is no such thing as a perfect insulator, only very bad
conductors.

For example, metallic conductors of electricity all increase in resistance as their

temperatures rise. Pure metal shows this effect more strongly than alloys. However,
pure metals generally have a better conductivity than alloys at room temperature.
The conductivity of metals and metal alloys improves as the temperature
falls. Conversely, non-metallic materials used for insulators tend to offer a lower
resistance to the passage of electrons, and so become poorer insulators, as their
temperatures rise. Glass, for example, is an excellent insulator at room temperature,
but becomes a conductor if raised to red heat.

Next Figure shows Metals Bar chart of room temperature electrical conductivity
ranges for metals, ceramics, polymers, and semiconducting materials.

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3.3- Melting temperature of material
The melting temperatures and the recrystallisation temperatures have a grate effect
on the materials and the alloys of the materials properties and as a result on its
applications.

3.4- Semiconductors
So far we have examined the conductivity of the metals and the insulating
properties of the non-metals (exception : carbon). In between conductors and
isolators lies a range of materials known as semiconductors.

These can be good or bad conductors depending upon their temperatures. The
conductivity of semiconductor materials increases rapidly for relatively small
temperature increases, this enable them to be used as temperature sensors in
electronic thermometers.

Semiconductor materials are capable of having their conductors properties changed

during manufacture. Examples of semiconductor materials are silicon and
germanium. They are used extensively in the electronics industry in the
manufacture of solid-state devices such as diodes, thermistors, transistors and
integrated circuits.
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3.5- Thermal conductivity
This is the ability of the material to transmit heat energy by conduction. Next
Figure shows a soldering iron. The bit is made from copper which is a good
conductor of heat and so will allow the heat energy stored in it to travel easily down
to the tip and into the work being soldered. The wooden handle remains cool as it
has a low thermal conductivity and resists the flow of heat energy.

Hand Soldering Iron

3.6- Fusibility
This is the ease with which materials will melt. It can be seen from Next Figure that
solder melts easily and so has the property of high fusibility. On the other hand, fire
bricks used for furnace linings only melt at very high temperatures and so have the
properties of low fusibility. Such materials which only melt at very high
temperatures are called refractory materials. These must not be confused with
materials which have a low thermal conductivity and used as thermal insulators.

Although expanded polystyrene is an excellent thermal insulator, it has a very low

melting point ( high fusibility ) and in no way can it be considered a refractory
material.

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 Fusibility

3.7- Reluctance (as magnetic properties)

As some of materials are good or bad conductors of electricity, there are
some materials can be good or bad conductors of magnetism. The resistance of
magnetic circuit is referred to as reluctance. The good magnetic conductors have
low reluctance and examples are the ferromagnetic materials which get their name
from the fact that they are made from iron, steel and associated alloying elements
such as cobalt and nickel. All other materials are non-magnetic and offer a high
reluctance to the magnetic flux felid.

3.8- Temperature stability

Any changes in temperature can have very significant effects on the structure
and properties of materials. However, there are several effects can appear with
changes in temperature such as creep.

Creep is defined as the gradual extension of a material over a long period of

time whilst the applied load is kept constant. It is also an important factor when
considering plastic materials, and it must be considered when metals work
continuously at high temperatures.

For example gas-turbine blades. The creep rate increases if the temperature is
raised, but becomes less if the temperature is lowered.

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4-Mechanical properties of materials
These properties are concerned with the following properties :

4.1- Tensile strength TS

It is the ability of a material to withstand
tensile ( stretching ) loads without breaking.
For example, Next Figure shows a heavy load
being held up by a rod fastened to beam. As
the force of gravity acting on the load is trying
to stretch the rod, the rod is said to be in
tension. Therefore, the material from which
the rod is made needs to have sufficient tensile
strength to resist the pull of the load.

Tensile Strength

4.2- Strength:
It is the ability of a material to resist applied forces without fracturing.

Next Figure shows a Bar chart of room temperature strength (i.e., tensile strength)
values for various metals, ceramics, polymers, and composite materials.

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Next Figure shows a Bar chart of room-temperature resistance to fracture (i.e.,
fracture toughness) for various metals, ceramics, polymers, and composite
materials.

4.3- Malleability
It is the capacity of substance to withstand deformation under compression
without rupture or the malleable material allows a useful amount of plastic
deformation to occur under compressive loading before fracture occurs. Such a
material is required for manipulation by such processes as forging, rolling and rivet
heading as shown in Next Figure.

Malleability

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4.4- Hardness
It is the ability of a material to withstand scratching (abrasion) or indentation
by another hard body , it is an indication of the wear resistance of the material. For
example, Next Figure shows a hardened steel ball being pressed first into a hard
material and then into a soft material by the same load. As seen that the ball only
makes a small indentation in the hard material but it makes a very much deeper
impression in the softer material.

4.5- Ductility
It refer to the capacity of substance to undergo deformation under tension
without rupture as in wire drawing (as shown in Next Figure), tube drawing
operation.

Ductility (Wire drawing)

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4.6- Stiffness
It is the measure of a material's ability not to deflect under an applied load.
For example, although steel is very much stronger than cast iron, then the cast iron
is preferred for machine beds and frames because it is more rigid and less likely to
deflect with consequent loss of alignment and accuracy.

Consider Next Figure (a): for a given load the cast iron beam deflect less than the
steel beam because cast iron is more rigid material. However, when the load
increased as shown in Next Figure (b), the cast iron beam will break, whilst the
steel beam deflects little further but not break. Thus a material which is rigid is not
necessarily strong

Stiffness (rigidity):
(a) The tested materials deflect under a light load
(b) The tested materials deflect under a heavy load.

Next Figure shows a Bar chart of room temperature stiffness (i.e., elastic modulus)
values for various metals, ceramics, polymers, and composite materials

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4.7- Brittleness
It is the property of a material that shows little or no plastic deformation
before fracture when a force is applied. Also it is usually said as the opposite of
ductility and malleability.

4.8- Elasticity
It is the ability of a material to deform under load and return to
its original size and shape when the load is removed. If it is made
from an elastic material it will be the same length before and after the
load is applied, despite the fact that it will be longer whilst the load is
being applied. All materials posses elasticity to some degree and each
has its own elastic limits. As in Next Figure.

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4.9- Plasticity
This property is the exact opposite to elasticity, while the ductility and
malleability are particular cases of the property of the plasticity. It is the state of a
material which has been loaded beyond its elastic limit so as to cause the material
to deform permanently. Under such conditions the material takes a permanent set
and will not return to its original size and shape when the load is removed. When a
piece of mild steel is bent at right angles into the shape of a bracket, it shows the
property of plasticity since it does not spring back strength again, this is shown in
Next Figure.

Some metals such as lead have a good plastic range at room temperature and can be
extensively worked (where working of metal means squeezing, stretching or
beating it to shape). This is advantage for plumber when beating lead flashings to
shape on building sites.

26
 Factors affecting materials properties:
The following are the more important factors which can be influence the properties
and performance of engineering materials.

1. Heat treatment
This is the controlled heating and cooling of metals to change their properties to
improve their performance or to facilitate processing. An example of heat treatment
is the hardening of a piece of high-carbon steel rod. If it is heated to dull red heat
and plunged into cold water to cool it rapidly (quenching), it will become hard and
brittle. If it is again heated to dull red heat but allowed to cold very slowly it will
become softer and less brittle (more tough). In this condition it is said to
be annealed. After the heat treatment happened on the material it will be in its best
condition for flow forming, during flow forming (working) the grains will be
distorted and this will result in most metals becoming work hardened if flow
formed at room temperature. To remove any locked in stresses resulting from the
forming operations and to prepare the material for machining, the material has to be
normalized.

2. Processing
Hot – and cold working process will be referred to understand what is meant by
erms hot and cold working as applied to metals. Next Figure shows examples of hot
and cold working.

Examples of (a) hot-working and (b) cold-working process.

Metal is hot worked or cold worked depending upon the temperature at
which it is flow formed to shape. These temperatures are not easy to define. For

27
instance , lead hot works at room temperature and can be beaten into complex
shapes without cracking , but steel does not hot work until it is red hot .

When metal are examined under the microscope it can be seen that they
consist of very small grains. When most metals are bent or worked at room
temperature (cold worked) these grains become distorted and the metal becomes
hard and brittle. When metals are hot worked the crystals are also distorted.
However, they reform instantly into normal crystals because the process
temperature is above the temperature of recrystallization for the metal being used
and work hardening does not occur. this cold working is the flow forming of metals
below the temperature the recrystallization, whilst hot working is the flow forming
of metals above the temperature of recrystallization.

3. Environmental reactions
The properties of materials can also be effected by reaction with environment
in which they are used. For example:

- Resting of steel Unless steel structures are regularly maintained by rest

neutralization and painting process, resting will occur. The rest will eat into the
steel, reduce its thickness and, therefore, its strength. In extreme cases an entire
structure made from steel may be eaten away.

- Dezincification of brass Brass is an alloy of copper and zinc and when

brass is exposed to a marine environment for a long time, the salt in the sea water
pray react with the zinc content of the brass so as remove it and leave it behind on
spongy, porous mass of copper. This obviously is weakness the material which fails
under normal working conditions.

- Degradation of plastic Many plastic degrade and become weak and

brittle when exposed to the ultraviolet content of sunlight. Special dyestuffs have to
be incorporated into the plastic to filter out these harmful rays.

28
Atomic Structure and
5-1 Atomic Structure and Interatomic Bonding
Introduction
Some of the important properties of solid materials depend on geometrical atomic
arrangements, and also the interactions that exist among constituent atoms or
molecules. Several fundamental and important concepts—namely, atomic structure,
electron configurations in atoms and the periodic table, and the various types of
primary and secondary interatomic bonds that hold together the atoms that compose
a solid.

5.1.1- Electrons in Atoms

Atomic Models

During the latter part of the nineteenth century it was realized that many
phenomena involving electrons in solids could not be explained in terms of
classical mechanics. What followed was the establishment of a set of principles and
laws that govern systems of atomic and subatomic entities that came to be known
as quantum mechanics. An understanding of the behavior of electrons in atoms
and crystalline solids necessarily involves the discussion of quantum-mechanical
concepts. Next Figure is a schematic representation of

the Bohr atom. One early outgrowth of quantum

mechanics was the simplified Bohr atomic model, in
which electrons are assumed to revolve around the
atomic nucleus in discrete orbitals, and the position of
any particular electron is more or less well defined in
terms of its orbital. This model of the atom is
represented in Next Figure.

Another important quantum-mechanical principle stipulates that the energies of

electrons are quantized; that is, electrons are permitted to have only specific values
of energy. An electron may change energy, but in doing so it must make a quantum
jump either to an allowed higher energy (with absorption of energy) or to a lower
energy (with emission of energy). Often, it is convenient to think of these allowed
electron energies as being associated with energy levels or states. These states do
not vary continuously with energy; that is, adjacent states are separated by finite

29
energies. For example, allowed states for the Bohr hydrogen atom are represented
in Next Figure.

(a) The first three electron energy states for the Bohr hydrogen atom.

(b) Electron energy states for the first three shells of the wave-mechanical

hydrogen atom.

wave-mechanical model, Next Figure

Comparison of the (a) Bohr and

(b) Wave mechanical atom models in terms of

electron distribution.

30
These energies are taken to be negative, whereas the zero reference is the unbound
or free electron. Of course, the single electron associated with the
hydrogen atom will fill only one of these states. Thus, the Bohr model represents an
early attempt to describe electrons in atoms, in terms of both position (electron
orbitals) and energy (quantized energy levels).

This Bohr model was eventually found to have some significant limitations because
of its inability to explain several phenomena involving electrons. A resolution
was reached with a wave-mechanical model, in which the electron is considered to
exhibit both wavelike and particle-like characteristics. With this model, an electron
is no longer treated as a particle moving in a discrete orbital; rather, position is
considered to be the probability of an electron’s being at various locations around
the nucleus. In other words, position is described by a probability distribution or
electron cloud.

5.1.2-Quantum Numbers

Using wave mechanics, every electron in an atom is characterized by four

parameters called quantum numbers. The size, shape, and spatial orientation of an
electron’s probability density are specified by three of these quantum numbers.
Furthermore, Bohr energy levels separate into electron subshells, and quantum
numbers dictate the number of states within each subshell. Shells are specified by

The Number of Available Electron States in Some of

the Electron Shells and Subshells

Principal Shell Subshells Number Number of Electrons

Quantum Designation Of States Per Subshell Per Shell
Number n
1 K s 1 2 2
s 1 2
2 L 8
p 3 6
s 1 2
3 M p 3 6 18
d 5 10
s 1 2
p 3 6
4 N 32
d 5 10
f 7 14

31
a principal quantum number n, which may take on integral values beginning with
unity; sometimes these shells are designated by the letters K, L, M, N, O, and so
on, which correspond, respectively, to n 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, . . . , as indicated in Last
Table. Note also that this quantum number, and it only, is also associated with the
Bohr model. This quantum number is related to the distance of an electron from the
nucleus, or its position. The second quantum number, l, signifies the subshell,
which is denoted by a lowercase letter—an s, p, d, or f; it is related to the shape of
the electron subshell. In addition, the number of these subshells is restricted by the
magnitude of n.

Allowable subshells for the several n values are also presented in Last Table. The
number of energy states for each subshell is determined by the third quantum
number, ml. For an s subshell, there is a single energy state, whereas for p, d, and f
subshells, three, five, and seven states exist, respectively (Last Table).

In the absence of an external magnetic field, the states within each subshell are
identical. However, when a magnetic field is applied, these subshell states split,
with each state assuming a slightly different energy.

Associated with each electron is a spin moment, which must be oriented either
up or down. Related to this spin moment is the fourth quantum number, ms, for
which two values are possible one for each of the spin orientations.
Thus, the Bohr model was further refined by wave mechanics, in which the
introduction of three new quantum numbers gives rise to electron subshells within
each shell. A comparison of these two models on this basis is illustrated, for the
hydrogen atom, in Last Figures a and b.

A complete energy level diagram for the

various shells and subshells using
the wave-mechanical model is shown in
Next Figure. Several features of the
diagram are worth noting. First, the smaller
the principal quantum number, the lower

Schematic representation of the relative

energies of the electrons for the various
shells and subshells.

32
the energy level; for example, the energy of a 1s state is less than that of a 2s state,
which in turn is lower than the 3s. Second, within each shell, the energy of a
subshell level increases with the value of the l quantum number. For example, the
energy of a 3d state is greater than a 3p, which is larger than 3s. Finally, there may
be overlap in energy of a state in one shell with states in an adjacent shell, which
is especially true of d and f states; for example, the energy of a 3d state is generally
greater than that for a 4s.

5.1.3- Metal Structure and Bounding in Materials :-

Although the properties of the metals used widely they all had one thing in
common. No matter what their composition, no matter what changes they had gone
through during extraction from the ore, refinement and processing, they were all
crystalline.
Atoms:-
Not so very long ago, in our early chemistry lessons, we used to say that the atom
was the smallest unit of which matter was composed and was indivisible. Also the
atom is considered as the basic structural unit of matter Now, it is not quite so
simple as that, and the chemist no longer regards the atom as being in the nature of
an in destructible little billiard-ball which is held by some mysterious force of
attraction to its neighbors. Each atom is composed of a positively charged nucleus
surrounded by a sufficient number of negatively charged electrons so that the
charges are balanced and neutrons which carry no charge. The number of electrons
identifies the atomic number and the element of the atom.

When the atoms have gained or lost one or more electrons, it is called as” Ions”.
Losing of an electron makes the atom electropositive since there will be a
positively charged proton without its balancing electron. Such an ion is called a
positive ion. While gaining an electron makes the atom electronegative since there
is no spare positively charged proton in the nucleus to balance the additional
electron. Such an ion is called a negative ion.

Chemical properties are related to the numbers of electrons and protons

present and in this respect there are altogether ninety-two basically different types
of atom which occur naturally. Of late the scientists have succeeded in building up
a series of new ones. When two or more atoms, either of one type or of different
types, are joined together chemically, the unit which is produced is called a
molecule. In a similar way the gases fluorine and chlorine, with seven electrons in

33
the outer shell in each case, have like chemical properties. Both are gases (at
normal temperatures and pressures) with strongly non-metallic properties.

Many of the similarities and differences among the elements can be explained by
their respective atomic structures as shown in Next Figure.

Simple model of atomic structure for several elements :

(a) hydrogen , (b) helium, (c) fluorine, (d) neon, (e) sodium.

We might infer that there is a maximum number of electrons that can be contained
in a given orbit. This turns out to be correct, and the maximum is defined by:
Maximum number of electrons in an orbit = 2 n2 where n identifies the orbit, with
n = 1 closest to the nucleus. The number of electrons in the outermost shell,
relative to the maximum number allowed, determines to a large extent the atom's
chemical affinity for other atoms. These outer shell electrons are called valence
electrons. For example, since a hydrogen atom has only one electron in its single
orbit, it readily combines with another hydrogen atom to form a hydrogen molecule
H2. For the same reason, hydrogen also reacts readily with various other elements
(for example, to form H2O). In the helium atom, the two electrons in its only orbit
are the maximum allowed [2n2 = 2(l)2 = 2]. and so helium is very stable. Neon is
stable for the same reason. Its outermost orbit (n = 2) has eight electrons (the
maximum allowed), so neon is an inert gas. In contrast to neon, fluorine has one
fewer electron in its outer shell (n =2) than the maximum allowed and is readily
attracted to other elements that might share an electron to make a more stable set.
The sodium atom seems divinely made for the situation, with one electron in its
outermost orbit. It reacts strongly with fluorine to form the compound sodium
fluoride, as pictured in Next Figure.

34
Figure 2. The sodium fluoride molecule, formed by the transfer of the extra
electron of the sodium atom to complete the outer orbit of the fluorine atom. At the
low atomic numbers considered here, the prediction of the number of electrons in
the outer orbit is straightforward. As the atomic number increases to higher levels,
the allocation of electrons to the different orbits becomes somewhat more
complicated.

Bonding in Materials:

It depends on the bonding between atoms and molecules where the atoms are held
together in molecules by various types of bonds that depends on the valence
electrons. By comparison , molecules are attracted to each other by weaker bonds,
which generally result from the electron configuration in the individual molecules.
Thus , we have the following types of bonding :

1. Ionic Bond In the ionic bond, the atoms of one element give up their outer
electron(s), which an in turn attracted to
the atoms of some other element to
increase their electron count in the
outermost shell to eight, as shown in
figure 3. This bond is naturally provides
a very Strong bond between atoms and
as a properties of solid materials with the
ionic bonding include low electrical
conductivity and poor ductility

Ionic bond .

35
As an example of this bond is the Sodium chloride (table salt) is a more common
example. Because of the transfer of electrons between the atoms, sodium and
chlorine ions are formed as shown in this reaction : Na + + Cl ‾ → Na +Cl ‾

2. Covalent Bond In the covalent

bond, electrons are shared (as opposed
to transferred) between atoms in their
outermost shells to achieve a stable set
of eight. as shown in Next Figure.

Covalent bond.
Solids with covalent bonding generally possess high hardness and low electrical
conductivity .

As an example of covalent bond the molecule of the gas methane ( CH4 ) , four
hydrogen atoms are combined with one carbon atom. The carbon atom has four
electrons in its outer shell, but these are joined by four more
electrons, contributed singly by each of the four hydrogen atoms as shown in Next
Figure.

(i) Covalent Bonding in a Molecule of Methane, CH4.

(ii) Chemists express the structural formula for the methane molecule.

36
3- Metallic Bond

It is the atomic bonding mechanism in pure metals and metal alloys. The metallic
bonding involves the sharing of outer shell electrons by all atoms to form a general
electron cloud that permeates the entire block as shown in figure 6.

Diagrammatic Representation of the "Metallic Bond".

This cloud provides the attractive forces to hold the atoms together and form a
strong, rigid structure in most cases. Because of the general sharing of electrons
and their freedom to move within the metal, metallic bonding provides typical
properties of materials characterized such as good electrical conductivity , good
conduction of heat and good ductility.

4. Van der Waal’s Force

They are very small forces of attraction acting between atoms in cases where the
formation of ionic or covalent bonds is not possible. Basically similar forces also
act between atoms which are already bounded in neighboring molecules , giving
rise to weak Van der Waal’s forces between long-chain molecules in polymers.

37
Example :-

Compare between Metallic Bond and Ionic Bond?

Solution

Example :-

What are the differences between Covalent Bond and Metallic Bond?

Solution

38
Example :-

Differentiate between Ionic Bond and Covalent Bond?

39
40
Electron Configurations
The Next Table summarizes the maximum number of electrons that may occupy
each of the first four shells.
A Listing of the Expected Electron Configurations for
Some of the Common Elements
Element Symbol Atomic Electron Configuration
Number
Hydrogen H 1 1s1
Helium He 2 1s2
Lithium Li 3 1s22s1
Beryllium Be 4 1s22s2
Boron B 5 1s22s22p1
Carbon C 6 1s22s22p2
Nitrogen N 7 1s22s22p3
Oxygen O 8 1s22s22p4
Fluorine F 9 1s22s22p5
Neon Ne 10 1s22s22p6
Sodium Na 11 1s22s22p63s1
Magnesium Mg 12 1s22s22p63s2
Aluminum Al 13 1s22s22p63s23p1
Silicon Si 14 1s22s22p63s23p2
Phosphorus P 15 1s22s22p63s23p3
Sulfur S 16 1s22s22p63s23p4
Chlorine Cl 17 1s22s22p63s23p5
Argon Ar 18 1s22s22p63s23p6
Potassium K 19 1s22s22p63s23p64s1
Calcium Ca 20 1s22s22p63s23p64s2
Scandium Sc 21 1s22s22p63s23p63d14s2
Titanium Ti 22 1s22s22p63s23p63d24s2
Vanadium V 23 1s22s22p63s23p63d34s2
Chromium Cr 24 1s22s22p63s23p63d54s1
Manganese Mn 25 1s22s22p63s23p63d54s2
Iron Fe 26 1s22s22p63s23p63d64s2
Cobalt Co 27 1s22s22p63s23p63d74s2
Nickel Ni 28 1s22s22p63s23p63d84s2
Copper Cu 29 1s22s22p63s23p63d104s1
Zinc Zn 30 1s22s22p63s23p63d104s2
Gallium Ga 31 1s22s22p63s23p63d104s24p1
Germanium Ge 32 1s22s22p63s23p63d104s24p2
Arsenic As 33 1s22s22p63s23p63d104s24p3
Selenium Se 34 1s22s22p63s23p63d104s24p4
Bromine Br 35 1s22s22p63s23p63d104s24p5
Krypton Kr 36 1s22s22p63s23p63d104s24p6

41
5.1.4- The Periodic Table

All the elements have been classified according to electron configuration in the
periodic table (Next Figure). Here, the elements are situated, with increasing atomic
number, in seven horizontal rows called periods. The arrangement is such that all
elements arrayed in a given column or groups have similar valence electron
structures, as well as chemical and physical properties. These properties change
gradually, moving horizontally across each period and vertically down each
column.

The elements positioned in Group 0, the rightmost group, are the inert gases,
which have filled electron shells and stable electron configurations. Group VIIA
and VIA elements are one and two electrons deficient, respectively, from having
stable structures. The Group VIIA elements (F, Cl, Br, I, and At) are sometimes
termed the halogens. The alkali and the alkaline earth metals (Li, Na, K, Be, Mg,
Ca, etc.) are labeled as Groups IA and IIA, having, respectively, one and two
electrons in excess of stable structures. The elements in the three long periods,
Groups IIIB through IIB, are termed the transition metals, which have partially
filled d electron states and in some cases one or two electrons in the next higher
energy shell. Groups IIIA, IVA, and VA (B, Si, Ge, As, etc.) display
characteristics that are intermediate between the metals and nonmetals by
virtue of their valence electron structures.

As may be noted from the periodic table, most of the elements really come under
the metal classification. These are sometimes termed electropositive elements,
indicating that they are capable of giving up their few valence electrons to become
positively charged ions. Furthermore, the elements situated on the right-hand side
of the table are electronegative; that is, they readily accept electrons to form
negatively charged ions, or sometimes they share electrons with other atoms.

42
 The periodic table of the elements. The numbers in parentheses are the atomic
weights of the most stable or common isotopes.

43
Next Figure displays electronegativity values that have been assigned to the various elements arranged in the periodic table.
As a general rule, electronegativity increases in moving from left to right and from bottom to top. Atoms are more likely to
accept electrons if their outer shells are almost full, and if they are less “shielded” from (i.e., closer to) the nucleus.

The electronegativity values for the elements.

44
5.2- Crystalline Structures:
Many substances, including metals, have a crystalline structure in the solid state.
Metal crystals from when the molten metals cools and solidifies, where as crystals
of other substances, for example copper sulphate, and sodium chloride ( salt ), form
when a saturated solution of compound evaporates causing the solid to crystallize
out. In crystalline structure , the atoms are located at regular and recurring positions
in three dimension . The pattern may be replicated millions of times within a given
crystal. The structure can be viewed in the form of a unit cell, which is the basic
geometric grouping of atoms that is repeated.

There are several types of pattern in which metallic atoms can arrange them selves
on solidification , but the most common is as follows :-
1. Body-Centered-Cubic [BCC] As shown in Next Figure (a), as an example of the
materials for this type : Chromium, Molybdenum, Niobium, Tungsten, Iron.

2. Face-Centered-Cubic [FCC] As shown in Next Figure (b), as an example of the

materials for this type : Aluminum, Copper, Lead, Nickel, Iron, Gold, Silver.

3. Hexagonal-Closed-Packed [HCP] As shown in Next Figure (c), as an example of the

materials for this type : Beryllium, Cadmium, Magnesium, Zinc.

The three principle types of structural in which metallic elements

crystallize : (a) Body-Centered-Cubic (b) Face-Centered-Cubic
(c) Hexagonal-Closed-Packed.

45
There are some metals that are undergo a change of structure at different
temperatures. Iron metal for example is arranged in a bodycentered-cubic ( BCC )
at room temperature, when the metal is heated and reaches a temperature of 910˚C,
the atoms rearrange themselves into Face-Centered-Cubic ( FCC ) crystals. If the
metal is heated to the still higher temperature of 1400˚C the atoms again rearrange
themselves, this time back into Body-Centered-Cubic form.

- Noncrystalline (Amorphous) Structures:

The noncrystalline solids materials do not have their basic particles arranged in a
geometric patter. Their particles have a random formation, and such as a result,
such substances are said to be amorphous (without shape).

Many important materials are noncrystalline: liquids and gases, for example.

Water and air have a noncrystal structures. A metal loses its crystalline structure
when it is melt. Such as glass, plastics and rubber are materials that fall into this
category. While many important plastics are mixture of crystalline and
noncrystalline forms. Two closely related features differentiate noncrystalline from
crystalline materials :-

1. Absence of long – range order in the molecular structure of a noncrystalline. It

can be visualized with reference to Next Figure . They closely packed and repeating
pattern of the crystal structure and random arrangement of atoms in the
noncrystalline materials.

Difference in structure between

(a) crystalline and (b) noncrystalline materials.

2. Differences in melting and thermal expansion characteristics. It could be demonstrated

by a metal when it is melts. When the metal is molten an increase in volume compared to
the material’s solid crystalline state. This effect is characteristic most materials when
melted ( a noble exception is ice; liquid water is denser than ice).

46
The crystalline state :
As we mention before, that all of the metals and its alloys have crystalline structure
where the atoms are rearranged in an organized shapes which it is called as the
crystal lattice. This lattice consisted of another smallest grouping of atoms each one
is called the unit cell as shown in Next Figure.

Representation of part of a space lattice with a unit cell outlined.

The unit cell is the smallest parallel surfaces of the crystalline structure that can be
removed or repeated in different directions. It is also differ from each other in
shape or size in the crystalline lattice from one material to another.

The atoms that belongs to the unit cell are called the basic atoms, its number is
different from one shape of arrangement to another, this number can be found from
the following equation:-

N = NC + NI + NF
where N : is the number of the basic atoms in the unit cell.
NC: is the number of the atoms in the corner.
NI: is the number of the atoms inside the cube.
NF: is the number of the atoms in the center of the face.
For the Body-centered-cubic (BCC), it is obvious that the unit cell have just two
atoms the first one in the corner of the cube and the second in the center of the
cube (that share the unit cell with each atom in the corner ) as in the equation:

N = 8* 1/8 + 1 = 2
As for the Face-centered-cubic (FCC) it is calculated by the equation below:

N = 8 * 1/8 + 6 * 1/2 = 4

47
Finally for the Hexagonal-closed-packed (HCP) is also calculated as follows :

N = 12 * 1/6 + 3 + 2 * 1/2 = 6

5.3- The atomic packing factor [A.P.F]:

It can be defined as the ratio between the volume of the basic atoms of the
unit cell (which represent the volume of all atoms in one unit cell ) to the volume of
the unit cell it self.

𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑚𝑠 𝑖𝑛 𝑎 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡 𝑐𝑒𝑙𝑙

𝐴. 𝑃. 𝐹 =
𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡 𝑐𝑒𝑙𝑙 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒

1. Body-centered-cubic (BCC)
For cubic crystals, there is one constant to be quoted. The unit cell constant
of pure metal crystals can be directly related to the atomic diameter of the element.

In the body centered cubic the, as shown in Next Figure, and by Pythagoras :

For the body-centered cubic crystal structure,

(a) a hard-sphere unit cell representation, (b) a reduced-sphere unit cell,

and (c) an aggregate of many atoms.

48
Body centered cubic unit cell. Relation between a and D.
D : is the atomic diameter, a : is the lattice constant, r : is the atomic radius

The length of the cube diagonal = 2 D

49
2. Face-centered-cubic (FCC)
Similarly, for face centered cubic as shown in Next Figure,

The length of a face diagonal = 2D and by Pythagoras:

Face centered cubic unit cell. Relation between a and D.

50
3. Hexagonal-closed-packed (HCP)

For the hexagonal close-packed crystal structure, (a) a reduced-sphere unit

cell (a and c represent the short and long edge lengths, respectively), and
(b) an aggregate of many atoms.

There are two lattice constant, a and c as shown in Next Figure,

that parameter a is equal to one atomic diameter [a = D] , the
parameter c is the high of the hexagonal structure. From the
hexagonal structure basics :

51
5.4- Density Computations
A knowledge of the crystal structure of a metallic solid permits computation of its

Theoretical density ρ through the relationship

Example
Copper has an atomic radius of 0.128 nm, an FCC crystal structure, and an
atomic weight of 63.5 g/mol. Compute its theoretical density and compare the
answer with its measured density.

Solution

Using Last Equation in the solution of this problem. Because the crystal structure is
FCC, n, the number of atoms per unit cell, is 4. Furthermore, the atomic weight
ACu is given as 63.5 g/mol. The unit cell volume V C for FCC was
determined in before as 𝑉𝐶 = 16 𝑅3 √2 , R, the atomic radius, is 0.128 nm.

Substitution for the various parameters into Theoretical density Equation yields

The literature value for the density of copper is 8.94 g/cm3, which is in
very close agreement with the foregoing result.

52
5.5- X-Ray Diffraction:
Determination of Crystal Structures
Historically, much of our understanding regarding the atomic and molecular
arrangements in solids has resulted from x-ray diffraction investigations;
furthermore, x-rays are still very important in developing new materials. We will
now give a brief overview of the diffraction phenomenon and how, using x-rays,
atomic interplanar distances and crystal structures are deduced.

The Diffraction Phenomenon

Diffraction occurs when a wave encounters a series of regularly spaced obstacles

that (1) are capable of scattering the wave, and (2) have spacings that are
comparable in magnitude to the wavelength. Furthermore, diffraction is a
consequence of specific phase relationships established between two or more waves
that have been scattered by the obstacles.

Consider waves 1 and 2 in Next Figure, which have the same wavelength (λ)
and are in phase at point O–O'. Now let us suppose that both waves are scattered
in such a way that they traverse different paths. The phase relationship between the
scattered waves, which will depend upon the difference in path length, is important.
One possibility results when this path length difference is an integral number of
wavelengths.

As noted in Next Figure, these scattered waves (now labeled 1' and 2' ) are still in
phase.

Demonstration of how two waves (labeled 1 and 2) that have the same wavelength
and remain in phase after a scattering event (waves and) constructively interfere
with one another. The amplitudes of the scattered waves add together in the
resultant wave.
53
They are said to mutually reinforce (or constructively interfere with) one another;
and, when amplitudes are added, the wave shown on the right side of the figure
results. This is a manifestation of diffraction, and we refer to a diffracted beam as
one composed of a large number of scattered waves that mutually reinforce one
another.

Other phase relationships are possible between scattered waves that will not lead
to this mutual reinforcement. The other extreme is that demonstrated in Next Figure

Demonstration of how two waves (labeled 3 and 4) that have the same wavelength
and become out of phase after a scattering event (waves and) destructively interfere
with one another. The amplitudes of the two scattered waves cancel one another.

Wherein the path length difference after scattering is some integral number of half
wavelengths. The scattered waves are out of phase—that is, corresponding
amplitudes cancel or annul one another, or destructively interfere (i.e., the resultant
wave has zero amplitude), as indicated on the right side of the figure. Of course,
phase relationships intermediate between these two extremes exist, resulting in only
partial reinforcement.

54
X-Ray Diffraction and Bragg’s Law
X-rays are a form of electromagnetic radiation that have high energies and short
wavelengths—wavelengths on the order of the atomic spacings for solids. When a
beam of x-rays impinges on a solid material, a portion of this beam will be
scattered in all directions by the electrons associated with each atom or ion that lies
within the beam’s path. Let us now examine the necessary conditions for
diffraction of x- rays by a periodic arrangement of atoms. Consider the two parallel
planes of atoms A– and B– in Figure 3.20, which have the same h, k, and l Miller
indices and are separated by the interplanar spacing dhkl. Now assume that a
parallel, monochromatic, and coherent (in-phase)

Diffraction of x-rays by planes of atoms

(A-A' and B-B' ).

beam of x-rays of wavelength is incident on these two planes at an angle . Two

rays in this beam, labeled 1 and 2, are scattered by atoms P and Q. Constructive
interference of the scattered rays 1 and 2 occurs also at an angle to the planes, if
the path length difference between 1P1 and 2–Q–2 (i.e., ) is equal to a whole
number, n, of wavelengths.

That is, the condition for diffraction is:-

55
Or Bragg’s law relationship among x-ray wavelength, interatomic spacing, and
angle of diffraction for constructive interference

Last equation is known as Bragg’s law; also, n is the order of reflection, which
may be any integer (1, 2, 3, . . .) consistent with sin Ө not exceeding unity. Thus,
we have a simple expression relating the x-ray wavelength and interatomic spacing
to the angle of the diffracted beam. If Bragg’s law is not satisfied, then the
interference will be nonconstructive in nature so as to yield a very low-intensity
diffracted beam.

The magnitude of the distance between two adjacent and parallel planes of atoms
(i.e., the interplanar spacing dhkl) is a function of the Miller indices (h, k, and l) as
well as the lattice parameter(s). For example, for crystal structures that have cubic
symmetry, in which a is the lattice parameter (unit cell edge length). Relationships
similar to Next Equation, but more complex, exist for the other six crystal systems
noted in Next Table.

Lattice Parameter Relationships and Figures Showing Unit Cell

Geometries for the Seven Crystal Systems Table.

56
Crystal System Axial Interaxial Angles Unit Cell Geometry
Relationships
Cubic a=b=c α = β = γ = 90o

Hexagonal a=b≠c α = β =90o,

γ = 120o

Tetragonal a=b≠c α = β = γ = 90o

Rhombohedral a=b=c α = β = γ ≠ 90o

(Trigonal)

Orthorhombic a≠b≠c α = β = γ = 90o

Monoclinic a≠b≠c α = γ = 90o ≠ β

Triclinic a≠b≠c α ≠ β ≠ γ ≠ 90o

57
Bragg’s law, Equation, is a necessary but not sufficient condition for diffraction by
real crystals. It specifies when diffraction will occur for unit cells having atoms
positioned only at cell corners. However, atoms situated at other sites (e.g., face
and interior unit cell positions as with FCC and BCC) act as extra scattering
centers, which can produce out-of-phase scattering at certain Bragg angles. The net
result is the absence of some diffracted beams that, according to the Equation,
should be present. For example, for the BCC crystal structure, h + k + l must be
even if diffraction is to occur, whereas for FCC, h, k, and l must all be either odd or
even.

Diffraction Techniques
One common diffraction technique employs a powdered or polycrystalline
specimen consisting of many fine and randomly oriented particles that are
exposed to monochromatic x-radiation. Each powder particle (or grain) is a crystal,
and having a large number of them with random orientations ensures that some
particles are properly oriented such that every possible set of crystallographic
planes will be available for diffraction.

The diffractometer is an apparatus used to determine the angles at which

diffraction occurs for powdered specimens; its features are represented
schematically in Next Figure.

A specimen S in the form of a flat

plate is supported so that rotations
about the axis labeled O are
possible; this axis is
perpendicular to the plane of the
page. The monochromatic x-ray
beam is generated at point T, and
the intensities of diffracted beams
are detected with a counter
labeled C in the figure. The
specimen, x-ray source, and
counter are all coplanar.

The counter is mounted on a

movable carriage that may also be
rotated about the O axis; its
angular position in terms of 2Ө is marked on a graduated scale.

58
 Carriage and specimen are mechanically coupled such that a rotation of the
specimen through Ө is accompanied by a 2Ө rotation of the counter; this ensures
that the incident and reflection angles are maintained equal to one another
(Last Figure).

The Debye-Scherrer method is used to determine crystal interplanar spacing.

A powdered metal sample is placed in the center of a circular diffraction camera

and monochromatic X-radiation direction at it. A strip of X-ray sensitive film is
mounted around the circumference of the camera. The incident beam is diffracted
by crystal planes, according to Bragg's law giving a series of emerging cones of
radiation. A series of lines are recorded on the film. The cone angle is equal to 4Ө.

After exposure and development measurements are taken on the strip of film and
the Bragg angles calculated. If the distance between a pair of lines is x then x/R=4Ө

( in radians ) where R is the radius of the camera, a shown in next figure.

59
Collimators are incorporated within the beam path to produce a well-defined and
focused beam. Utilization of a filter provides a near-monochromatic beam.

As the counter moves at constant angular velocity, a recorder automatically plots

the diffracted beam intensity (monitored by the counter) as a function of ; 2Ө; 2Ө
is termed the diffraction angle, which is measured experimentally.

Next Figure shows a diffraction pattern for a polycrystalline specimen of α -iron.

The high-intensity peaks result when the Bragg diffraction condition is satisfied by
some set of crystallographic planes. These peaks are plane-indexed in the figure.

Diffraction pattern for polycrystalline α-iron.

X-rays, as well as electron and neutron beams, are also used in other types
of material investigations. For example, crystallographic orientations of single
crystals are possible using x-ray diffraction (or Laue) photographs.

60
Example

Interplanar Spacing and Diffraction Angle Computations For BCC iron,

compute (a) the interplanar spacing and (b) the diffraction angle for the (220) set of
planes. The lattice parameter for Fe is 0.2866 nm. Also, assume that
monochromatic radiation having a wavelength of 0.1790 nm is used, and the order
of reflection is 1.

Solution (a) The value of the interplanar spacing dhkl is determined using the next
Equation with a 0.2866 nm, and h= 2, k = 2, and l = 0, because we are considering
the (220) planes. Therefore,

(b) The value of Ө may now be computed using Next Equation:-

, with n = 1, because this is a first-order reflection:

61
6.1- Introduction to Materials Testing

Testing of materials are necessary for many reasons, and the subject of
materials testing is very broad one. Some of the purpose for the testing
of materials are:
1. To determine the quality of a material. This may be one aspect of
process control
in production plant.
2. To determine such properties as strength, hardness, and ductility.
3. To check for flaws within a material or in a finished component.
4. To assess the likely performance of the material in a particular service
condition.

It is obvious that there is not one type of test that will provide all the
necessary information about a material and its performance capabilities,
and there are very many different types of test that have been devices for
use in the assessment of materials.

There are many tests that can be done on materials to determine their
properties or qualities. The tests can be either non-destructive or
destructive.
Non- Destructive Testing Methods to test soundness or properties of a
material , component , assembly without affecting the material’s
properties Examples for non-destructive test Visual Inspection,
Thermo graphic imaging , UT, Xray etc , MPI, LPI, strain gauging
Strain gauging Used to measure the stress levels in a material ,
especially where stress concentration is suspected

62
6.2- Strain gages

63
64
Where can strain Gage be used?

65
66
6.3- Destructive tests
Destructive tests Are often conducted to determine a specific property of
the material/component being tested. They usually require a specifically
shaped test piece to be made and this is damaged/destroyed during
testing. Examples of destructive tests Tensile tests, Impact tests, and
Fatigue tests. Hardness tests are also done on test pieces (destructive).
Additionally, Hardness tests are often done on actual components (non-
destructive).
One of the most widely tests is the tensile test to destruction. In this
type of test a test-piece of standard dimensions is prepared, and this is
then stressed in un axial tension. Other tests that are often used for the
determination of strength data are compression, torsion, hardness, creep
and fatigue tests. With the exception of harness tests, these are all test of
a destructive nature and they normally require the preparation of test-
pieces to certain standard dimensions. For the detection of flaws or
defects within part-processed stock material, or within finished
components, there are several non-destructive test techniques available.
In addition, there are many special tests that have been devised for the
purpose of assessing some particular quality of material, or for obtaining
information on the possible behavior of component or assembly in
service.

In spite of the properties of materials where introduced, then the

composition, processing and heat treatment of a range of metallic and
non-metallic materials widely used by the engineer have been described,
we should more be able to understand the problems and techniques
associated with the testing of materials properties because they can be,
nonetheless, useful to the designer, fabricator, and research worker, as

67
follow: Stress-Strain Relationships, Hardness, Effect of Temperature on
Properties, Fluid Properties, Viscoelastic Behavior of Polymers

Engineering Stress
Next Figure - Tensile test:
Tensile force applied in (1) and resulting elongation of
material in (2)
Defined as force divided by original area:
e  F / Ao
where e = engineering stress, F = applied force, and
Ao = original area of test specimen

Engineering Strain
Defined at any point in the test as ε = (L- Lo)/Lo
where ε = engineering strain; L = length at any point during elongation;

and Lo = original gage length

Stress-Strain Relationships
• Three types of static stresses to which materials can be subjected:
1. Tensile - tend to stretch the material
2. Compressive - tend to squeeze it
3. Shear - tend to cause adjacent portions of material to slide against
each other

68
6.4- Tension Test

Tensile test is One of the most widely used in mechanical tests. In this
type of test a test-piece of standard dimensions is prepared, and this is
then stressed in un axial tension.

ASTM (American Society for Testing and Materials)

specifies preparation of test specimen, Next Figure,

Typical test specimen

Setup of the tensile test

69
 Typical progress of a tensile test:

(1) Beginning of test, no load;

(2) Uniform elongation and reduction of cross-sectional area;
(3) Continued elongation, maximum load reached;
(4) Necking begins, load begins to decrease; and
(5) Fracture.
If pieces are put back together as in (6), final length can be measured
Engineering Stress
Defined as force divided by original area:
e  F / Ao
where e = engineering stress, F = applied force, and
Ao = original area of test specimen
Engineering Strain
Defined at any point in the test as :
ε = (L- Lo)/Lo
where ε = engineering strain; L = length at any point during elongation;
and Lo = original gage length

70
Next Figure shows a Typical
engineering stress-strain plot in
a tensile test of a metal
For this material we see two
Regions of Stress-Strain Curve

• The two regions indicate two

distinct forms of behavior:
1. Elastic region – prior to
yielding of the material
2. Plastic region – after
yielding of the material
Elastic Region in Stress-Strain Curve
• Relationship between stress and strain is linear
• Material returns to its original length when stress is removed
Hooke's Law: e = E ε ( where E = modulus of elasticity )
• E is a measure of the inherent stiffness of a material, Its value differs
for different materials.
Yield Point in Stress-Strain Curve
• As stress increases, a point in the linear relationship is finally reached
when the material begins to yield.
 Yield point Y can be identified by the change in slope at the upper end
of the linear region, Y = a strength property. Other names for yield
point = yield strength, yield stress, and elastic limit.

Plastic Region in Stress-Strain Curve

• Yield point marks the beginning of plastic deformation
• The stress-strain relationship is no longer guided by Hooke's Law
• As load is increased beyond Y, elongation proceeds at a much faster
rate than before, causing the slope of the curve to change dramatically

71
Tensile Strength in Stress-Strain Curve
• Elongation is accompanied by a uniform reduction in cross-sectional area,
consistent with maintaining constant volume

• Finally, the applied load F reaches a maximum value, and engineering

stress at this point is called the tensile strength TS or ultimate tensile
strength
TS = Fmax /Ao

6.5-Ductility in Tensile Test

Ability of a material to plastically strain without fracture
EL = (Lf – Lo)/ Lo
where EL = elongation; Lf = specimen length at fracture;
and Lo = original specimen length Lf is measured as the distance
between gage marks after two pieces of specimen are put back together

Load – extension Curve for a bar of ductile metal

( e.g. annealed copper ) pulled in tension.

72
6.6- True Stress
Stress value obtained by dividing the applied load into instantaneous
area  = F/A { where  = true stress; F = force; and A = actual
(instantaneous) area resisting the load }

True Strain
• Shape of plastic region is different from tensile test because cross-
section increases
• Calculated value of engineering stress is higher
Provides a more realistic assessment of "instantaneous" elongation per
unit length
𝐿
𝑑𝐿 𝐿
𝜀=∫ = ln
𝐿𝑜 𝐿 𝐿𝑜
If previous engineering stress-strain curve were plotted using true stress
and strain values as Shown in next Figure.

True stress-strain curve for the previous engineering stress-strain plot in

previous Figure.

73
6.7- Strain Hardening in Stress-Strain Curve

• Note that true stress increases continuously in the plastic region until
necking
 In the engineering stress-strain curve, the significance of this was lost
because stress was based on an incorrect area value
• What it means is that the metal is becoming stronger as strain increases
 This is the property called strain hardening
One technically important type of processing of metals is cold rolling, it
is also know as work hardening or strain hardening, cold working… ,

Examples of cold-working operations: (a) cold-rolling of a bar or sheet

and (b) cold-drawing a wire. Note in these schematic illustrations that the
reduction in area caused by the cold-working operation is associated with
a preferred orientation of the grain structure.

74
As shown in next Figure the new yield strength s yi is higher than the
initial yield strength s y0
strain energy is stored in the system in form of dislocation strain fields
and elastic distortions within grains
this stored energy allows for a larger elastic region in the strain stress
diagram, i.e. the cold rolled material got mechanically stronger due to the
plastic deformation that was inflicted by processing, the cold rolling
that cold rolling changed the microstructure, ….

75
76
There is no such thing as a free lunch, increasing the yield strength and
hardness of a material by cold rolling has to be “paid for” by a
decreasing ductility and brittleness,

annealing of a cold rolled metal at about 1/3 to ½ of its melting

temperature releases much of that stored energy by changing the
microstructure, i.e. brings the metal closer to thermodynamic equilibrium
which is a minimal free energy state, with that change of microstructure
we have again a change in mechanical properties, now it’s an increased
ductility and reduced brittleness

77
6.8- Compression Test
• Applies a load that squeezes the ends of a cylindrical specimen
between two platens

Compression test
(a) Compression force applied to test piece in
(1) and (2) resulting change in heigh
(b) Setup for the test with size of test specimen exaggerated

Engineering Stress in Compression

As the specimen is compressed, its height is reduced
and cross-sectional area is increased

e  F / Ao
where e = engineering stress, F = applied compression force, and Ao =
original area of test specimen

78
Engineering Strain in Compression
Engineering strain is defined as :

ε = (h- ho)/ho
where ε = engineering strain; h = length at any point
during elongation; and ho = original gage length
Since height is reduced during compression, value of e is negative (the
negative sign is usually ignored when expressing compression strain)

• Shape of plastic region is different from tensile test because cross-

section increases
• Calculated value of engineering stress is higher

- Typical engineering stress-strain curve for a compression test

79
7- Bending Test.
7.1-The Three Point Bend Test

1 Beam theory

The three point bend test (Next Figure) is a classical experiment in mechanics, used
to measure the Young’s modulus of a material in the shape of a beam. The beam, of
length L, rests on
two roller
supports and is
subject to a
concentrated load
P at its centre.

Schematic of the three point bend test (top), with graphs of

bending moment M, shear Q and deflection w.

It can be shown that the deflection w 0 at the centre of the beam is:-

𝑃𝐿3
𝑤𝑜 = 48 𝐸𝐿
where E is the Young’s modulus. I is the second moment of area defined by
𝑎3𝑏
𝐼=
12
where a is the beam’s depth and b is the beam’s width. By measuring the central
deflection w 0 and the applied force P, and knowing the geometry of the beam and
the experimental apparatus, it is possible to calculate the Young’s modulus of the
material.
80
7.2- Force-displacement graph
If the applied force P is plotted against central displacement w0, a straight line is
obtained provided we remain within the elastic limit of the material (i.e. the beam
returns to its original shape after deflection). The gradient of this line is
𝑑𝑃 48 𝐸𝐼
=
𝑑𝑤𝑜 𝐿3

There are some benefits to using this equation instead of Last equation for
estimating E. We can take several measurements of P and w0, and deal sensibly
with experimental error by finding a line of best fit from which we obtain the
gradient dP/dw0. There is also less need for calibration, since we only need to know
changes in the measured values, not the actual values.

Lego implementation
In the Lego implementation, a spring is used to measure the force applied to the
beam. By Hooke’s law, we know that:-
P = kLs
Where k is the spring constant and Ls is the extension of the spring.

Lego implementation

Consider now Last Figure. With the Lego kit, it is relatively straightforward to
measure the position of the bottom of the spring for different beam deflections. The
change in force between the scenario on the left and the one on the right is

dP = k dLs = k (Ls2 − Ls1) = k (D − dw0)

Where D is the distanced travelled by the bottom of the spring. dP can then be
plotted against dw0, with the gradient dP/dw0 obtained from the line of best fit.

81
7.3- Design of the testing support structure (A rotating bending
fatigue)

The initial idea was to design a set-up for tensile test as the verification test for the
dynamic fatigue tester, a major reason for this is that the machine was intended to
be used to test the behavior of welded TRIP Steel for Innosteel Oy, Hämeenlinna
when the welded parts is subjected to tensile force of 2-3 KN dynamic loading. To
come up with this design, several commercial universal fatigue testers were
analyzed and also international standards on basic design of mechanical testing. It
was later discovered that tensile fatigue testing will not be possible with the
machine because the hydraulic cylinder of the dynamic tester cannot provide the
needed linear movement amplitude for tensile fatigue testing, hence a new design
(require smaller linear amplitude) is needed.

A bending setup was then considered, aside the fact that the first documented
laboratory fatigue test done by August Wöhler was actually a rotating bending
fatigue up, bending set-up offers much more advantages than other possible forms
of set up, some of this advantages are stated below:
1. Easy way to characterize some of the mechanical properties of a material
2. No special gripping is required
3. Mounting and dismounting of test-pies is very straight forward
4. The specimen is usually of very simple shape (rectangular cross section)
There are two options for the fatigue bending set-up
1. Three points fatigue bending set-up.
2. Four points fatigue bending set-up.

82
 Transverse force and moment for the two bending setups.

In three points bending set-up, each section of the beam has a transverse force,
resulting in an interlaminar shear tension, which can cause delamination. But in
four points bending, there is a section of the beam which is constant and the
transverse force (thus the interlaminar shear stress) is zero. This section experiences
only normal stress.

In fatigue testing, the specimen shows permanent deflection after a few thousand
cycles. As a result, the indenter loses contact when its displacement is smaller than
the permanent deflection. In the next cycle, the indenter has an impact on the
surface of the specimen, causing impact damage, and as a result corrupts the fatigue
data.

This problem can be solved if the permanent deflection is kept symmetrically,

which means at zero deflection. This can be easily obtained by fully reversed
bending, where the displacement varies between –Umin and +Umax.

In addition, since the specimen rotates at its ends, the outer supports need to allow
this rotation; otherwise, this would induce unwanted reaction forces in the
specimen, corrupting the fatigue data.

83
To carry out a four points fully reversed fatigue-bending test, a 4 points set-up is
required. The figure below is the initial proposed design for bending set up support
structure taking care of all the points stated above so as to achieve reasonable
fatigue data.

7.4-Testing of Brittle Materials

• Hard brittle materials (e.g., ceramics) possess elasticity but little or no

plasticity
• Often tested by a bending test (also called flexure test)  Specimen of
rectangular cross-section is positioned between two supports, and a
load is applied at its center

Bending of a rectangular cross-section results in both tensile and compressive

stresses in the material:

(1) initial loading;

(2) highly stressed and strained specimen; and (3) bent part

84
8- Fatigue Testing
Fatigue is the progressive, localized, permanent structural change that occurs in
materials subjected to fluctuating stresses and strains that may result in cracks or
fracture after a sufficient number of fluctuations. Fatigue fractures are caused by
the simultaneous action of cyclic stress, tensile stress and plastic strain. If any one
of these three is not present, fatigue cracking will not initiate and propagate.

The cyclic stress starts the crack; the tensile stress produces crack growth
(propagation). Although compressive stress will not cause fatigue, compression
load may do so.
The process of fatigue consists of three stages:
• Initial fatigue damage leading to crack nucleation and crack initiation
• Progressive cyclic growth of a crack (crack propagation) until the remaining
uncracked cross section of a part becomes too weak to sustain the loads imposed
• Final, sudden fracture of the remaining cross section
Fatigue cracking normally results from cyclic stresses that are well below the static
yield strength of the material. (In low-cycle fatigue, however, or if the material
has an appreciable work-hardening rate, the stresses also may be above the
static yield strength.)

Fatigue cracks initiate and propagate in regions where the strain is most
severe. Because most engineering materials contain defects and thus regions of
stress concentration that intensify strain, most fatigue cracks initiate and grow
from structural defects. Under the action of cyclic loading, a plastic zone (or region
of deformation) develops at the defect tip. This zone of high deformation becomes
an initiation site for a fatigue crack. The crack propagates under the applied stress
through the material until complete fracture results. On the microscopic scale,
the most important feature of the fatigue process is nucleation of one or more
cracks under the influence of reversed stresses that exceed the flow stress,
followed by development of cracks at persistent slip bands or at grain boundaries.

8.1- Prediction of Fatigue life

The fatigue life of any specimen or structure is the number of stress (strain) cycles
required to cause failure. This number is a function of many variables, including
stress level, stress state, cyclic wave form, fatigue environment, and the
metallurgical condition of the material. Small changes in the specimen or test
conditions can significantly affect fatigue behavior, making analytical prediction of
fatigue life difficult. There- fore, the designer may rely on experience with
similar components in service rather than on laboratory evaluation of
85
mechanical test specimens. Laboratory tests, however, are essential in
understanding fatigue behavior, and current studies with fracture mechanics
test specimens are beginning to provide satisfactory design criteria.

Laboratory fatigue tests can be classified as crack initiation or crack propagation.

In crack initiation testing, specimens or parts are subjected to the number of
stress cycles required for a fatigue crack to initiate and to subsequently grow
large enough to produce failure.

In crack propagation testing, fracture mechanics methods are used to determine

the crack growth rates of preexisting cracks under cyclic loading. Fatigue crack
propagation may be caused by cyclic stresses in a benign environment, or by
the combined effects of cyclic stresses and an aggressive environment (corrosion
fatigue).

8.2- Fatigue Crack Initiation

Most laboratory fatigue testing is done either with axial loading, or in bending,
thus producing only tensile and compressive stresses. The stress usually is cycled
either between a maximum and a minimum tensile stress, or between a maximum
tensile stress and a maximum compressive stress. The latter is considered a
negative tensile stress, is given an algebraic minus sign, and therefore is known as
the minimum stress.

The stress ratio is the

algebraic ratio of two
specified stress values in a stress cycle. Two commonly used stress ratios are
the ratio, A, of the alternating stress amplitude to the mean stress (A= S a/ Sm)
and the ratio, R, of the minimum stress to the maximum stress (R = Smin/ Smax).

If the stresses are fully reversed, the stress ratio R becomes -1; if the stresses
are partially reversed, R becomes a negative number less than 1.

If the stress is cycled between a maximum stress and no load, the stress ratio R
becomes zero. If the stress is cycled between two tensile stresses, the stress ratio R
becomes a positive number less than 1. A stress ratio R of 1 indicates no variation
in stress, making the test a sustained-load creep test rather than a fatigue test.
86
Applied stresses are described by three parameters.

The mean stress, S m, is the algebraic average of the maximum and minimum
stresses in one cycle, Sm= (Smax+ Smin)/2. In the completely reversed cycle test,
the mean stress is zero. The range of stress, Sr, is the algebraic difference between
the maximum and minimum stresses in one cycle, Sr = Smax- Smin. The stress
amplitude, Sa is one half the range of stress, Sa = Sr / 2 = (Smax- Smin)/2.

During a fatigue test, the stress cycle usually is maintained constant so that the
applied stress conditions can be written Sm ± Sa, where Sm is the static or mean
stress, and Sa is the alternating stress, which is equal to half the stress range.
Nomenclature to describe test parameters involved in cyclic stress testing are
shown in Last Figure.

S-N Curves. The results of fatigue crack initiation tests usually are plotted as
maximum stress, minimum stress, or stress amplitude to number of cycles, N, to
failure using a logarithmic scale for the number of cycles. Stress is plotted on
either a linear or a logarithmic scale. The resulting plot of the data is an S-N curve.
Three typical S-N curves are shown
in next Figure.

The number of cycles of stress that a

metal can endure before failure
increases with decreasing stress. For
some engineering materials such as
steel (see Last Figure) and titanium,
the S-N curve becomes horizontal at
a certain limiting stress. Below this
limiting stress, known as the fatigue
limit or endurance limit, the material
can endure an infinite number of
cycles without failure.

Fatigue Limit and Fatigue Strength. The horizontal portion of an S-N curve
represents the maximum stress that the metal can withstand for an infinitely large
number of cycles with 50% probability of failure and is known as the fatigue
(endurance) limit, Sf. Most nonferrous metals do not exhibit a fatigue limit. Instead,

87
their S-N curves continue to drop at a slow rate at high numbers of cycles, as
shown by the curve for aluminum alloy 7075-T6 in Last Figure.

For these types of metals, fatigue strength rather than fatigue limit is reported,
which is the stress to which the metal can be subjected for a specified number of
cycles. Because there is no standard number of cycles, each table of fatigue
strengths must specify the number of cycles for which the strengths are reported.
8
The fatigue strength of nonferrous metals at 100 million (10 ) or 500 million
8
(5 X 10 ) cycles is erroneously called the fatigue limit.

8.3- Classification of Fatigue Testing Machines

Fatigue test specimens are primarily described by the mode of loading:
• Direct (axial) stress
• Plane bending
• Rotating beam
• Alternating torsion
• Combined stress
Testing machines, however, may be universal type machines that are capable of
conducting all of the above modes of loading, depending on the fixtureing used.

Bending Fatigue Machines The most common types of fatigue machines

are small bending fatigue machines. In general, these simple, inexpensive systems
allow laboratories to conduct extensive test programs with a low equipment
investment.

Cantilever beam machines, in which the test specimen has a tapered width,
thickness, or diameter, result in a portion of the test area having uniform stress with
smaller load requirements than required for uniform bending or axial fatigue of the
same section size.

Rotating Beam Machines.

Typical rotating beam machine types are shown in Next Figure. The R. R. Moore-
type machines (Next Fig. a) can operate up to 10 000 rpm. In all bending-type
tests, only the material near the surface is subjected to the maximum stress;
therefore, in a small-diameter specimen, only a very small volume of material is
under test.

88
(a) Four-
point loading R.R. Moore testing machine.
(b) Single-end rotating cantilever testing machine.
Schematic of rotating beam fatigue testing machines

Torsional Fatigue Testing Machines

Torsional fatigue tests can be performed on axial-type machines using the proper
fixtures if the maximum twist required is small. Specially designed torsional fatigue
testing machines consist of electromechanical machines, in which linear motion is
changed to rotational motion by the use of cranks, and servo-hydraulic machines,
in which rotary actuators are incorporated in a closed-loop testing system ( Next
Figure).

Schematic of a servohydraulic torsional fatigue testing machine

89
Rotating bending testing machine
The type of S-N curve created by this machine is identified as a rotating-bending,
stress- controlled fatigue data curve. The rotating bending test machine is used to
create an S-N curve by turning the motor at a constant revolution per minutes, or
frequency. To create a failure on the specimen, a constant-stationary force is
applied on the specimen, which creates a constant bending moment. A stationary
moment applied to a rotating specimen causes the stress at any point on the outer
surface of the specimen to go from zero to a maximum tension stress, back to zero
and finally to a compressive stress. Thus, the stress state is one that is completely
reversed in nature.

Rotating Bending Testing Machine [Callister, 1994].

Reciprocating bending test machine
The type of S-N curve produced is identified as a tension-compression, strain
controlled fatigue data curve. This machine type is capable of zero mean cyclic
stresses by posi- tioning the specimen clamping vice with respect to the mean
displacement position of the crank drive.

Reciprocating Bending Testing Machine [Collins, 1981].

90
Axial loading (push-pull) type fatigue tester
In this type the specimen is not exposed to bending but to pure axial (tensile or
com- pressive) loading. Specimen is held at two ends and loaded cyclically
between two ex- treme (maximum and minimum) values.

Direct-Force Fatigue Testing Machine [Collins, 1981].

The axial loading (push-pull) tester employing conversion attachments are also
capable of bending and torsion fatigue testing when necessary, most commercial
universal fa- tigue testing machines have this feature

Universal-tester

91
The following classification of fatigue testing machine is based on the principle
behind the source of the test-force. Load produced by:
1. Mechanical deflection
2. Dead weight or constant spring force
3. Centrifugal force
4. Electromagnetic force
5. Hydraulic force
6. Pneumatic force
The choice of load source depends on numerous factors such as the needed
frequency, amount of forces required, available control system, cost, and how close
the test is to be simplified to the actual working loading in service.

Components of a fatigue testing machine

All type of fatigue testing machine is composed of the following structural
components:
1. Load-producing mechanism This generates the alternating load (displacement)
to which in some cases a steady load is added.
2. Load-transmitting member This includes grips, guide fixtures, flexure joints
etc. by which the load produced is transmitted in such a way as to produce the
desired stress distribution within the speci- men.
3. Measuring devices This permit the setting of the nominal upper and lower load
limits.
4. Control devices This component controls the load throughout the test and
sometimes automatically cor- rects changes in force or displacement arising
during the test using feedback techniques.
5. Counter and shut-off apparatus This counts the number of stress reversals
imposed on the specimen and stop the testing machine after a given number of
cycles, at complete fracture of the specimen or at some pre-assigned change in
deformation or frequency.
6. Framework It supports the various parts of the machine and if necessary is
arranged to reduce the vibratory energy transmitted to the foundation.
In conclusion, the purpose of a fatigue testing machine is to apply to the specimen
an alternating load producing a well-defined stress distribution. The distribution
should be reproducible within narrow limits, a requirement which includes that the
load should be reproduced with sufficient accuracy and it should be transmitted to
the test-piece with- out undue scatters. Hence a careful and correct calibration and
checking of the testing machine is an indispensable condition for obtaining reliable
results from any fatigue testing machine.
92
8.4- Factors Influencing Fatigue
i) Loading Nature and type of loading: -Axial tension, bending, torsion and
combined loading-Mean and Variable components in case of Repeated,
Fluctuating and Alternating loading and Frequency of loading and rest periods .
ii) Geometry Size effects and stress concentration
iii) Material Composition, structure, directional properties and notch sensitivity
iv) Manufacturing Surface finish, heat treatment, residual stresses
V) Environment Corrosion, high temperature, radiation

Material As noted earlier there are two class of materials as for as the fatigue
behavior is concerned, those material which exhibit well defined endurance limit
and those without do not show endurance limit. Most ferrous materials and basic
steels fall under the first category and some heat treated alloys of steel, aluminum
etc. fall under the second category. Composition and strength of the material are
interrelated and detail discussion on strength follows later. Strength is also related
to micro structure and in this respect it is interesting to note that soft structure like
ferrite resist fatigue better than hard structure like cementite. However because of
the higher strength that can be achieved from the same material by altering the
micro structure, such structures are preferred in spite of their poor resistance

Why is the surface so important?

Fatigue failures almost always begin at the surface of a material. The reasons are
that (a) the most highly-stresses fibers are located at the surface (bending fatigue)
and (b) the intergranular flaws which precipitate tension failure are more frequently
found at the surface. Suppose that a particular specimen is being fatigue tested (as
described above). Now suppose the fatigue test is halted after 20 to 25% of the
expected life of the specimen and a small thickness of material is machined off the
outer surface of the specimen, and the surface condition is restored to its original
state. Now the fatigue test is resumed at the same stress level as before. The life of
the part will be considerably longer than expected. If that process is repeated
several times, the life of the part may be extended by several hundred percent,
limited only by the available cross section of the specimen. That proves fatigue
failures originate at the surface of a component.

93
9- Impact testing
When two objects collide, damage is often done to one or other of them. How well
something resists damage is called its impact resistance. An impact test measures
how much energy is absorbed when an object fractures or breaks under a high
speed collision. It’s an important property. The safety of many consumer products
depends on their resistance to breaking. But impact resistance is difficult to
quantify.

Toughness not hardness

Impact testing is about resisting impact. This is often
called a material’s toughness. It’s the amount of energy
a material can absorb before fracturing or breaking and
has the unit joules per meter cubed (J m-3). If you plot
load against deflection, this energy is given by the area
beneath the curve.

9.1- Impact testers

There are two types of impact testers used in industry: pendulum and drop weight.

Pendulum impact testers

These were the first types of impact testers used.

It is used mainly for low energy testing of plastic
specimens. Its
specifications state:
ƒ Impact energy variable up to 21.7 J
Impact velocity of 3.3 m s-1
Another Series is used mainly for low energy
testing of plastic, ceramic, and composite
specimens. Its specifications state:
Impact energy variable up to 50 J
Impact velocity of 3.5 m s-1

94
A schematic drawing of an impact
testing apparatus. The hammer is released
from fixed height h and strikes the
specimen; the energy expended in fracture
is reflected in the difference between h and
the swing height h'.

However, the test specimen absorbs energy

when it breaks and so the pendulum does
not rise as high as if the specimen were not
present. The difference in the potential
energy of the pendulum hammer in its raised position and its potential energy at the
maximum height after impact = the energy absorbed by the specimen (ignoring
losses due to friction).

Specimen used for Charpy and Izod

impact tests. Specimen placements
for both Charpy and Izod tests are also
shown next Figure.

95
Temperature dependence of
the Charpy V-notch impact
energy (curve A) and percent
shear fracture (curve B) for
an A283 steel.

Schematic curves for the three

general types of impact energy–
versus–temperature behavior.

Influence of carbon content on the

Charpy V-notch energy–versus–
temperature behavior for steel.
(Reprinted with permission from
ASM International,

96
9.2- Solved Examples

97
98
99
 10.1- Creep Test for polymers

1.0 Introduction

Polymer materials exhibit time dependent behavior. The stress

and strain induced when a load is applied are a function of time. In the
most general form can be thought of as a 3 dimensional surface. The
stress-strain-time relationship, or constitutive law, can be determined by
loading a polymer specimen with constant stress (creep) or constant
strain (stress relaxation or isometric). We can also construct isochronous
curve by cross section of the surface with constant time levels as shown in
Next Figure.

constant time section

isochronous section
constant strain section
isometric section

constant stress section

creep curve

Strain

Constant stress-strain-time coordinates

1.1 Creep, constant load

When a plastic material is subjected to a constant load, it
deforms continuously (Next Figure). The initial strain is roughly
predicted by its stress-strain modulus. The material will continue to
deform slowly with time indefinitely or until rupture or yielding
causes failure. The primary region is the early stage of loading
when the creep rate decreases rapidly with time. Then it reaches a
100
steady state which is called the secondary creep stage followed by a
rapid increase (tertiary stage) and fracture. This phenomenon of
deformation under load with time is called creep. Of course, this is
an idealized curve. Some materials do not have secondary stage,
while tertiary creep only occurs at high stresses and for ductile
materials. All plastics creep to a certain extent. The degree of creep
depends on several factors, such as type of plastic, magnitude of load,
temperature and time. The standard test method for creep
characterization is ASTM D2990. In this

test procedure, the dimensional changes that occur during time

under a constant static load are measured.

Creep curve for plastics, a constant load is applied

If the applied load is released before the creep rupture occurs, an

immediate elastic recovery equal to the elastic deformation,
followed by a period of slow recovery is observed (Next Figure ).
The material in most cases does not recover to the original shape and a
permanent deformation remains. The magnitude of the permanent
deformation depends on length of time, amount of stress applied, and
temperature.

101
Creep curve with recovery. A constant load is applied at t0 and removed at t1

The creep rupture is basically similar to a creep test with

the exception that it is continued until the material fails. Since
higher loads are used, creep rates are higher and the material fails
in a shorter time (usually terminated in 1000h). This test is useful in
establishing a safe envelope inside which a creep test can be
conducted. The basic information obtained from the stress rupture
test is the time to failure at a given stress. Based on this data, a
safe stress can be determined below which it is safe to operate,
given the time requirement of the end use application. The
construction of the creep rupture envelope is shown in Next
Figure. Test is conducted under constant stresses and the points of
the onset of tertiary stage are connected to form the creep rupture
envelope.

Creep rupture envelope

102
1.2 Stress relaxation, constant strain
Stress relaxation is defined as a gradual decrease in stress with time
under a constant deformation or strain. This behavior of polymer is
studied by applying a constant deformation to the specimen and
measuring the stress required to maintain that strain as a function of
time.

Stress relaxation of plastics

Stress relaxation test can be used for some practical

applications. For example, low stress relaxation is desired for
threaded bottle closures. The stress data obtained from stress
relaxation test can be used to calculate transient modulus for
plastics design by simply dividing the stress at a particular time
by the applied strain. The 3 dimensional stress-strain-time
relationship can also be constructed by stress strain relaxation
test as shown in last Figure. However, stress relaxation test is
more difficult to perform than creep test and has limited practical
applications. As a result, stress relaxation test D2991 is dropped
by ASTM in 1992.

103
10.2- Effect of Temperature on Material Properties
Effect of Temperature on Strength and Ductility

Hot Hardness Ability of a material to retain hardness at elevated

temperatures

Hot hardness – typical hardness as a function of

temperature for several materials

104
10.3- Recrystallization in Metals
• Most metals strain harden at room temperature according to the flow
curve (n > 0)
• But if heated to sufficiently high temperature and deformed, strain
hardening does not occur
 Instead, new grains are formed that are free of strain
 The metal behaves as a perfectly plastic material; that is, n = 0

Recrystallization Temperature
• Formation of new strain-free grains is called recrystallization
• Recrystallization temperature of a given metal = about one-half its
melting point (0.5 Tm) as measured on an absolute temperature scale
• Recrystallization takes time - the recrystallization temperature is
specified as the temperature at which new grains are formed in about
one hour

Recrystallization and Manufacturing

• Recrystallization can be exploited in manufacturing
• Heating a metal to its recrystallization temperature
prior to deformation allows a greater amount of
straining, and lower forces and power are required to
perform the process
• Forming metals at temperatures above
recrystallization temperature is called hot working

Fluid Properties and Manufacturing

• Fluids flow
• They take the shape of the container that holds them
• Many manufacturing processes are accomplished on
materials converted from solid to liquid by heating
• Examples:
 Metals are cast in molten state
 Glass is formed in a heated and highly fluid state
 Polymers are almost always shaped as thick fluids

105
10.4- Electric resistivity of Cu depend on microstructure created by alloying and

also on environmental influences such as temperature

106
Thermal conductivity of Cu depends on microstructure created by alloying (brass), microstructure itself

depends on processing

Usage of Materials is depending on environmental constraints, e.g. increasing

temperature normally reduces the strength of a material. Polymers are suitable only
107
at low temperatures. Some composites, special alloys, and ceramics, have excellent
properties at high temperatures

Functional classification of materials.

Note that metals, plastics, and ceramics occur in different categories. A limited
number of examples in each category is provided Structural Materials sometimes
also considered functional materials.

108
11- Failure
The design of a component or structure often calls upon the engineer to minimize
the possibility of failure. Thus, it is important to understand the mechanics
of the various failure modes—fracture, fatigue, and creep—and, in addition, be
familiar with appropriate design principles that may be employed to prevent
in-service failures

Introduction
The failure of engineering materials is almost always an undesirable event for
several reasons; these include human lives that are put in jeopardy, economic
losses, and interference with the availability of products and services. Even though
the causes of failure and the behavior of materials may be known, prevention of
failures is difficult to guarantee. The usual causes are improper materials selection
and processing and inadequate design of the component or its misuse. Also,
damage can occur to structural parts during service, and regular inspection and
repair or replacement are critical to safe design. It is the responsibility of the
engineer to anticipate and plan for possible failure and, in the event that failure
does occur, to assess its cause and then take appropriate preventive measures
against future incidents.

11.1- Fundamentals of Fracture

Simple fracture is the separation of a body into two or more pieces in response to
an imposed stress that is static (i.e., constant or slowly changing with time) and at
temperatures that are low relative to the melting temperature of the material.
Fracture can also occur from fatigue (when cyclic stresses are imposed) and creep
(time- dependent deformation, normally at elevated temperatures).

Ductile, Brittle Fracture

Tensile loads. For metals, two fracture modes are possible: ductile and brittle.
Classification is based on the ability of a material to experience plastic
deformation. Ductile metals typically exhibit substantial plastic deformation with
high energy absorption before fracture. On the other hand, there is normally little
or no plastic deformation with low energy absorption accompanying a brittle
fracture. The tensile stress–strain behaviors of both fracture types may be reviewed
in Next Figures.

109
Any fracture process involves two steps crack formation and propagation in
response to an imposed stress. The mode of fracture is highly dependent on the
mechanism of crack propagation. Ductile fracture is characterized by extensive
plastic deformation in the vicinity of an advancing crack. Furthermore, the process
proceeds relatively slowly as the crack length is extended. Such a crack is often
said to be stable. That is, it resists any further extension unless there is an increase
in the applied stress. In addition, there will ordinarily be evidence of appreciable
gross deformation at the fracture surfaces (e.g., twisting and tearing). On the other
hand, for brittle fracture, cracks may spread extremely rapidly, with very little
accompanying plastic deformation. Such cracks may be said to be unstable, and
crack propagation, once started, will continue spontaneously without an increase in
magnitude of the applied stress.

Ductile fracture is almost always preferred to brittle for two reasons. First, brittle
fracture occurs suddenly and catastrophically without any warning; this is a
consequence of the spontaneous and rapid crack propagation. On the other hand,
for ductile fracture, the presence of plastic deformation gives warning that failure is
imminent, allowing preventive measures to be taken. Second, more strain energy is
required to induce ductile fracture inasmuch as these materials are generally
tougher. Under the action of an applied tensile stress, many metal alloys are
ductile, whereas ceramics are typically brittle, and polymers may exhibit a
range of behaviors.

Ductile Fracture
Ductile fracture surfaces will have their own distinctive features on both
macroscopic and microscopic levels. Next Figure shows schematic representations
for two characteristic macroscopic fracture profiles. The configuration shown in
Next Figure (a) is found for extremely soft metals, such as pure gold and lead at
room temperature, and other metals, polymers, and inorganic glasses at elevated
temperatures.

(a) Highly ductile fracture in which the

specimen necks down to a point.
(b) Moderately ductile fracture after some
necking.
(c) Brittle fracture without any plastic
deformation

110
These highly ductile materials neck down to a point fracture, showing virtually
100% reduction in area.

The most common type of tensile fracture profile for ductile metals is that rep-
resented in Last Figure (b), where fracture is preceded by only a moderate amount
of necking. The fracture process normally occurs in several stages. First, after
necking begins, small cavities, or microvoids, form in the interior of the cross
section, as indicated in Next Figure (b). Next, as deformation continues, these
microvoids enlarge, come together, and coalesce to form an elliptical crack, which
has its long axis perpendicular to the stress direction. The crack continues to grow
in a direction parallel to its major axis by this microvoid coalescence process Next
Figure (c).Finally, fracture ensues by the rapid
propagation of a crack around the outer perimeter
of the neck Next Figure (d), by shear
deformation at an angle of about 45 with the
tensile axis this is the angle at which the shear
stress is a maximum. Sometimes a fracture
having this characteristic surface contour is
termed a cup-and-cone fracture because one of
the mating surfaces is in the form of a cup, the
other like a cone.

Stages in the cup-and-cone facture.

(a) Initial necking. (b) Small cavity formation. (c) Coalescence of cavities to form a
crack. (d) Crack propagation. (e) Final shear fracture at a 45 angle relative to the
tensile direction. (From K. M. Ralls, T. H. Courtney, and J. Wulff, Introduction to
Materials Science and Engineering, p. 468. Copyright © 1976 by John Wiley &
Sons, New York. Reprinted by permission of John Wiley & Sons, Inc.)

In this type of fractured specimen ( Next Figure a), the central interior region of the
surface has an irregular and fibrous appearance, which is indicative of plastic
deformation

(a) Cup- and-cone fracture in aluminum. (b) Brittle fracture in a mild steel.

111
Brittle Fracture
Brittle fracture takes place without any appreciable deformation and by rapid crack
propagation. The direction of crack motion is very nearly perpendicular to the
direction of the applied tensile stress and yields a relatively flat fracture surface, as
indicated in Last Figure. Fracture surfaces of materials that failed in a brittle
manner will have their own distinctive patterns; any signs of gross plastic
deformation will be absent. For example, in some steel pieces, a series of V-shaped
“chevron” markings may form near the center of the fracture cross section that
point back toward the crack initiation site (Next Figure a). Other brittle fracture
surfaces contain lines or ridges that radiate from the origin of the crack in a fanlike
pattern (Next Figure b). Often, both of these marking patterns will be sufficiently
coarse to be discerned with the naked eye. For very hard and fine-grained metals,
there will be no discernible fracture pattern. Brittle fracture in amorphous materials,
such as ceramic glasses, yields a relatively shiny and smooth surface.

(a) Photograph showing V-shaped

“chevron” markings characteristic of
brittle fracture. Arrows indicate origin of
crack. Approximately actual size.

(b) Photograph of a brittle fracture surface

showing radial fan-shaped ridges. Arrow
indicates origin of crack.

For most brittle crystalline materials, crack propagation corresponds to the

successive and repeated breaking of atomic bonds along specific crystallographic
planes ( Next Figure a); such a process is termed cleavage. This type of fracture is
said to be transgranular (or transcrystalline), because the fracture cracks pass
through transgranular fracture the grains. Macroscopically, the fracture surface may
have a grainy or faceted texture, as a result of changes in orientation of the cleavage
planes from grain to grain. This cleavage feature is shown at a higher magnification
in the scanning electron micrograph of Next Figure b. In some alloys, crack
propagation is along grain boundaries (Figure a); this fracture is termed
intergranular. Figure b is a scanning electron micrograph showing a typical
intergranular fracture, in which the three-dimensional intergranular fracture
112
nature of the grains may be seen. This type of fracture normally results subsequent
to the occurrence of processes that weaken or embrittle grain boundary regions.

(a) Schematic crosssection profile showing crack propagation through the interior
of grains for transgranular fracture.

(b) Scanning electron fractograph of ductile cast iron showing a transgranular

fracture surface. Magnification unknown.

11.2- Principles of Fracture Mechanics

Brittle fracture of normally ductile materials, has demonstrated the need for a better
understanding of the mechanisms of fracture. Extensive research endeavors over
the past century have led to the evolution of the field of fracture mechanics. This
subject allows quantification of the relationships between material properties, stress
level, the presence of crack-producing flaws, and crack propagation mechanisms.
Design engineers are now better equipped to anticipate, and thus prevent, structural
failures. The present discussion centers on some of the fundamental principles of
the mechanics of fracture.

Stress Concentration
The measured fracture strengths for most materials are significantly lower than
those predicted by theoretical calculations based on atomic bonding energies.
This discrepancy is explained by the presence of microscopic flaws or cracks that
always exist under normal conditions at the surface and within the interior of a
113
body of material. These flaws are a detriment to the fracture strength because
an applied stress may be amplified or concentrated at the tip, the magnitude of
this amplification depending on crack orientation and geometry. This phenomenon
is demonstrated in Next Figure, a stress profile across a cross section containing an
internal crack. As indicated by this profile, the magnitude of this localized stress
diminishes with distance away from the crack tip. At positions far removed, the
stress is just the nominal stress Ϭo, or the applied load divided by the specimen
cross-sectional area (perpendicular to this load). Because of their ability to amplify
an applied stress in their locale, these flaws are sometimes called stress raisers.

(a) The geometry of surface and internal cracks. (b) Schematic stress profile
along the line X–X in (a), demonstrating stress amplification at crack tip positions.

Factors That Affect Fatigue Life

The fatigue behavior of engineering materials is highly sensitive to a number of
variables. Some of these factors include mean stress level, geometrical design,
surface effects, and metallurgical variables, as well as the environment.

Mean Stress The dependence of fatigue life on stress amplitude is represented on

the S–N plot. Such data are taken for a constant mean stress m, often for the
reversed cycle situation (m 0). Mean stress, however, will also affect fatigue life;
this influence may be represented by a series of S–N curves, each measured at a
different m, as depicted schematically in Next Figure. As may be noted, increasing
the mean stress level leads to a decrease in fatigue life.

114
Demonstration of the influence
of mean stress m on S–N fatigue
behavior.

Surface Effects
For many common loading situations, the maximum stress within a component or
structure occurs at its surface. Consequently, most cracks leading to fatigue failure
originate at surface positions, specifically at stress amplification sites. Therefore, it
has been observed that fatigue life is especially sensitive to the condition and
configuration of the component surface. Numerous factors influence fatigue
resistance, the proper management of which will lead to an improvement in fatigue
life. These include design criteria as well as various surface treatments.

Design Factors
The design of a component can have a significant influence on its fatigue
characteristics. Any notch or geometrical discontinuity can act as a stress raiser and
fatigue crack initiation site; these design features include grooves, holes, keyways,
threads, and so on. The sharper the discontinuity (i.e., the smaller the radius of
curvature), the more severe the stress concentration. The probability of fatigue
failure may be reduced by avoiding (when possible) these structural irregularities,
or by making design modifications whereby sudden contour changes leading to
sharp corners are eliminated—for example,
calling for rounded fillets with large radii of
curvature at the point where there is a
change in diameter for a rotating shaft
(Next Figure).

Demonstration of how design can reduce stress amplification. (a) Poor design:
sharp corner. (b) Good design: fatigue lifetime improved by incorporating rounded
fillet into a rotating shaft at the point where there is a change in diameter.

115
Surface Treatments
During machining operations, small scratches and grooves are invariably
introduced into the work piece surface by cutting tool action. These surface
markings can limit the fatigue life. It has been observed that improving the surface
finish by polishing will enhance fatigue life significantly. One of the most effective
methods of increasing fatigue performance is by imposing residual compressive
stresses within a thin outer surface layer. Thus, a surface tensile stress of external
origin will be partially nullified and reduced in magnitude by the residual
compressive stress. The net effect is that the likelihood of crack formation and
therefore of fatigue failure is reduced. Residual compressive stresses are commonly
introduced into ductile metals mechanically by localized plastic deformation within
the outer surface region. Commercially, this is often accomplished by a process
termed shot peening. Small, hard particles
(shot) having diameters within the range of
0.1 to 1.0 mm are projected at high velocities
onto the surface to be treated. The resulting
deformation induces compressive stresses to
a depth of between one-quarter and one-half
of the shot diameter. The influence of shot
peening on the fatigue behavior of steel is
demonstrated schematically in Next Figure.

Schematic S–N fatigue curves for normal and shot-peened steel.

Case hardening is a technique by which both surface hardness and fatigue life
are enhanced for steel alloys. This is accomplished by a carburizing or nitriding
process whereby a component is exposed to a carbonaceous or nitrogenous
atmosphere at an elevated temperature. A carbon- or nitrogen-rich outer surface
layer (or “case”) is introduced by atomic diffusion from the gaseous phase. The
case is normally on the order of 1 mm deep and is harder than the inner core of
material. (The influence of carbon content on hardness for Fe–C alloys is
demonstrated in Figure 10.29a.) The improvement of fatigue properties results
from increased hardness within the case, as well as the desired residual
compressive stresses the formation of which attends the carburizing or nitriding
process. The increase in case hardness is demonstrated in the photomicrograph
appearing in Next Figure. The dark and elongated diamond shapes are Knoop
microhardness indentations. The upper indentation, lying within the carburized
layer, is smaller than the core indentation.
116
Photomicrograph showing both core bottom)
and carburized outer case (top) regions of
a case-hardened steel. The case is harder, as
attested by the smaller microhardness
indentation.

Environmental Effects
Environmental factors may also affect the fatigue behavior of materials. A few
brief comments will be given relative to two types of environment-assisted fatigue
fail- ure: thermal fatigue and corrosion fatigue.

Thermal fatigue is normally induced at elevated temperatures by fluctuating

thermal stresses; mechanical stresses from an external source need not be present.
The origin of these thermal stresses is the restraint to the dimensional expansion
and/or contraction that would normally occur in a structural member with
variations in temperature. The magnitude of a thermal stress developed by a
temperature change T is dependent on the coefficient of thermal expansion al and
the modulus of elasticity E according to

Thermal stresses will not arise if this mechanical restraint is absent. Therefore, one
obvious way to prevent this type of fatigue is to eliminate, or at least reduce, the
restraint source, thus allowing unhindered dimensional changes with temperature
variations, or to choose materials with appropriate physical properties.

Failure that occurs by the simultaneous action of a cyclic stress and chemical
attack is termed corrosion fatigue. Corrosive environments have a deleterious
influence and produce shorter fatigue lives. Even the normal ambient atmosphere
will affect the fatigue behavior of some materials. Small pits may form as a result
of chemical reactions between the environment and material, which serve as points
of stress concentration and therefore as crack nucleation sites. In addition, crack
propagation rate is enhanced as a result of the corrosive environment. The nature

of the stress cycles will influence the fatigue behavior; for example, lowering the
load application frequency leads to longer periods during which the opened crack

117
is in contact with the environment and to a reduction in the fatigue life.
Several approaches to corrosion fatigue prevention exist. On one hand, we can
take measures to reduce the rate of corrosion by some of the techniques apply
protective surface coatings, select a more corrosion resistant material, and reduce
the corrosiveness of the environment. And/or it might be advisable to take actions
to minimize the probability of normal fatigue failure, as outlined previously—for
example, reduce the applied tensile stress level and impose residual compressive
stresses on the surface of the member.

Materials are often placed in service at elevated temperatures and exposed to static
mechanical stresses (e.g., turbine rotors in jet engines and steam generators that
experience centrifugal stresses, and high-pressure steam lines). Deformation under
such circumstances is termed creep. Defined as the time-dependent and permanent
deformation of materials when subjected to a constant load or stress, creep is
normally an undesirable phenomenon and is often the limiting factor in the lifetime
of a part. It is observed in all materials types; for metals it becomes important only
for temperatures greater than about 0.4Tm (Tm absolute melting temperature).
Amorphous polymers, which include plastics and rubbers, are especially sensitive
to creep deformation.

11.3- Stress and Temperature Effects

Both temperature and the level of the applied stress influence the creep
characteristics (Figure 8.29).At a temperature substantially below 0.4Tm, and after
the initial deformation, the strain is virtually independent of time. With either
increasing stress or temperature, the following will be noted: (1) the instantaneous
strain at the time of stress application increases, (2) the steady-state creep rate is
increased, and (3) the rupture
lifetime is diminished.

Influence of stress and temperature T on creep behavior.

118
12- Electrical properties of materials

It is generally accepted that in metals and alloys the electrons,

particularly the outer or valence electrons, play an important role in
electrical conduction. Therefore, it seems most appropriate to make use
of the electron theory which has been developed in the foregoing
chapters. Before doing so, the reader is reminded of some fundamental
equations of physics pertaining to electrical conduction. These laws have
been extracted from experimental observations.

Ohm's law V=RI

relates the potential difference V (in volts) with the electrical resistance
R (in ohms) and the electrical current I (in amps).
The next Figure shows Room-temperature conductivity of various
materials.

Room-temperature conductivity of various materials.

(Superconductors, having conductivities of many orders of magnitude larger than
copper, near 0 K, are not shown. The conductivity of semiconductors varies
substantially with temperature and purity.)
The current density is frequently expressed by j = Nve,

Where:- N is the number of electrons, V their velocity , and e their charge.

The resistance of a conductor can be calculated from its physical dimensions by

119
where L is the length ofthe conductor, A is its cross-sectional area, and ρ is the
specific resistance, or resistivity (Ώm). We define

Our first approach towards an understanding of electrical conduction is to

postulate, as Drude did, a free "electron gas" or ':plasma," consisting of the valence
electrons of the individual atoms in a crystal. We assume that in a monovalent
metal, such as sodium, each atom contributes one electron to this plasma. The
number of atoms, Na, per cubic meter (and therefore the number of free electrons
in a monovalent metal) can be obtained.

The electrons move randomly (in all possible directions) so that their individual
velocities in the absence of an electric field cancel and no net velocity results. This
situation changes when an electric field is applied. The electrons are then
accelerated with the force e~ towards the anode and a net drift of the electrons
results.

12.1- Conductivity-Classical Electron Theory

the drift velocity of electrons, which is caused by an external electric

field, is superimposed on the much larger random motion of the
electrons. An electron, accelerated by such an electric field, may be
described to increase its drift velocity until it encounters a collision. At
this time, the electron has acquired the velocity Vmax which it may lose
all or in part at the collision (Next Figure. (a) ). Alternatively, and more
appropriately, one may describe an electron motion to be counteracted
by a "friction" force which opposes the electrostatic force.
The electrons are thought to be accelerated until a final drift velocity Vf
is reached (Next Figure. (b)). At that time the electric field force and the
friction force are equal in magnitude. In other words, the electrons are
thought to move in a "viscous" medium.

120
(a) Schematic representation of an electron collision with a lattice atom.

(b) Velocity distribution of electrons due to an electrostatic force and a

counteracting friction force. The electron eventually reaches the final velocity V f .

the conductivity in metals depends to a large extent on the population density of

the electrons near the Fermi surface. For example, mono valent metals (such as
copper, silver, or gold) have partially filled valence bands electron population
densities near their Fermi energy are high which results in a large conductivity on
the other hand are distinguished by an overlapping of the upper bands and by a
small electron concentration near the bottom of the valence band.

As a consequence the electron population near the Fermi energy is small which
leads to a comparatively low conductivity. Finally, insulators and semiconductors,
have under certain conditions, completely filled electron bands which results in a
virtually zero population density near the top of the valence band (Next Figure).
Thus, the conductivity in these materials is extremely small.

Schematic representation of the density of states and thus

with minor modifications, also the population density.

Examples for highest electron energies for a monovalent

metal (EM), for abivalent metal (EB ), and for an insulator

(EI) are indicated.

121
Pure Metals

The resistivity of a metal, such as copper, decreases linearly with decreasing

temperature until it reaches a finite value ( Next Figure). We postulate that thermal
energy causes lattice atoms to oscillate about their equilibrium positions, thus
increasing the incoherent scattering of the electron waves. The residual resistivity
ρres is interpreted to be due to imperfections in the crystal, such as impurities,
vacancies, grain boundaries, or dislocations. The residual resistivity is not
temperature dependent. According to Matthiessen's rule the resistivity arises from
independent scattering processes which are additive, that is

ρ = ρ th + ρ imp + ρ def = ρ th + ρ res'

The thermally induced part of the resistivity ρ th is called the ideal resistivity,
whereas the resistivity which has its origin in impurities (ρ imp) and defects (ρ def)
is summed up in the residual resistivity. The number of impurity atoms is gene
rally constant in a given metal or alloy. The number of vacancies or grain
boundaries, however, can be changed by various heat treatments. For example if a
metal is annealed at temperatures close to its melting point and then rapidly
quenched into water of room temperature, its room temperature resistivity
increases noticeably due to quenched-in vacancies. Frequently, this resistance
increase diminishes during room temperature aging or annealing at slightly
elevated temperatures due to the annihilation of some vacancies.
Likewise, recrystallization, grain growth, and many other metallurgical processes
change the resistivity of metals. As a consequence of this and due to its simple
measurement, the resistivity is one of the most widely studied properties in
materials research.

Schematic representation of the

temperature dependence of the resistivity of
copper and various copper-nickel alloys.
ρres is the residual resistivity.

122
Resistivity of various silver alloys (schematic). Solvent and solute are all from the
fifth period. (a) Resistivity versus atomic % solute,

(b) resistivity change due to 1 atomic % of solute.

Alloys
Some alloys (copper with small amounts of iron, for example) show a minimum of
the resistivity at low temperatures. This anomaly is due to additional scattering of
electrons by the magnetic moments of the solutes and is a deviation from the
Matthiessen rule (Kondo effect).

Superconductors are metals or alloys whose resistivities become immeasurably

small or actually become zero below a critical temperature Tc.

123
13- Semiconductor
A semiconductor material has an electrical conductivity value falling between that
of a conductor, like copper, gold, etc. and an insulator, such as glass. Their
resistance decreases as their temperature increases, which is behaviour opposite to
that of a metal. Their conducting properties may be altered in useful ways by the
deliberate, controlled introduction of impurities ("doping") into the crystal
structure. Where two differently-doped regions exist in the same crystal, a
semiconductor junction is created. The behavior of charge carriers which include
electrons, ions and electron holes at these junctions is the basis of diodes,
transistors and all modern electronics. Some examples of semiconductors are
silicon, germanium, and gallium arsenide. After silicon, gallium arsenide is the
second most common semiconductor, used in laser diodes, solar cells, microwave
frequency integrated circuits, and others. Silicon is a critical element for fabricating
most electronic circuits.

Semiconductor devices can display a range of useful properties such as passing

current more easily in one direction than the other, showing variable resistance, and
sensitivity to light or heat. Because the electrical properties of a semiconductor
material can be modified by doping, or by the application of electrical fields or
light, devices made from semiconductors can be used for amplification, switching,
and energy conversion.

The conductivity of silicon is increased by adding a small amount of pentavalent

(antimony, phosphorus, or arsenic) or trivalent (boron, gallium, indium) atoms (part
in 108). This process is known as doping and resulting semiconductors are known
as doped or extrinsic semiconductors. Apart from doping, the conductivity of a
semiconductor can equally be improved by increasing its temperature. This is
contrary to the behaviour of a metal in which conductivity decreases with increase
in temperature.

The modern understanding of the properties of a semiconductor relies on quantum

physics to explain the movement of charge carriers in a crystal lattice. Doping
greatly increases the number of charge carriers within the crystal. When a doped
semiconductor contains mostly free holes it is called "p-type", and when it contains
mostly free electrons it is known as "n-type". The semiconductor materials used in
electronic devices are doped under precise conditions to control the concentration
and regions of p- and n-type dopants. A single semiconductor crystal can have
many p- and n-type regions; the p–n junctions between these regions are
responsible for the useful electronic behavior.

124
Although some pure elements and many compounds display semiconductor
properties, silicon, germanium, and compounds of gallium are the most widely used
in electronic devices. Elements near the so-called "metalloid staircase", where the
metalloids are located on the periodic table, are usually used as semiconductors.

Some of the properties of semiconductor materials were observed throughout the

mid 19th and first decades of the 20th century. The first practical application of
semiconductors in electronics was the 1904 development of the cat's-whisker
detector, a primitive semiconductor diode used in early radio receivers.
Developments in quantum physics in turn allowed the development of the transistor
in 1947[3] and the integrated circuit in 1958

13.1- Properties

13.1.1-Variable conductivity
Semiconductors in their natural state are poor conductors because a current
requires the flow of electrons, and semiconductors have their valence bands filled,
preventing the entry flow of new electrons. There are several developed
techniques that allow semiconducting materials to behave like conducting
materials, such as doping or gating. These modifications have two outcomes:

n-type and p-type. These refer to the excess or shortage of electrons, respectively.
An unbalanced number of electrons would cause a current to flow through the
material.

13.1.2-Heterojunctions
Heterojunctions occur when two differently doped semiconducting materials are
joined together. For example, a configuration could consist of p-doped and n-
doped. This results in an exchange of electrons and holes between the differently
doped semiconducting materials. The n-doped germanium would have an excess
of electrons, and the p-doped germanium would have an excess of holes. The
transfer occurs until equilibrium is reached by a process called recombination,
which causes the migrating electrons from the n-type to come in contact with the
migrating holes from the p-type. A product of this process is charged ions, which
result in an electric field.

125
13.1.3- Excited electrons
A difference in electric potential on a semiconducting material would cause it to
leave thermal equilibrium and create a non-equilibrium situation. This introduces
electrons and holes to the system, which interact via a process called ambipolar
diffusion. Whenever thermal equilibrium is disturbed in a semiconducting
material, the number of holes and electrons changes. Such disruptions can occur
as a result of a temperature difference or photons, which can enter the system and
create electrons and holes. The process that creates and annihilates electrons and
holes are called generation and recombination.

Light emission

In certain semiconductors, excited electrons can relax by emitting light instead of

producing heat. These semiconductors are used in the construction of light-
emitting diodes and fluorescent quantum dots.

Thermal energy conversion

Semiconductors have large thermoelectric power factors making them useful in

thermoelectric generators, as well as high thermoelectric figures of merit making
them useful in thermoelectric coolers.

13.2- List of semiconductor materials

A large number of elements and compounds have semiconducting properties,
including:

 Certain pure elements are found in Group 14 of the periodic table; the most
commercially important of these elements are silicon and germanium.
Silicon and germanium are used here effectively because they have 4 valence
electrons in their outermost shell which gives them the ability to gain or lose
electrons equally at the same time.
 Binary compounds, particularly between elements in Groups 13 and 15, such
as gallium arsenide, Groups 12 and 16, groups 14 and 16, and between
different group 14 elements, e.g. silicon carbide.
 Certain ternary compounds, oxides and alloys.
 Organic semiconductors, made of organic compounds.

Most common semiconducting materials are crystalline solids, but amorphous and
liquid semiconductors are also known. These include hydrogenated amorphous
126
silicon and mixtures of arsenic, selenium and tellurium in a variety of proportions.
These compounds share with better known semiconductors the properties of
intermediate conductivity and a rapid variation of conductivity with temperature, as
well as occasional negative resistance. Such disordered materials lack the rigid
crystalline structure of conventional semiconductors such as silicon. They are
generally used in thin film structures, which do not require material of higher
electronic quality, being relatively insensitive to impurities and radiation damage.

Silicon crystals are the most common

semiconducting materials used in
microelectronics and photovoltaics

13.3- Preparation of semiconductor materials

Almost all of today's electronic technology involves the use of semiconductors,

with the most important aspect being the integrated circuit (IC), which are found in
laptops, scanners, cell-phones, etc. Semiconductors for ICs are mass-produced. To
create an ideal semiconducting material, chemical purity is paramount. Any small
imperfection can have a drastic effect on how the semiconducting material behaves
due to the scale at which the materials are used.

A high degree of crystalline perfection is also required, since faults in crystal

structure (such as dislocations, twins, and stacking faults) interfere with the
semiconducting properties of the material. Crystalline faults are a major cause of
defective semiconductor devices. The larger the crystal, the more difficult it is to
achieve the necessary perfection. Current mass production processes use crystal
ingots between 100 and 300 mm (3.9 and 11.8 in) in diameter which are grown as
cylinders and sliced into wafers.

There is a combination of processes that is used to prepare semiconducting

materials for ICs. One process is called thermal oxidation, which forms silicon
dioxide on the surface of the silicon. This is used as a gate insulator and field oxide.
Other processes are called photomasks and photolithography. This process is what
creates the patterns on the circuity in the integrated circuit. Ultraviolet light is used

127
along with a photoresist layer to create a chemical change that generates the
patterns for the circuit.

Etching is the next process that is required. The part of the silicon that was not
covered by the photoresist layer from the previous step can now be etched. The
main process typically used today is called plasma etching. Plasma etching usually
involves an etch gas pumped in a low-pressure chamber to create plasma. A
common etch gas is chlorofluorocarbon, or more commonly known Freon. A high
radio-frequency voltage between the cathode and anode is what creates the plasma
in the chamber. The silicon wafer is located on the cathode, which causes it to be
hit by the positively charged ions that are released from the plasma. The end result
is silicon that is etched anisotropically.[1][4]

The last process is called diffusion. This is the process that gives the
semiconducting material its desired semiconducting properties. It is also known as
doping. The process introduces an impure atom to the system, which creates the p-n
junction. In

order to get the impure atoms embedded in the silicon wafer, the wafer is first put
in a 1,100 degree Celsius chamber. The atoms are injected in and eventually diffuse
with the silicon. After the process is completed and the silicon has reached room
temperature, the doping process is done and the semiconducting material is ready to
be used in an integrated circuit.[

Physics of semiconductors[edit]

Energy bands and electrical conduction[edit]

Main articles: Electronic band structure and Electrical conduction

128
14.1- Electrical Insulator
An electrical insulator is a material whose internal electric charges do not flow
freely; very little electric current will flow through it under the influence of an
electric field. This contrasts with other materials, semiconductors and conductors,
which conduct electric current more easily. The property that distinguishes an
insulator is its resistivity; insulators have higher resistivity than semiconductors or
conductors.

A perfect insulator does not exist, because even insulators contain small numbers of
mobile charges (charge carriers) which can carry current. In addition, all insulators
become electrically conductive when a sufficiently large voltage is applied that the
electric field tears electrons away from the atoms. This is known as the breakdown
voltage of an insulator. Some materials such as glass, paper and Teflon, which have
high resistivity, are very good electrical insulators. A much larger class of
materials, even though they may have lower bulk resistivity, are still good enough
to prevent significant current from flowing at normally used voltages, and thus are
employed as insulation for electrical wiring and cables. Examples include rubber-
like polymers and most plastics which can be thermoset or thermoplastic in nature.

Insulators are used in electrical equipment to support and separate electrical

conductors without allowing current through themselves. An insulating material
used in bulk to wrap electrical cables or other equipment is called insulation. The
term insulator is also used more specifically to refer to insulating supports used to
attach electric power distribution or transmission lines to utility poles and
transmission towers. They support the weight of the suspended wires without
allowing the current to flow through the tower to ground.

Ceramic insulator used on electrified railways

129
3-core copper wire power cable, each core with
individual colour-coded insulating sheaths all
contained within an outer protective sheath

PVC-sheathed mineral insulated copper cable with 2 conducting cores

14.1.1-Physics of conduction in solids.

Electrical insulation is the absence of electrical conduction. Electronic band theory

(a branch of physics) says that a charge flows if states are available into which
electrons can be excited. This allows electrons to gain energy and thereby move
through a conductor such as a metal. If no such states are available, the material is
an insulator.

Most insulators have a large band gap. This occurs because the "valence" band
containing the highest energy electrons is full, and a large energy gap separates this
band from the next band above it. There is always some voltage (called the
breakdown voltage) that gives electrons enough energy to be excited into this band.
Once this voltage is exceeded the material ceases being an insulator, and charge
begins to pass through it. However, it is usually accompanied by physical or
chemical changes that permanently degrade the material's insulating properties.

Materials that lack electron conduction are insulators if they lack other mobile
charges as well. For example, if a liquid or gas contains ions, then the ions can be
made to flow as an electric current, and the material is a conductor. Electrolytes and
plasmas contain ions and act as conductors whether or not electron flow is
involved.
130
Breakdown

When subjected to a high enough voltage, insulators suffer from the phenomenon
of electrical breakdown. When the electric field applied across an insulating
substance exceeds in any location the threshold breakdown field for that substance,
the insulator suddenly becomes a conductor, causing a large increase in current, an
electric arc through the substance. Electrical breakdown occurs when the electric
field in the material is strong enough to accelerate free charge carriers (electrons
and ions, which are always present at low concentrations) to a high enough velocity
to knock electrons from atoms when they strike them, ionizing the atoms. These
freed electrons and ions are in turn accelerated and strike other atoms, creating
more charge carriers, in a chain reaction. Rapidly the insulator becomes filled with
mobile charge carriers, and its resistance drops to a low level. In a solid, the
breakdown voltage is proportional to the band gap energy. When corona discharge
occurs, the air in a region around a high-voltage conductor can break down and
ionize without a catastrophic increase in current. However, if the region of air
breakdown extends to another conductor at a different voltage it creates a
conductive path between them, and a large current flows through the air, creating
an electric arc. Even a vacuum can suffer a sort of breakdown, but in this case the
breakdown or vacuum arc involves charges ejected from the surface of metal
electrodes rather than produced by the vacuum itself.

In addition, all insulators become conductors at very high temperatures as the

thermal energy of the valence electrons is sufficient to put them in the conduction
band.

In certain capacitors, shorts between electrodes formed due to dielectric breakdown

can disappear when the applied electric field is reduced.

A very flexible coating of an insulator is often applied to electric wire and cable,
this is called insulated wire. Wires sometimes don't use an insulating coating, just
air, since a solid (e.g. plastic) coating may be impractical. However, wires that
touch each other produce cross connections, short circuits, and fire hazards. In
coaxial cable the center conductor must be supported exactly in the middle of the
hollow shield to prevent EM wave reflections. Finally, wires that expose voltages
higher than 60 V can cause human shock and electrocution hazards. Insulating
coatings help to prevent all of these problems.

131
Some wires have a mechanical covering with no voltage rating e.g.: service-drop,
welding, doorbell, thermostat wire. An insulated wire or cable has a voltage rating
and a maximum conductor temperature rating. It may not have an ampacity
(current-carrying capacity) rating, since this is dependent upon the surrounding
environment (e.g. ambient temperature).

In electronic systems, printed circuit boards are made from epoxy plastic and
fibreglass. The nonconductive boards support layers of copper foil conductors. In
electronic devices, the tiny and delicate active components are embedded within
nonconductive epoxy or phenolic plastics, or within baked glass or ceramic
coatings.

In microelectronic components such as transistors and ICs, the silicon material is

normally a conductor because of doping, but it can easily be selectively
transformed into a good insulator by the application of heat and oxygen. Oxidised
silicon is quartz, i.e. silicon dioxide, the primary component of glass.

In high voltage systems containing transformers and capacitors, liquid insulator oil
is the typical method used for preventing arcs. The oil replaces air in spaces that
must support significant voltage without electrical breakdown. Other high voltage
system insulation materials include ceramic or glass wire holders, gas, vacuum, and
simply placing wires far enough apart to use air as insulation.

14.1.2-Telegraph and power transmission insulators

Power lines with ceramic insulators

in California, USA Overhead
conductors for high-voltage electric
power transmission are bare, and are
insulated by the surrounding air.
Conductors for lower voltages in
distribution may have some
insulation but are often bare as well.
Insulating supports called insulators
are required at the points where they
are supported by utility poles or
transmission towers. Insulators are
also required where the wire enters buildings or electrical devices, such as
transformers or circuit breakers, to insulate the wire from the case. These hollow
insulators with a conductor inside them are called bushings.

132
.Material

Insulators used for high-voltage power transmission are made from glass, porcelain
or composite polymer materials. Porcelain insulators are made from clay, quartz or
alumina and feldspar, and are covered with a smooth
glaze to shed water. Insulators made from porcelain rich
in alumina are used where high mechanical strength is a
criterion. Porcelain has a dielectric strength of about 4–10
kV/mm. Glass has a higher dielectric strength, but it
attracts condensation and the thick irregular shapes
needed for insulators are difficult to cast without internal
strains. Some insulator manufacturers stopped making
glass insulators in the late 1960s, switching to ceramic
materials.
10 kV ceramic insulator,
showing sheds

Recently, some electric utilities have begun converting to polymer composite

materials for some types of insulators. These are typically composed of a central
rod made of fibre reinforced plastic and an outer weathershed made of silicone
rubber or ethylene propylene diene monomer rubber (EPDM). Composite insulators
are less costly, lighter in weight, and have excellent hydrophobic capability. This
combination makes them ideal for service in polluted areas. However, these
materials do not yet have the long-term proven service life of glass and porcelain.

High voltage ceramic bushing during manufacture, before glazing.

The electrical breakdown of an insulator due to excessive voltage can occur in one
of two ways:

 A puncture arc is a breakdown and conduction of the material of the

insulator, causing an electric arc through the interior of the insulator. The
heat resulting from the arc usually damages the insulator irreparably.
Puncture voltage is the voltage across the insulator (when installed in its
normal manner) that causes a puncture arc.
 A flashover arc is a breakdown and conduction of the air around or along the
surface of the insulator, causing an arc along the outside of the insulator.
Insulators are usually designed to withstand flashover without damage.
Flashover voltage is the voltage that causes a flash-over arc.

133
Most high voltage insulators are designed with a lower flashover voltage than
puncture voltage, so they flash over before they puncture, to avoid damage.

Dirt, pollution, salt, and particularly water on the surface of a high voltage insulator
can create a conductive path across it, causing leakage currents and flashovers. The
flashover voltage can be reduced by more than 50% when the insulator is wet. High
voltage insulators for outdoor use are shaped to maximise the length of the leakage
path along the surface from one end to the other, called the creepage length, to
minimise these leakage currents.[8] To accomplish this the surface is moulded into a
series of corrugations or concentric disc shapes. These usually include one or more
sheds; downward facing cup-shaped surfaces that act as umbrellas to ensure that the
part of the surface leakage path under the 'cup' stays dry in wet weather. Minimum
creepage distances are 20–25 mm/kV, but must be increased in high pollution or
airborne sea-salt areas.

14.1.3-Types of insulators

These are the common classes of insulator:

 Pin type insulator - As the name suggests, the pin type

insulator is mounted on a pin on the cross-arm on the
pole. There is a groove on the upper end of the
insulator. The conductor passes through this groove
and is tied to the insulator with annealed wire of the
same material as the conductor. Pin type insulators are
used for transmission and distribution of
communications, and

electric power at voltages up to 33 kV. Insulators made for operating

voltages between 33kV and 69kV tend to be very bulky and have become
uneconomical in recent years.

 Post insulator - A type of insulator in the 1930s that is more compact than
traditional pin-type insulators and which has rapidly replaced many pin-type
insulators on lines up to 69kV and in some configurations, can be made for
operation at up to 115kV.

134
  Suspension insulator - For voltages greater than 33 kV, it is a usual practice
to use suspension type insulators, consisting of a number of glass or
porcelain discs connected in series by metal links in the form of a string. The
conductor is suspended at the bottom end of this string while the top end is
secured to the cross-arm of the tower. The number of disc units used depends
on the voltage.

Suspended glass disc insulator unit used

in suspension insulator strings for high
voltage transmission lines
Suspension insulator string (the vertical string of discs)

on a 275 kV suspension pylon

 Strain insulator - A dead end or anchor pole or tower is used where a

straight section of line ends, or angles off in another direction. These poles
must withstand the lateral (horizontal) tension of the long straight section of
wire. To support this lateral load, strain insulators are used. For low voltage
lines (less than 11 kV), shackle insulators are used as strain insulators.
However, for high voltage transmission lines, strings of cap-and-pin
(suspension) insulators are used, attached to the cross arm in a horizontal
direction. When the tension load in lines is exceedingly high, such as at long
river spans, two or more strings are used in parallel.

 Shackle insulator - In early days, the shackle insulators were used as strain
insulators. But nowadays, they are frequently used for low voltage
distribution lines. Such insulators can be used either in a horizontal position
or in a vertical position. They can be directly fixed to the pole with a bolt or
to the cross arm.

135
  Bushing - enables one or several conductors to pass through a partition such
as a wall or a tank, and insulates the conductors from it.

 Line post insulator

 Station post insulator
 Cut-out

Suspension insulators

Pin-type insulators are unsuitable for voltages greater than about 69 kV line-to-line.
Higher transmission voltages use suspension insulator strings, which can be made
for any practical transmission voltage by adding insulator elements to the string.

Higher voltage transmission lines usually use modular suspension insulator designs.
The wires are suspended from a 'string' of identical disc-shaped insulators that
attach to each other with metal clevis pin or ball and socket links. The advantage of
this design is that insulator strings with different breakdown voltages, for use with
different line voltages, can be constructed by using different numbers of the basic
units. Also, if one of the insulator units in the string breaks, it can be replaced
without discarding the entire string. Each unit is constructed of a ceramic or glass
disc with a metal cap and pin cemented to opposite sides. To make defective units
obvious, glass units are designed so that an overvoltage causes a puncture arc
through the glass instead of a flashover. The glass is heat-treated so it shatters,
making the damaged unit visible. However the mechanical strength of the unit is
unchanged, so the insulator string stays together.

In very high voltage lines the insulator may be surrounded by corona rings. These
typically consist of toruses of aluminium (most commonly) or copper tubing
attached to the line. They are designed to reduce the electric field at the point where
the insulator is attached to the line, to prevent corona discharge, which results in
power losses.

136
Insulation of antennas

Often a broadcasting radio antenna is built as a mast radiator, which means that
the entire mast structure is energised with high
voltage and must be insulated from the ground.
Steatite mountings are used. They have to
withstand not only the voltage of the mast
radiator to ground, which can reach values up to
400 kV at some antennas, but also the weight of
the mast construction and dynamic forces. Arcing
horns and lightning arresters are necessary
because lightning strikes to the mast are common.

Egg shaped strain insulator

Guy wires supporting antenna masts usually have strain insulators inserted in the
cable run, to keep the high voltages on the antenna from short circuiting to ground
or creating a shock hazard. Often guy cables have several insulators, placed to
break up the cable into lengths unwanted electrical resonances in the guy. These
insulators are usually ceramic and cylindrical or egg-shaped as shown in picture.
This construction has the advantage that the ceramic is under compression rather
than tension, so it can withstand greater load, and that if the insulator breaks, the
cable ends are still linked.

These insulators also have to be equipped with overvoltage protection equipment.

For the dimensions of the guy insulation, static charges on guys have to be
considered. At high masts these can be much higher than the voltage caused by the
transmitter, requiring guys divided by insulators in multiple sections on the highest
masts. In this case, guys which are grounded at the anchor basements via a coil - or
if possible, directly - are the better choice.

Feed lines attaching antennas to radio equipment, particularly twin lead type, often
must be kept at a distance from metal structures. The insulated supports used for
this purpose are called standoff insulators.

137
14.1.4- Insulation in electrical apparatus

The most important insulation material is air. A variety of solid, liquid, and gaseous
insulators are also used in electrical apparatus. In smaller transformers, generators,
and electric motors, insulation on the wire coils consists of up to four thin layers of
polymer varnish film. Film insulated magnet wire permits a manufacturer to obtain
the maximum number of turns within the available space. Windings that use thicker
conductors are often wrapped with supplemental fiberglass insulating tape.
Windings may also be impregnated with insulating varnishes to prevent electrical
corona and reduce magnetically induced wire vibration. Large power transformer
windings are still mostly insulated with paper, wood, varnish, and mineral oil;
although these materials have been used for more than 100 years, they still provide
a good balance of economy and adequate performance. Busbars and circuit
breakers in switchgear may be insulated with glass-reinforced plastic insulation,
treated to have low flame spread and to prevent tracking of current across the
material.

In older apparatus made up to the early 1970s, boards made of compressed asbestos
may be found; while this is an adequate insulator at power frequencies, handling or
repairs to asbestos material can release dangerous fibers into the air and must be
carried cautiously. Wire insulated with felted asbestos was used in high-
temperature and rugged applications from the 1920s. Wire of this type was sold by
General Electric under the trade name "Deltabeston.

Live-front switchboards up to the early part of the 20th century were made of slate
or marble. Some high voltage equipment is designed to operate within a high
pressure insulating gas such as sulfur hexafluoride. Insulation materials that
perform well at power and low frequencies may be unsatisfactory at radio
frequency, due to heating from excessive dielectric dissipation.

Electrical wires may be insulated with polyethylene, crosslinked polyethylene

(either through electron beam processing or chemical crosslinking), PVC, Kapton,
rubber-like polymers, oil impregnated paper, Teflon, silicone, or modified ethylene
tetrafluoroethylene (ETFE). Larger power cables may use compressed inorganic
powder, depending on the application.

Flexible insulating materials such as PVC (polyvinyl chloride) are used to insulate
the circuit and prevent human contact with a 'live' wire – one having voltage of 600
volts or less. Alternative materials are likely to become increasingly used due to EU
safety and environmental legislation making PVC less economic.
138
14.2- Polymers & Plastics
Introduction :
Naturally occurring polymers—those derived from plants and animals have
been used for many centuries; these materials include wood, rubber, cotton,
wool, leather, and silk. Other natural polymers such as proteins, enzymes,
starches, and cellulose are important in biological and physiological processes in
plants and animals.

Modern scientific research tools have made possible the determination of

the molecular structures of this group of materials, and the development of
numerous polymers, which are synthesized from small organic molecules.
Many of our useful plastics, rubbers, and fiber materials are synthetic polymers. In
fact, since the conclusion of World War II, the field of materials has been virtually
revolutionized by the advent of synthetic polymers. The synthetics can be produced
inexpensively, and their properties may be managed to the degree that many are
superior to their natural counterparts. In some applications metal and wood parts
have been replaced by plastics, which have satisfactory properties and may be
produced at a lower cost.

To understand the polymers structure we should see first the Hydrocarbon

Molecules. Since most polymers are organic in origin, we briefly review
some of the basic concepts relating to the structure of their molecules. First,
many organic materials are hydrocarbons; that is, they are composed of
hydrogen and carbon. Furthermore, the intermolecular bonds are covalent. Each
carbon atom has four electrons that may participate in covalent bonding,
whereas every hydrogen atom has only one bonding electron. A single
covalent bond exists when each of the two bonding atoms contributes one
electron, as represented schematically in Next
Figure for a molecule of methane (CH4). Double
and triple bonds between two carbon atoms
involve the sharing of two and three pairs of
electrons, respectively.

Schematic representation of covalent bonding

in a molecule of methane (CH4).

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 For example, in ethylene, which has the chemical formula
C2H4, the two carbon atoms are doubly bonded together, and
each is also singly bonded to two hydrogen atoms, as represented
by the structural formula

where ─ and ═ denote single and double covalent bonds, respectively. An

example of a triple bond is found in acetylene, C2H2:

Molecules that have double and triple covalent bonds are termed unsaturated. That
is, each carbon atom is not bonded to the maximum (four) other atoms; as such, it
is possible for another atom or group of atoms to become attached to the
original molecule. Furthermore, for a saturated hydrocarbon, all bonds are
single ones, and no new atoms may be joined without the removal of others
that are already bonded. Molecules that have double and triple covalent bonds are
termed unsaturated. That is, each carbon atom is not bonded to the maximum (four)
other atoms; as such, it is possible for another atom or group of atoms to
become attached to the original molecule. Furthermore, for a saturated
hydrocarbon, all bonds are single ones, and no new atoms may be joined
without the removal of others that are already bonded.

14.2.1- Polymer Molecules:

he molecules in polymers are gigantic in comparison to the hydrocarbon
molecules already discussed; because of their size they are often referred to
as macromolecules. Within each molecule, the atoms are bound together by
covalent interatomic bonds. For carbon chain polymers, the backbone of each
chain is a string of carbon atoms. Many times each carbon atom singly bonds to
two adjacent carbons atoms on either side, represented schematically in two
dimensions as follows:

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Each of the two remaining valence electrons for every carbon atom may be
involved in side-bonding with atoms or radicals that are positioned adjacent
to the chain. Of course, both chain and side double bonds are also possible.
These long molecules are composed of structural entities called repeat units,
which are successively repeated along the chain.1 The term monomer refers
to the small molecule from which a polymer is synthesized. Hence,
monomer and repeat unit mean different things, but sometimes the term
monomer or monomer unit is used instead of the more proper term repeat unit.

The Chemistry of Polymer Molecules:

Consider again the hydrocarbon ethylene (C2H4), which is a gas at
ambient temperature and pressure, and has the following molecular
structure:

If the ethylene gas is reacted under appropriate conditions, it will transform to

polyethylene (PE), which is a solid polymeric material. This process begins when
an active center is formed by the reaction between an initiator or catalyst
species ( ) and the ethylene monomer, as follows:

For polyethylene,
(a) a schematic representation of repeat unit and chain structures, and
(b) a perspective of the molecule, indicating the zigzag backbone structure.
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Molecular Structure:
The physical characteristics of a polymer depend not only on its molecular
weight and shape but also on differences in the structure of the molecular
chains. Modern polymer synthesis techniques permit considerable control over
various structural possibilities. This section discusses several molecular
structures including linear, branched, cross linked, and network, in addition to
various isomeric configurations.

Linear Polymers
They are those in which the repeat units are joined together end to end in single
chains. These long chains are flexible and may be thought of as a mass of
spaghetti, as represented schematically in Next Figure a, where each circle
represents a repeat unit. For linear polymers, there may be extensive van der
Waals and hydrogen bonding between the chains. Some of the common
polymers that form with linear structures are polyethylene, poly(vinyl
chloride), polystyrene, poly (methacrylate), nylon, and the fluorocarbons.

Branched Polymers
Polymers may be synthesized in which side-branch chains are connected to the
main ones, as indicated schematically in Next Figure b, these are fittingly
called branched polymers. The branches, considered to be part of the main- chain
molecule, may result from side reactions that occur during the synthesis of the
polymer. The chain packing efficiency is reduced with the formation of side
branches, which results in a lowering of the polymer density. Those polymers that
form linear structures may also be branched. For example, high density
polyethylene (HDPE) is primarily a linear polymer, while low density polyethylene
(LDPE) contains short chain branches.

Cross linked Polymers

In cross linked polymers, adjacent linear chains are joined one to another at
various positions by covalent bonds, as represented in Next Figure c. The
process of cross linking is achieved either during synthesis or by a
nonreversible chemical reaction.

Often, this cross linking is accomplished by additive atoms or molecules

that are covalently bonded to the chains.

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Network Polymers
Multifunctional monomers forming three or more active covalent bonds, make
three-dimensional networks ( Next Figure d) and are termed Network polymers.
Actually, a polymer that is
highly cross linked may also
be classified as a network
polymer. These materials have
distinctive mechanical and
thermal properties; the
epoxies, polyurethanes, and
phenol- formaldehyde belong
to this group.

Circles designate individual repeat units.

Schematic representations of: (a) linear, (b) branched, (c) cross linked, and

(d) network (three-dimensional) molecular structures.

Polymers are not usually of only one distinctive structural type. For example, a
predominantly linear polymer might have limited branching and cross linking.

General properties of polymeric materials

The properties of polymeric materials can vary widely, but they all have
certain properties in common:

1. Electrical insulation
All polymeric materials exhibit good electrical insulation properties.
However, their usefulness in this field is limited by their low heat
resistance and their softness. Thus they are useless as formers on which to wind
electric radiator elements, and as insulators for use out of doors where their
relatively soft surface would soon be roughened by the weather.

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Dirt collecting on this roughened surface would then provide a conductive
path, causing a short circuit.
2. Strength/weight ratio
Polymeric materials vary in strength considerably. Some of the stronger,
such as nylon, compare favorably with the weaker metals. All polymeric
materials are much lighter than any of the metals used for engineering
purposes. Therefore, properly chosen and proportioned, their strength/weight ratio
compares favorably with many light alloys and they are steadily taking over
engineering, duties which, until recently, were considered the prerogative of
metal.

3. Corrosion resistance
All polymeric materials are inert to most inorganic chemicals and can be
used in environments which are hostile even to the most corrosion-resistant
metals. The synthetic rubbers, which are a product of polymer chemistry, are
superior to natural (polyisoprene) since they are not attacked by oils and greases.

Mechanical Behavior of Polymers / Stress–Strain Behavior:

The mechanical properties of polymers are specified with many of the same
parameters that are used for metals that is, modulus of elasticity, and yield and
tensile strengths. For many polymeric materials, the simple stress–strain test is
employed for the characterization of some of these mechanical parameters.
The mechanical characteristics of polymers, for the most part, are highly
sensitive to the rate of deformation (strain rate), the temperature, and the
chemical nature of the environment (the presence of water, oxygen, organic
solvents, etc.). Some modifications of the testing techniques and specimen
configurations used for metals are necessary with polymers, especially for the
highly elastic materials, such as rubbers.

Three typically different types of stress–strain behavior are found for

polymeric materials, as represented in Figure 4. Curve A illustrates the stress–
strain character for a brittle polymer, inasmuch as it fractures while deforming
elastically. The behavior for a plastic material, curve B, is similar to that for
many metallic materials; the initial deformation is elastic, which is followed by
yielding and a region of plastic deformation. Finally, the deformation displayed
by curve C is totally elastic; this rubber-like elasticity (large recoverable strains

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produced at low stress levels) is displayed by a class of polymers termed the
elastomers.

The stress–strain behavior for

brittle (curve A),
plastic (curve B), and highly
elastic (elastomeric) (curve C)
polymers.

Schematic tensile stress–strain curve

for a semicrystalline polymer.
Specimen contours at several stages of
deformation are included.

Fracture of Polymers:
The fracture strengths of polymeric materials are low relative to those of
metals and ceramics. As a general rule, the mode of fracture in thermosetting
polymers (heavily cross linked networks) is brittle. In simple terms, during the
fracture process, cracks form at regions where there is a localized stress
concentration (i.e., scratches, notches, and sharp flaws). As with metals, the
stress is amplified at the tips of these cracks leading to crack propagation and
fracture. Covalent bonds in the network or cross linked structure are severed
during fracture.

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 For thermoplastic polymers, both ductile and brittle modes are possible,
and many of these materials are capable of experiencing a ductile-to-brittle
transition. Factors that favor brittle fracture are a reduction in temperature, an
increase in strain rate, the presence of a sharp notch, increased specimen
thickness, and any modification of the polymer structure that raises the glass
transition temperature. Glassy thermoplastics are brittle below their glass transition
temperatures.

One phenomenon that frequently precedes fracture in some thermoplastic

polymers is crazing. Associated with crazes are regions of very localized
plastic deformation, which lead to the formation of small and interconnected
microvoids ( Next Figure a).

Schematic drawings of (a) a craze showing microvoids and fibrillar

bridges, and (b) a craze followed by a crack.

14.2.2- Polymer Types :

There are many different polymeric materials that are familiar to us and
find a wide variety of applications; in fact, one way of classifying them is
according to their end use.

Within this scheme the various polymer types include plastics, elastomers

(or rubbers), fibers, coatings, adhesives, foams, and films. Depending on its
properties, a particular polymer may be used in two or more of these
application categories.

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 For example, a plastic, if cross linked and utilized above its glass transition
temperature, may make a satisfactory elastomer. Or a fiber material may be
used as a plastic if it is not drawn into filaments. This portion of the chapter
includes a brief discussion of each of these types of polymer.

1. Plastics:
Possibly the largest number of different polymeric materials come under
the plastic classification. Plastics are materials that have some structural
rigidity under load, and are used in general-purpose applications. Polyethylene,
polypropylene, poly(vinyl chloride), polystyrene, and the fluorocarbons,
epoxies, phenolics, and polyesters may all be classified as plastics. They have a
wide variety of combinations of properties.

Some plastics are very rigid and brittle. Others are flexible, exhibiting both
elastic and plastic deformations when stressed, and sometimes experiencing
considerable deformation before fracture.

Polymers falling within this classification may have any degree of

crystallinity, and all molecular structures and configurations (linear, branched,
isotactic, etc.) are possible. Plastic materials may be either thermoplastic or
thermosetting; in fact, this is the manner in which they are usually sub
classified. However, to be considered plastics, linear or branched polymers
must be used below their glass transition temperatures (if amorphous) or
below their melting temperatures (if semicrystalline), or must be cross linked
enough to maintain their shape.

Several especially outstanding properties. For applications in which optical

transparency is critical, polystyrene and poly (methyl methacrylate) are especially
well suited; however, it is imperative that the material be highly amorphous
or, if semicrystalline, have very small crystallites. The fluorocarbons have a
low coefficient of friction and are extremely resistant to attack by a host of
chemicals, even at relatively high temperatures. They are utilized as coatings on
nonstick cookware, in bearings and bushings, and for high-temperature electronic
components.

The advantages of plastics:-

The grate increase in the use of plastics is due to
- their many useful properties,
- couples with comparatively low cost,
- their low densities,
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- their high resistance to chemical attack,
- their thermal and electrical insulation properties,
- their ease of fabrication in to a wide variety of both simple and complex
shapes.

The disadvantages of plastics :-

The main disadvantages of plastics are :
- The low strength and elastic modulus values, in compression with those
of metals
- The low softening and thermal degradation temperature
- Their comparatively high thermal expansion coefficients.

2. Fibers:
The fiber polymers are capable of being drawn into long filaments having
at least a 100:1 length-to-diameter ratio. Most commercial fiber polymers are
utilized in the textile industry, being woven or knit into cloth or fabric.

To be useful as a textile material, a fiber polymer must have a host of rather

restrictive physical and chemical properties. While in use, fibers may be subjected
to a variety of mechanical deformations stretching, twisting, shearing, and abrasion.
Consequently, they must have a high tensile strength

(over a relatively wide temperature range) and a high modulus of elasticity,

as well as abrasion resistance. These properties are governed by the chemistry of
the polymer chains and also by the fiber drawing process.

The molecular weight of fiber materials should be relatively high or the

molten material will be too weak and will break during the drawing process.
Also, because the tensile strength increases with degree of crystallinity, the
structure and configuration of the chains should allow the production of a
highly crystalline polymer.

That translates into a requirement for linear and unbranched chains that are
symmetrical and have regular repeat units. Polar groups in the polymer also
improve the fiber-forming properties by increasing both crystallinity and the
intermolecular forces between the chains.

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 Convenience in washing and maintaining clothing depends primarily on the
thermal properties of the fiber polymer, that is, its melting and glass transition
temperatures.

Furthermore, fiber polymers must exhibit chemical stability to a rather extensive

variety of environments, including acids, bases, bleaches, dry cleaning solvents,
and sunlight. In addition, they must be relatively nonflammable and amenable to
drying.

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14.3- Ceramics
Introduction:
Ceramics are compounds between metallic and nonmetallic elements; they are
most frequently oxides, nitrides, and carbides. For example, some of the
common ceramic materials include aluminum oxide (or alumina,Al2O3),
silicon dioxide (or silica, SiO2), silicon carbide (SiC), silicon nitride (Si3N4),
and, in addition, what some refer to as the traditional ceramics those
composed of clay minerals (i.e., porcelain), as well as cement, and glass.

Up until the past 60 or so years, the most important materials in this class were
termed the “traditional ceramics,” those for which the primary raw material is
clay; products considered to be traditional ceramics are china, porcelain,
bricks, tiles, and, in addition, glasses and high-temperature ceramics. Of late,
significant progress has been made in understanding the fundamental character
of these materials and of the phenomena that occur in them that are
responsible for their unique properties.

Consequently, a new generation of these materials has evolved, and the

term “ceramic” has taken on a much broader meaning. To one degree or
another, these new materials have a rather dramatic effect on our lives;
electronic, computer, communication, aerospace, and a host of other industries rely
on their use.

With regard to mechanical behavior, ceramic materials are relatively stiff and
strong stiffnesses and strengths are comparable to those of the metals. In addition,
ceramics are typically very hard. On the other hand, they are extremely brittle
(lack ductility), and are highly susceptible to fracture .

These materials are typically

insulative to the passage of heat
and electricity , and are more
resistant to high temperatures and
harsh environments than metals and
polymers. Several common ceramic
objects are shown in the photograph
of Next Figure.

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Common objects that are made of ceramic materials: scissors, a china tea cup, a

building brick, a floor tile, and a glass vase.

Impurity atoms can form solid solutions in ceramic materials much as they do in
metals. Solid solutions of both substitutional and interstitial types are possible.

14.3.1- Ceramic Phase Diagrams:

Phase diagrams have been experimentally determined for a large number
of ceramic systems. For binary or two-component phase diagrams, it is
frequently the case that the two components are compounds that share a
common element, often oxygen. These diagrams may have configurations
similar to metal–metal systems, and they are interpreted in the same way.

As an example, one of the relatively simple ceramic phase diagrams is that

found for the aluminum oxide–chromium oxide system, Next Figure. This
diagram has the same form as the isomorphous copper–nickel phase
diagram, consisting of single liquid and single solid phase regions separated
by a two-phase solid–liquid region having the shape of a blade. The solid
solution is a substitutional one in which substitutes for and vice versa. It
exists for all compositions below the melting point of inasmuch as both
aluminum and chromium ions have the same charge as well as similar radii

(0.053 and 0.062 nm, respectively). Furthermore, both Al2O3 and Cr2O3 have the
same crystal structure.

The aluminum oxide –

chromium oxide phase
diagram.

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14.3.2- Mechanical Properties :
Ceramic materials are somewhat limited in applicability by their
mechanical properties, which in many respects are inferior to those of metals.

Brittle Fracture of Ceramics:

The brittle fracture process consists of the formation and propagation of cracks
through the cross section of material in a direction perpendicular to the applied
load. Crack growth in crystalline ceramics may be either transgranular (i.e.,
through the grains) or intergranular (i.e., along grain boundaries); for transgranular
fracture, cracks propagate along specific crystallographic (or cleavage) planes,
planes of high atomic density.

Stress–Strain Behavior:
At room temperature, virtually all ceramics are brittle. Microcracks, the
presence of which is very difficult to control, result in amplification of
applied tensile stresses and account for relatively low fracture strengths
(flexural strengths). This amplification does not occur with compressive loads,
and, consequently, ceramics are stronger in compression.

The stress at fracture using this flexure test is known as the flexural
strength, modulus of rupture, fracture strength, or the bend strength, an
important mechanical parameter for brittle ceramics.

Hardness
One beneficial mechanical property of ceramics is their hardness, which is often
utilized when an abrasive or grinding action is required; in fact, the hardest known
materials are ceramics.

Creep
Often ceramic materials experience creep deformation as a result of
exposure to stresses (usually compressive) at elevated temperatures. In
general, the time deformation creep behavior of ceramics is similar to that of
metals; however, creep occurs at higher temperatures in ceramics. High-
temperature compressive creep tests are conducted on ceramic materials to
ascertain creep deformation as a function of temperature and stress level.

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14.3.3- Types and Applications of Ceramics:
Most ceramic materials fall into an application-classification scheme that
includes the following groups: glasses, structural clay products, white wares,
refractories, abrasives, cements, and the newly developed advanced ceramics
as shown in Next Figure.

Classification of ceramic materials on the basis of application.

1) Glasses
The glasses are a familiar group of ceramics; containers, lenses, and
fiberglass represent typical applications. Most inorganic glasses can be made
to transform from a noncrystalline state to one hat is crystalline by the
proper high-temperature heat treatment. This process is called crystallization,
and the product is a fine-grained polycrystalline material which is often called a
glass–ceramic. The formation of these small glass- ceramic rains is, in a sense,
a phase transformation, which involves nucleation and growth stages.

Glass-ceramic materials have been designed to have the following

characteristics:
- relatively high mechanical strengths;
- low coefficients of thermal expansion (to avoid thermal shock);
- relatively high temperature capabilities; good dielectric properties (for
electronic packaging applications); and good biological compatibility.

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The most common uses for these materials are as ovenware, tableware, oven
windows, and rangetops—primarily because of their strength and excellent
resistance to thermal shock. They also serve as electrical insulators and as
substrates for printed circuit boards, and are used for architectural cladding,
and for heat exchangers and regenerators.

2) Clay Products
One of the most widely used ceramic raw materials is clay. This
inexpensive ingredient, found naturally in great abundance, often is used as mined
without any upgrading of quality. Another reason for its popularity lies in the
ease with which clay products may be formed; when mixed in the proper
proportions, clay and water form a plastic mass that is very amenable to
shaping. The formed piece is dried to remove some of the moisture, after
which it is fired at an elevated temperature to improve its mechanical
strength.

3) Refractories
Another important class of ceramics that are utilized in large tonnages is the
refractory ceramics. The salient properties of these materials include the capacity
to withstand high temperatures without melting or decomposing, and the
capacity to remain unreactive and inert when exposed to severe environments.
In addition, the ability to provide thermal insulation is often an important
consideration.
Refractory materials are marketed in a variety of forms, but bricks are
the most common. Typical applications include furnace linings for metal
refining, glass manufacturing, metallurgical heat treatment, and power
generation.
Of course, the performance of a refractory ceramic, to a large degree,
depends on its composition. On this basis, there are several classifications namely,
fireclay, silica, basic, and special refractories.

4) Abrasives
Abrasive ceramics are used to wear, grind, or cut away other material, which
necessarily is softer. Therefore, the prime requisite for this group of materials is
hardness or wear resistance; in addition, a high degree of toughness is
essential to ensure that the abrasive particles do not easily fracture.

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Furthermore, high temperatures may be produced from abrasive frictional
forces, so some refractoriness is also desirable.
Diamonds, both natural and synthetic, are utilized as abrasives; however,
they are relatively expensive. The more common ceramic abrasives include
silicon carbide, tungsten carbide (WC), aluminum oxide (or corundum), and silica
sand.

5) Cements
Several familiar ceramic materials are classified as inorganic cements:
cement, plaster of paris, and lime, which, as a group, are produced in
extremely large quantities.
The characteristic feature of these materials is that when mixed with
water, they form a paste that subsequently sets and hardens. This trait is
especially useful in that solid and rigid structures having just about any
shape may be expeditiously formed. Also, some of these materials act as a
bonding phase that chemically binds particulate aggregates into a single
cohesive structure. Under these circumstances, the role of the cement is
similar to that of the glassy bonding phase that forms when clay products
and some refractory bricks are fired. One important difference, however, is that the
cementitious bond develops at room temperature.

6) Advanced Ceramics
Many of our modern technologies utilize and will continue to utilize
advanced ceramics because of their unique mechanical, chemical, electrical,
magnetic, and optical properties and property combinations.

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14.4- Composite materials (composites )
These are materials made up from, or composed of, a combination of different
materials to take overall advantage of their different properties.

In man-made composites, the advantages due to composites of deliberately

combining materials is to obtain improved or modified properties was understood
by ancient civilizations. An example of this was the reinforcement of air-dried
bricks by mixing the clay with straw this helped to reduce cracking caused by
shrinkage stresses as the clay dried out. In more recent times, horse hair was used
to reinforce the plaster used on the walls and ceiling of buildings. Again this was to
reduce the onset of drying cracks. Nowadays, especially with the growth of the
plastics industry and the development of high-strength fibers, a vast range
combinations of materials is available for use in composites. For example, carbon
fiber reinforced frames for tennis rackets and shafts for golf clubs have
revolutionized these sport

Next Figure shows Composites are formed by combining

materials together to form an overall structure with
properties that differ from the sum of the individual
components

More recently, researchers have also begun to actively include sensing, actuation,
computation and communication into composites, which are known as Robotic
Materials.[2]

Typical engineered composite materials include:

 Reinforced concrete and masonry

 Composite wood such as plywood
 Reinforced plastics, such as fibre-reinforced polymer or fiberglass
 Ceramic matrix composites (composite ceramic and metal matrices)
 Metal matrix composites
 and other Advanced composite materials

Composite materials are generally used for buildings, bridges, and structures such
as boat hulls, swimming pool panels, racing car bodies, shower stalls, bathtubs,
storage tanks, imitation granite and cultured marble sinks and countertops.

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Composite materials

Concrete is the most common artificial composite material of all and typically
consists of loose stones (aggregate) held with a matrix of cement. Concrete is an
inexpensive material, and will not compress or shatter even under quite a large
compressive force. However, concrete cannot survive tensile loading (i.e., if
stretched it will quickly break apart). Therefore, to give concrete the ability to resist
being stretched, steel bars, which can resist high stretching forces, are often added
to concrete to form reinforced concrete.

Fibre-reinforced polymers (FRP)s include carbon-fibre-reinforced polymer (CFRP)

and glass-reinforced plastic (GRP). If classified by matrix then there are
thermoplastic composites, short fibre thermoplastics, long fibre thermoplastics or
long fibre-reinforced thermoplastics. There are numerous thermoset composites,
including paper composite panels. Many advanced thermoset polymer matrix
systems usually incorporate aramid fibre and carbon fibre in an epoxy resin matrix.

Shape memory polymer composites are high-performance composites, formulated

using fibre or fabric reinforcement and shape memory polymer resin as the matrix.
Since a shape memory polymer resin is used as the matrix, these composites have
the ability to be easily manipulated into various configurations when they are
heated above their activation temperatures and will exhibit high strength and
stiffness at lower temperatures. They can also be reheated and reshaped repeatedly
without losing their material properties. These composites are ideal for applications
such as lightweight, rigid, deployable structures; rapid manufacturing; and dynamic
reinforcement.

High strain composites are another type of high-performance composites that are
designed to perform in a high deformation setting and are often used in deployable
systems where structural flexing is advantageous. Although high strain composites
exhibit many similarities to shape memory polymers, their performance is generally
dependent on the fibre layout as opposed to the resin content of the matrix.
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Composites can also use metal fibres reinforcing other metals, as in metal matrix
composites (MMC) or ceramic matrix composites (CMC), which includes bone
(hydroxyapatite reinforced with collagen fibres), cermet (ceramic and metal) and
concrete. Ceramic matrix composites are built primarily for fracture toughness, not
for strength. Another class of composite materials involve woven fabric composite
consisting of longitudinal and transverse laced yarns. Woven fabric composites are
flexible as they are in form of fabric.

Organic matrix/ceramic aggregate composites include asphalt concrete, polymer

concrete, mastic asphalt, mastic roller hybrid, dental composite, syntactic foam and
mother of pearl. Chobham armour is a special type of composite armour used in
military applications.

Additionally, thermoplastic composite materials can be formulated with specific

metal powders resulting in materials with a density range from 2 g/cm³ to 11 g/cm³
(same density as lead). The most common name for this type of material is "high
gravity compound" (HGC), although "lead replacement" is also used. These
materials can be used in place of traditional materials such as aluminium, stainless
steel, brass, bronze, copper, lead, and even tungsten in weighting, balancing (for
example, modifying the centre of gravity of a tennis racquet), vibration damping,
and radiation shielding applications. High density composites are an economically
viable option when certain materials are deemed hazardous and are banned (such as
lead) or when secondary operations costs (such as machining, finishing, or coating)
are a factor.

A sandwich-structured composite is a special class of composite material that is

fabricated by attaching two thin but stiff skins to a lightweight but thick core. The
core material is normally low strength material, but its higher thickness provides
the sandwich composite with high bending stiffness with overall low density.

Wood is a naturally occurring composite comprising cellulose fibres in a lignin and

hemicellulose matrix. Engineered wood includes a wide variety of different
products such as wood fibre board, plywood, oriented strand board, wood plastic
composite (recycled wood fibre in polyethylene matrix), Pykrete (sawdust in ice
matrix), Plastic-impregnated or laminated paper or textiles, Arborite, Formica
(plastic) and Micarta. Other engineered laminate composites, such as Mallite, use a
central core of end grain balsa wood, bonded to surface skins of light alloy or GRP.
These generate low-weight, high rigidity materials.

Particulate composites have particle as filler material dispersed in matrix, which

may be nonmetal, such as glass, epoxy. Automobile tire is an example of
particulate composite.

Advanced diamond-like carbon (DLC) coated polymer composites have been

reported where the coating increases the surface hydrophobicity, hardness and wear
resistance.
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Fibre-reinforced composite materials have gained popularity (despite their
generally high cost) in high-performance products that need to be lightweight, yet
strong enough to take harsh loading conditions such as aerospace components
(tails, wings, fuselages, propellers), boat and scull hulls, bicycle frames and racing
car bodies. Other uses include fishing rods, storage tanks, swimming pool panels,
and baseball bats. The Boeing 787 and Airbus A350 structures including the wings
and fuselage are composed largely of composites. Composite materials are also
becoming more common in the realm of orthopedic surgery, and it is the most
common hockey stick material. Carbon composite is a key material in today's
launch vehicles and heat shields for the re-entry phase of spacecraft. It is widely
used in solar panel substrates, antenna reflectors and yokes of spacecraft. It is also
used in payload adapters, inter-stage structures and heat shields of launch vehicles.
Furthermore, disk brake systems of airplanes and racing cars are using
carbon/carbon material, and the composite material with carbon fibres and silicon
carbide matrix has been introduced in luxury vehicles and sports cars.

In 2006, a fibre-reinforced composite pool panel was introduced for in-ground

swimming pools, residential as well as commercial, as a non-corrosive alternative
to galvanized steel. In 2007, an all-composite military Humvee was introduced by
TPI Composites Inc and Armor Holdings Inc, the first all-composite military
vehicle. By using composites the vehicle is lighter, allowing higher payloads. In
2008, carbon fibre and DuPont Kevlar (five times stronger than steel) were
combined with enhanced thermoset resins to make military transit cases by ECS
Composites creating 30-percent lighter cases with high strength.

Pipes and fittings for various purpose like transportation of potable water, fire-
fighting, irrigation, seawater, desalinated water, chemical and industrial waste, and
sewage are now manufactured in glass reinforced plastics.

Composite materials used in tensile structures for facade application provides the
advantage of being translucent. The woven base cloth combined with the
appropriate coating allows better light transmission. This provides a very
comfortable level of illumination compared to the full brightness of outside

159
 Sheet No. ( 1 )
1.1- Classify the engineering materials? And discuss three different types of them?

1.2- Define the next:-

Strength - Malleability - Hardness - Ductility

Stiffness - Brittleness - Elasticity - Plasticity

1.3- Mention the Factors which affecting materials properties?

1.4- Compare at room temperature the electrical conductivity ranges for metals,

ceramics, polymers, and semiconducting materials.?

160
 Sheet No. (2)

2.1-Discuss the different Bonding between atoms in Materials, with sketch?

2.2- Compare between Metallic Bond and Ionic Bond?
2.3-Mention three differences between Covalent Bond and Metallic Bond?
2.4-Discuss the using of x-rays to determine crystal inter planar spacing?
2.5- Defined the A.P.F, F.C.C, and B.C.C? And calculate the A.P.F for F.C.C
and B.C.C.?
2.6- What is the Difference in structure between crystalline and non-crystalline

materials? And Define the three principle types of structural in which metallic

elements crystallize?

161
 Sheet No. ( 3 )
3.1- Mention the different types of material testing?

3.2- What is a Strain Gage? WHERE CAN A STRAIN GAGE be used?

3.3- Discuss a tensile test for a metal, Sketch a stress-strain in showing all the

curve detail and show the true curve difference?

3.4- Discuss a compression test for a metal, Sketch a stress-strain in showing all

the curve detail?

3.5- Define Poisson’s Ratio?

3.6 - steel specimen of 20 mm diameter and 100 mm gage length is pulled in

tension. The load elongation data is tabulated below.

Determine the following:

a) Plot the data as engineering stress-strain curve?

b) Compute the modulus of elasticity.

c) Calculate the percent elongation.

162
 Sheet No. ( 4 )

4.1- Discuss a fatigue test ?and Define the mean stress, the stress
amplitude, the maximum and minimum stress levels.

4.2- What are the factors which affecting fatigue life?

4.3- Classification of Fatigue Testing Machines and Sketch the fatigue
stresses with time?
4.4- Discuss The creep test, Shown the strain versus time ?
4.5- With sketch discuss the Creep curve for plastics :-
A) A constant load is applied
B) Creep rupture envelope when increasing the stress

163
 Sheet No. ( 5 )
5.1- What are the principles of fracture mechanics?
5.2- Define the differences between ductile and brittle fracture?
5.3-What are the Stages in the cup-and-cone facture?

5.4- In Impact test a 30 Kg hammer with Arm of 1.2 meter, which is

released from angle 75o and after impact the specimen the hummer angle
was 40o Sketch the impact testing, and Calculate the energy absorbed
by the specimen?

5.5- Sketch the curves for the three general types of impact energy–
versus–temperature behavior

5.6- Following is tabulated data that were gathered from a series of

Charpy impact tests on a ductile cast iron.

Temperature (oC) Impact Energy (J)

- 25 124
- 50 123
- 75 115
- 85 100
- 100 73
- 110 52
- 125 26
- 150 9
- 175 6
(a) Plot the data as impact energy versus temperature.
(b) Determine a ductile-to-brittle transition temperature as that temperature
corresponding to the average of the maximum and minimum impact
energies.

164
 Sheet No. ( 6 )
6.1- What is the effect of temperature on the mechanical properties?
6.2- What is the effect of Temperature on Strength, and Ductility?
6.3- Show the Influence of stress and temperature T on creep behavior?
6.4- Discuss the properties of each of :- Electric conductivity metal,
Semiconductor, and Insulator ( give examples for each type)?
6.5- Sketch the Electric resistivity of Cu depend on microstructure
created by alloying and also on environmental influences such as
temperature.
6.6- Show at Room-temperature the Electrical conductivity of various
materials?

6.7- Discuss the Conductivity-Classical Electron Theory

6.8- Define the Semiconductor Properties and List of semiconductor

materials

6.9- What is the insulators phenomenon of electrical breakdown?

Mention the different types of insulators

6.10- Mention the general properties of polymeric materials? Showing

the Mechanical Behavior of Polymers / Stress–Strain Behavior:

6.11- Mention the Polymer Types and discuss one of them?

165
 References

1- “ Materials Science and Engineering “ Kaushik

Kumar , Nehal Dash & Apurba Kumar Roy , ISBN: 9789385909641
Copy © Year 2018
2- “ Engineering Materials (Material Science) Unknown
Binding” Rangawala ,
Publisher Charotar Publication date January 1, 2017
3- “Atlas of Fatigue Curves “H.E. Boyer, Author , Copyright ©
1986 ASM International.
www.asminternational.org
4- "Materials Science and Engineering an Introduction"
William D. Callister, Jr. David G.
Rethwisch, Copyright © 2010, John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
Eighth Edition.

5- "Material Science" S.L. Kakani and Amit Kakani,

Copyright © 2004,New Age International (P) Ltd, Publishers

6- " Shigley’s Mechanical Engineering Design," Eighth Edition

Budynas−Nisbett Copyright ©2006 by The McGraw−Hill

7- “Electronic Properties of Materials “Rolf E. Hummel

Copyright © 1985 by Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg

166