Micro/Nano Robotics; M.

Sitti; 3/2/9 1

Water Actuation of Micro Robotics

J. B. Moidel, J.D. Ozer, O. Kuter-Arnebeck

The principles and methods of microfluidics are discussed and compared in this survey. Moving minute quantities of fluids
accurately is of interest to many different sciences. Pharmaceutical industries are interested in devices that can accurately and
efficiently transport reagents in an inert liquid medium [19]. Robotic applications of microfluidics and micro robotics are also being
studied. The principles of controlling flow in microchannels can be applied to micro robotic actuation. A group from the University of
Pittsburgh, led by Sung Kwon Cho, is working on designing a robot that moves on the surface of the water using Marangoni effects,
inspired by locomotion of small water insects [24]. In this survey, we investigate microfluidic actuation by electrokinetics, surface
effects, and piezoelectrics. Additionally, a brief summary on remote powering is included. Weight and size restrict the powering
options of microrobots operating on the water surface or sub-surface, so it would be advantageous to use remote powering.

Index Terms— micro-robotics, microfluidics, piezoelectrics, electrokinetics, Marangoni effects

has a correlation to the nature of the surface and gas interface.

I. INTRODUCTION
Micro-robots for application in water environments have
a large set of potential uses. Interested fields in the
development of underwater robot technology include
environmental outfits, the military, oil and ocean mining,
and geological surveys, among others [22]. In their own,
micro-robotics in or on the water have the potential to be
used as remotely operated and distributed sensor and
communication networks that would not be easily detected
by sonar or sight. However, due to difficulties in powering
and design of micro-robots, most of the research on
underwater robotics is being focused on larger robots.
Some of the problems include powering of robots and the
principle of locomotion [16], [22]. Most methods of robot
actuation utilize moving parts to create drag and lift forces
associated with traditional water based propulsion, such as a
piezoelectrically actuated tail [22]. This method is
relatively power consumptive and relies on moving parts
which introduces the possibility of mechanical failure and
dependence on one particular viscosity regime for micro-
robots. Using electrokinetic based actuation would be
adaptable to any range of surface interactions. However,
the problem of powering still exists as both methods require
relatively high voltage. Remote laser powering or an
induction coil approach could solve this problem.
II. ACTUATORS
The following sections are a discussion on the methods of
actuation of liquids different than classical solutions, such as
screws and piston pumps.
A. Methods of Liquid Actuation by Surface-Liquid
Interactions.
An interesting option for transport of and on water is to take
advantage of the phenomena of surface tension, γ [23].
Surface tension exists for liquid exposed to at least a three
body interaction potential and is best described as a function
of liquid contact angle, θc, of the water at the three body
interface. On droplets, the surface tension has a direct
correlation to droplet spreading and rounding, which in turn
Each of the two body interactions has its own surface tension.
From this, the contact angle can be calculated as a function of
the three surface tensions, known as the Young equation,
where  SV ,  SL , and  LV denote the surface tension values at
the solid-vapor, solid-liquid, and liquid-vapor interfaces,
respectively [19].
Equation 1
 
 SV SL
cos
LV
Changing the liquid-vapor pressure or humidity or other
property such as the polarity of the materials will change the
surface tension energies and thus the contact angle [23].
However, the properties of the solid interface are more
commonly tailored to affect the contact angle, [12]. Generally,
surfaces are easier to structurally alter with a high degree of
control. A variety of different techniques for accurately
controlling the solid-liquid surface tension have been
developed. One such technique is to change the surface
geometry. Creating periodic micro features on an otherwise
flat surface can achieve the effect of a super hydrophobic
surface. The nano featured roughness of the surface creates
hydrophobic capillaries which support the droplet by capillary
pressure, increasing the solid-liquid interfacial energy and the
contact angle [3]. A surface can be created with a gradient in
the solid-liquid interactions along its length. Then the
permanent surface tension gradient will passively move the
surface over a bulk fluid, which is a technique used by small
water insects, though they do not achieve this effect with a
hydrophobic surface patterning.
Another way to change the surface tension values is to
control the solid-liquid interaction with electrostatic effects,
which effectively changes the two body solid-liquid potential
[3]. This can be accurately controlled and is a variable method
for tuning the hydrophobicity or hydrophilicity of a surface
and can be dynamically controlled at voltages as low as 22V
[12]. Equation 2 gives the relation for the voltage dependence
of the interfacial energy [17], [3]. The voltage is V,  is
permittivity of the insulating surface that is in direct contact
Micro/Nano Robotics; M. Sitti; 3/2/9 2

with the liquid, and d is the thickness of the insulating surface.
This energy relation to the electro wetting can be described in
terms of contact angle also. The Maxwell Stress induced by
the electrostatic effect is concentrated in a very small region
on a water droplet's edge, about the thickness of the insulating
surface, and changes the contact angle by acting as an
additional force into the surface tension force balance [10].
Thus, to maximize the electrostatic manipulation of water, the
insulating layer should be made as thin as possible and the
electrodes spaced as close as possible [3]. Specific geometries
of electrode placement have been recommended in several
different sources to minimize the spacing between electrodes
and more accurately control the droplet velocity. Droplets can
be moved over surfaces, known as the Marangoni effect, by an
imbalance of the surface tension on the leading edge of the
droplet to the back, with electrowetting [23]. Detailed studies
have been conducted that utilize the passive effect of surface
interactions to induce flow in microchannels with very high
efficiency by creating a difference in surface tension between
the ends of the bulk water flowing through a channel [6], [19].
However, some research has indicated that electrowetting on a
super hydrophobic surface is more difficult to do because the
degree of surface roughness causes separation between the
water and the electrodes [12]. Note that the inducing the flow
of water in microchannels by this method still requires at least
a three body interaction.
generated. The deformation of the crystal lattice causes the
dipoles, usually randomly distributed through the crystal, to
align, creating a charge difference between one side of the
material and the other. The converse piezoelectric effect,
which is when an applied voltage causes a material to deform,
is observable in all piezoelectric materials [5].
Piezoelectric materials are often used in micro scale robots.
They offer many advantages for small scale applications.
Piezoelectric materials can be made in a variety of shapes and
sizes, increasing their range of applications. They are also
very efficient at converting electrical potential into pressure.
They are now without their downsides. For one thing,
Piezoelectric materials offer only linear motion, they do not
rotate. They also only create very small deformations,
meaning that a mechanical amplifier is necessary when large
displacements are needed. Piezoelectric materials require
large voltages to operate, which requires additional volume
and weight for electronics.

Equation 2

SL
(
V SL
) (
0)
2
V Figure 1: An Example of a Piezoelectric Fin System Being
2
d Used for Propulsion [13]

Equation 3 In swimming robots, piezoelectric actuators are often


cos V
cos 2
o
used to move fins back and forth [13], [16]. In these robots,
the piezoelectric elements are attached to mechanical
2
d
amplifiers such as simple pivots, or more complicated Grashof
linkages. These linkages are attached to the fins used for
Another method of actuating water through a channel is to
propulsion. The piezoelectric element is then driven with a
manipulate the electrical double-layer field at the solid-liquid
sinusoidal input to create a traveling wave in a flexible fin [16]
interface [21]. The electric double layer is described as a
or tail [13], depending on the scale of the robot, and the
force balance between the electrostatic charges on the surface
significant forces used for propulsion.
with the charges in the liquid. Flowing ions in the fluid induce
an electrical current to flow in the direction that the water is
moving [15]. So, running a current through the channel
surface can induce the water to flow in the same direction.
Modified Navier-Stokes equations are available in literature to
describe and accurately predict volume flow rates. In addition
to electrokinetic driven flow, micro-featured 'ribs' can be
patterned on the surface orthogonal to the axis of flow to
reduce friction and energy requirements [8]. This has an effect
similar to the discussed method of altering the liquid-solid
interface by increasing the nanoscale surface roughness.
Figure 2: Deformation Caused by a Traveling Sine Wave
in a Piezoelectric Motor's Stator [14]
B. The Piezoelectric Effect.
Despite their popularity when used in linear motion, clever
The piezoelectric effect is a phenomenon observable in many usage of piezoelectric elements can create other types of
crystalline and ceramic materials. When pressure, and mechanical work. Piezoelectric motors are a good example of
therefore strain, is applied to the crystal, a voltage is this trend [14]. Piezoelectric motors use a series of pie-slice
Micro/Nano Robotics; M. Sitti; 3/2/9
shaped piezoelectric elements arranged in a circle. A rigid
rotor is placed on top of the stator. When each piezoelectric
element is fed a sine wave (each section receiving a slightly
different phase), a traveling wave effect is created on the
stator. Friction between the stator and rotor causes the rotor to
turn. These motors are especially good for micro scale
robotics. Unlike classical, electric field driven motors, a
piezoelectric motor’s efficiency scales with surface area
(friction, or L2), not volume or even higher order effects (L3 or
higher). At small scales, conventional motors run at very high
speeds, often necessitating a very complicated gearbox if low
speeds are desired. Piezoelectric motors inherently run at
lower speeds, and the speed is adjustable to a great extent
without effecting the torque (by adjusting the speed of the
traveling wave in the stator) [14]. Piezoelectric motors do
have their share of disadvantages. Since they use piezoelectric
elements, the driving voltage must be very high. They also
require complex driving signals, since a separate sine wave
input is needed for each element in the stator.
Figure 3: Pumping Compartments in a Peristaltic Pump
[4]
Another novel application of piezoelectric technology is for
peristaltic pumping [4]. In a piezoelectric pump, two long
strips of piezoelectric elements are pressed together. Each
strip has many short piezoelectric elements arrayed across its
length. Each of these elements is actuated to make the strip
bend in a traveling sine wave shape. When the two strips are
fed sine waves 180 degrees out of phase, it creates a series of
compartments within the strip that form at one end, travel the
length of the pump, and empty on the other end [4]. These
compartments can be used for pumping fluid. The
piezoelectric pump moves small amount of liquid rapidly, so
the fluid flow is relatively steady, unlike conventional piston
pumps, which cycle much more slowly. The piezoelectric
pump also has a high back pressure, since there is never a
continuous path from the input to output.
III. REMOTE POWERING
There are three main options for powering micro-nano
robots. The first is onboard power, but battery technology is
not advanced enough to optimize the energy vs. weight ratio at
such small scales. For micro-nano robots on-board battery
power sources would end up being to big for the robot to be
efficient, thus it is safe to remove this option from
consideration. Another on-board power option that may be
3
viable is nuclear energy, but unfortunately is to dangerous to
put onto these robots at least until control methods for them
become much more advanced. Radioisotope thermoelectric
generators have been used in pacemakers and other small, self
contained devices. However, they are very inefficient in terms
of power per volume, and also somewhat dangerous. Fuel
cells also may be an option but again may be too big for
applications at the micrometer scale. Table 1 Shows an energy
to weight comparison for various batteries and fuel cells so
based off of the amount of energy we predict the robot will use
we can tell if one of these options would be viable and how
long the robot would work off of this power.
Table 1: Specific energy comparison of batteries and fuel cells
[22]
Another common option for small robots is an external
power source attached by wires. This option is viable, but has
the drawback of being tethered which would affect the motion
of such small robots and could have connection failures that
would be difficult to fix. The last option is wireless energy
transfer which is the option we would like to explore.
There are many different ways to transfer energy wirelessly,
“Electromagnetic induction works on the principle of a
primary coil generating a predominantly magnetic field and a
secondary coil being within that field so a current is induced
within its coils.”[20] This only works over a short range due to
the amount of power required to produce an electromagnetic
field.
“Various methods of transmitting power wirelessly have been
known for centuries. Perhaps the best known example is
electromagnetic radiation, such as radio waves. While such
radiation is excellent for wireless transmission of information,
it is not feasible to use it for power transmission. Since
radiation spreads in all directions, a vast majority of power
would end up being wasted into free space.”[3] In laser based
wireless power systems, electricity is converted into a laser
beam which is then pointed at a photocell which converts the
light energy back into electricity. Directed electromagnetic
radiation, such as lasers, are not very practical and can even be
Micro/Nano Robotics; M. Sitti; 3/2/9
dangerous. They require an uninterrupted line of sight between
the source and the device, as well as a sophisticated tracking
mechanism when the device is moving.
An MIT research team has come up with a better way of
wireless energy transfer called WiTricity, a more modern
implementation of some of Nikola Tesla’s ideas, which we will
be exploring further for our particular uses.
A. WiTricity
WiTricity is based off of the fact that “if two resonant
objects are brought in mid-range proximity, their near fields
(consisting of so-called 'evanescent waves') couple and can
allow the energy to tunnel/transfer from one object to the other
within times much shorter than all loss times, which were
designed to be long, and thus with the maximum possible
energy-transfer efficiency. Since the resonant wavelength is
much larger than the resonators, the field can circumvent
extraneous objects in the vicinity and thus this mid-range
energy-transfer scheme does not require line-of-sight. By
utilizing in particular the magnetic field to achieve the
coupling, this method can be safe, since magnetic fields
interact weakly with living organisms.”[20]. Also magnetic
fields do not interact with most common materials, which
reduces energy losses to the environment, thus adding to the
efficiency of this system.
Electricity is sent out by a transmitter through a nonradiative
electromagnetic field and is only picked up by receivers that
are designed to resonate with the field. The energy not picked
up by the receiver is reabsorbed back into the transmitter. The
way that this works is that the transmitters coil is coupled
inductively to an oscillating circuit and the receivers coil is
coupled inductively to a resistive load. “The coils are made of
an electrically conducting wire of total length l and cross-
sectional radius a wound into a helix of n turns, radius r, and
height h.”[1] “Self resonant coils rely on the interplay between
distributed inductance and distributed capacitance to achieve
resonance.”[1]. This concept works based on the principle that
two objects with the same resonant frequency exchange energy
efficiently.
IV. CONCLUSION
After a survey of propulsion methods that are different than
the classical , we identify the possibility of adapting a surface
tension based propulsion method controlled with electrostatics
for a micro-robot that operates on the surface of the water.
Though there is currently a research group working on this
method, the video of it, available on the Pittsburgh Post-
Gazette website, shows the robot to have an apparently
uncontrollable directionality. Steering could be remedied by
several different sections of electrwettable surface or, more
interestingly, a grid of perpendicular electrodes. This latter
method has not been investigated at all. After a brief
discussion, we believe that a matrix of perpendicular
electrodes could be used to control the velocity vector of a
4
droplet on a surface without guiding channels, as is the
technique now. Theoretically, the droplet could even be made
to spin.
For an underwater robot, the piezoelectric actuator and the
elecrtokinetic propulsion of water through a channel has
promise. If the body of the robot could be optimized to reduce
drag, the robot would essentially pull itself through the water
in contrast with classical notions of pumped water propelling a
craft via momentum flux. Piezoelectric actuators have been
used to great effect in robots requiring linear motion. Newer
applications have not received such thorough research, and
much groundwork remains to be done. Piezoelectric pumps
have only been demonstrated a handful of times, and many
aspects of their design are yet to be optimized, such as the
surface coating, wave shape, and size optimization. One major
hurdle faced by all projects involving piezoelectric elements is
the large voltage needed to drive them. Work on miniaturizing
the electronics, or on lowering their power requirements would
dramatically expand the number of applications they could be
used for.
For any robot, whether operating on the surface or
subsurface, the power needed for operation becomes a
problem. Micro-robots optimally function with little or no
battery weight. So the use of remote powering is of interest.
Depending on how far of a range we need to send energy
across we will decide whether to use resonant inductive energy
transfer or WiTricity. “Some of these wireless resonant
inductive devices operate at low milliwatt power levels and are
battery powered. Others operate at higher kilowatt power
levels. Current implantable medical and road electrification
device designs achieve more than 75% transfer efficiency at an
operating distance between the transmit and receive coils of
less than 10 cm.”[20]. Researchers working on WiTricity have
found that it is powerful enough to run a laptop over a room
sized distance even with objects obstructing a direct pathway.
Soljacic’s group was able “to transfer 60 Watts with ~40%
efficiency over distances in excess of 2 meters.”[1] Other
researchers suggested this technology to be used on
applications such as “electric-engine buses, RFIDs, and
perhaps even nano-robots.”[11]
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