Precision Engineering 61 (2020) 55–64

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Precision Engineering
journal homepage: http://www.elsevier.com/locate/precision

Mathematical modelling of superhydrophobic surfaces for determining the

correlation between water contact angle and geometrical parameters
T. Roy a, b, *, T.P. Sabharwal a, c, M. Kumar c, P. Ranjan c, R. Balasubramaniam a, c
a
Homi Bhabha National Institute, India
b
Department of Mechanical Engineering, Imperial College London, United Kingdom
c
Bhabha Atomic Research Centre, India

A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T

Keywords: Water-repellent surfaces have recently become an active area of research due to the desire to achieve self-
Mathematical modelling cleaning, anti-sticking, and non-wetting properties on surfaces. These surfaces are required for different engi­
Superhydrophobic surfaces neering applications. A superhydrophobic (SHP) surface achieves a water contact angle (CA) of 150� or greater.
Micro wire EDM
The physical understanding of the process by which surfaces attain superhydrophobicity is still limited, making it
Deep X-Ray lithography
Contact angle
difficult to fabricate such surfaces by machining due to the hierarchical scale of the features involved. This work,
therefore, aims to shed light on the physical understanding of the behaviour of a water droplet as it rests on a
micro textured surface. In the first part of the work, a mathematical model is developed that follows a basic and
novel approach of force balance considering a water drop sitting on a surface under static conditions. The various
forces responsible for equilibrium are individually evaluated. The model used to describe a surface’s interaction
with water establishes the relationships between various parameters in the force balance system. From these
relationships, the water contact angle (CA) required for superhydrophobicity was found through a simulation. In
the second part of this work, arrays of projected micro-features were fabricated on different materials using deep
X-Ray lithography (DXRL), micro wire EDM, and the wire wound method. The measured values of the CA on the
fabricated surfaces were similar to the values obtained from the model. The proposed model, therefore, helps in
designing SHP surfaces (SHSs) on large-scale arrayed micro-features based on several geometrical parameters.

1. Introduction
Water droplets interact with surfaces in many ways. The nature of
these interactions depends on the bonding of water droplets to the
surface compared to the bonding of water droplets to themselves. Sur­
faces range from superhydrophilic (i.e., full wetting) to super­
hydrophobic (SHP). SHP surfaces (SHSs) repel water to form near-
spherical droplets and which involve a weak water-surface interaction.
An SHS is one that achieves a water contact angle (CA) of 150� or
greater. The interest in highly water-repellent surfaces has grown in
recent years due to the desire for creating self-cleaning, anti-sticking,
and non-wetting properties on surfaces. Surfaces with these properties
are required for various engineering applications.
The concept of wetting was first proposed by Wenzel [1] during
experimentation on different fabrics. He also devised a technique for
comparing the water repellence imparted by dilute waterproofing baths
to that of paper and textile surfaces. In the past two decades, researchers
have paid keen interest to the study of SHSs found in nature viz. leaf
surfaces of different plants. For example, lotus and Colocasia esculenta,
which have high CAs [2], were studied to examine the dependence of
surface roughness on hydrophobicity [3,4]. The surfaces of leaves are
covered with micro/nano hierarchical textures coated by hydrophobic
wax that increases surface roughness. The combination of hierarchical
textures and wax of lotus leaves results in a CA of 162� [3].
Recent studies characterised the leaf surfaces on micro- and nano-
scales while studying their effects, as well as the effects of wax crys­
tals, on the hydrophobicity [5,6]. Learning from nature helped in the
tailoring of surfaces to mimic a state of hydrophobicity. Adding rough­
ness to the surfaces of materials, such as polymers, and subsequently
studying their surface properties could lead to the effective imple­
mentation for suitable applications. A few other examples of super­
hydrophobicity in nature include water strider legs, which possess a
highly defined microstructure coated with a layer of secreted wax [7].
As another example, the wings of some insects also show hydrophobic

* Corresponding author. London, SW7 2AZ, United Kingdom.

E-mail address: tribeniroy@gmail.com (T. Roy).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.precisioneng.2019.10.005
Received 11 June 2019; Received in revised form 24 September 2019; Accepted 7 October 2019
Available online 10 October 2019
0141-6359/© 2019 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.
T. Roy et al. Precision Engineering 61 (2020) 55–64

Fig. 1. (a) Water droplet resting on micro textured surface (b) Rectangular array of micro pillars.

properties due to their inherent surface microstructure and composition

[8]. Butterfly wings also show SHP properties due to a network of
micro-structured scales on their surface [9]. Knowledge of these surfaces
led to the design of artificial hydrophobic surfaces.
Various models are available in the literature to explain surface hy­
drophobicity. These models can help predict and explain the interaction
that water has with a surface. The two most commonly used models are
that of Wenzel and that of Cassie and Baxter. Both of these models use
water CA ðαÞ (i.e., the angle subtended by the droplet on the surface as a
measurement of surface hydrophobicity).
Surface texturing by micro- and nano-manufacturing processes has
gained significance as they are able develop surfaces with better prop­
erties. Application areas of surface texturing includes tribology for
friction reduction by increasing lubrication [10], design of tools for
machining [11], bio-medical application and many more. Micro- and
nano-textures on a solid surface can also modify the wetting properties Fig. 2. Schematic of a water droplet.
of that surface. This effect was first pointed out by Wenzel [1]. Wenzel’s
model showed that roughness can enhance the wetting property of a
2 The gravitational load inside the drop is not shared along the radial
solid surface. The Cassie and Baxter (CB) model [12] proposes that water
direction.
droplets sit on top of the protrusions of a surface. According to the CB
3 The solid surface is initially hydrophobic (i.e., the CA is > 90� ).
model, this phenomenon is due to the entrapment of air underneath the
4 The change in R0 before and after sitting on the surface is negligible.
droplet and between the protrusions, which makes water slip from the
5 The droplet is in an ideal cassie-baxter state
surface. This type of surface is preferred for self-cleaning in comparison
6 The air trapped between the liquid meniscus and the solid substrate
to a Wenzel type surface, which remains sticky.
is at atmospheric pressure.
Apart from the aforementioned models, many researchers have
7 The apparent contact area (projected area) made by the droplet
focussed on the complex dynamics governing the contact line for three
when deposited on the textured surface has a circular shape.
phases (i.e., liquid-gas-solid) [13,14]. Complex mathematical models
8 The weight of the droplet is uniformly distributed across the
have been developed to predict the CAs of different textured surfaces
apparent contact area.
[15–20].
9 The volume of the water penetrating between the pillars is
Most researchers have developed SHSs by mimicking naturally
negligible.
occurring surfaces, like that of a lotus leaf. The physical understanding
behind the relationship between the geometrical parameters of micro-
pillars and CA is not well researched in the literature. An attempt,
therefore, is made presently to predict the water CA on micro-textured
2.1. Force balance method on water droplet
surfaces by using both a basic and a novel force balance system in a
static arrangement. Further, an attempt is made to fabricate an SHS
Based on Fig. 2, the relationship between various parameters are
using the geometrical parameters obtained from the mathematical
given by Eqs. (1)–(3).
model.

2. Analytical model for determining water CA

A mathematical model is developed to determine the CA

ðα ¼ 90� þθÞ of a water droplet sitting on a surface. The parameters that
affect CA are (a) surface tension and (b) the geometrical parameters of
the micro-pillars (size and pitch) on which the water droplet rests. Fig. 1
(a) shows a liquid droplet on a textured surface from a rectangular cross
section of a pillar. The pillar size ðaÞ and pitch ða þpÞ are very small
compared to the radius of the droplet (R0 ). The following assumptions
were considered in the model.

1 The pillars are assumed to be arranged in an array (Fig. 1 (b)) and are
homogeneously distributed.
Fig. 3. Reaction forces on the water droplet.

56
T. Roy et al. Precision Engineering 61 (2020) 55–64

Fig. 4. Quarter symmetry of droplet. Fig. 5. Surface tension due to periphery.

R1 ¼ R0 cos θ (1) qffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi

x ¼ a þ p; y1 ¼ R20 ða þ pÞ2 (9a)
h ¼ R0 sin θ (2)
qffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
qffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi x ¼ 2 � ða þ pÞ; y2 ¼ R20 ½2ða þ pÞ�2 (9b)
H ¼ h þ y ¼ h þ R20 r2 (3)
qffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
The force balance method has been employed in this model to x ¼ n � ða þ pÞ; yn ¼ R20 ½nða þ pÞ�2 (9n)
determine the water CA based on the geometrical parameters of the
arrayed micro-pillars. At an equilibrium condition, various forces act on Eq. (9a) can be further modified and written as Eq. (10).
the water droplet to balance its weight. Fig. 3 depicts the force balance " � �2 #12
h i12
diagram for the water droplet. The weight of the droplet (W) has three
=
aþp
y1 ¼ R20 ða þ pÞ2 ¼ R0 1 (10)
supporting components (Eqs. (4) and (5)). R0

1 Reaction force by pillars (R) Expanding Eq. (10) via the binomial theorem (i.e., neglecting
2 Surface tension at the periphery (reaction force F0 ) second-order and higher order terms), and by doing likewise for Eqs.
3 Surface tension due to droop (reaction force F1 ) (9b)-(9n), the sum of the heights of all the pillars can be found (Eq. (11)).
Based on Eqs. (8) and (11), the average height of pillars can be found
The weight of the water droplet can be found from (Eq. (6)) based on (Eq. (12)). After determining the value of y from Eq. (12) and knowing
known parameters (i.e., the droplet radius size and the properties of all other parameter values in Eq. (7), the reaction force of the pillars can
water). be evaluated from Eq. (13).
2 3
Reaction force by pillars; Rþ ( � �2 )12 ( � � ��2 )12
= =
Xn � �
Weight of water droplet; W ¼ Surface tension at the periphery; F0 þ (4) 6
yn ¼ R0 6
aþp
þ ………: þ 1 ��n
aþp � 7
7
Surface tension due to droop; F1 4 1 R 0 R 0
� 5
n¼1

W ¼ R þ F0 þ F 1 (5) " (� )#
X
n �2
1 aþp �
yn ¼ R0 n 1 þ 4 þ 9………n2
2.2.1. Reaction force by pillars n¼1
2 R0
The reaction force due to pillars can be found from Eq. (7). Most of
" (� )#
the parameters are either known from previous work or can be found X
n
1
�2
a þ p nðn þ 1Þðn þ 2Þ
based on Eqs. (1) and (2). yn ¼ R0 n
2 R0 6
n¼1
� �
4
W ¼ ðVolume of dropÞ � ρg ¼ π R30 ρg (6) " (� �2 � �� �)#
3 X
n
R1 1 aþp 1 R1 R1 þaþp R1 þ2aþ2p
yn ¼R0
n¼1
aþp 2 R0 6 ðaþpÞ aþp aþp
R ¼ ðAverage height of water column above pillarsÞ
� ðArea of one pillarÞ � ðnumber of pillars in drop contact areaÞ � ðρgÞ " (� �2 )#
X
n
R1 1 aþp R1
yn ¼ R0 3
ðR1 þ a þ pÞðR1 þ 2a þ 2pÞ
n¼1
aþp 12 R0 ða þ pÞ
� πR21 (11)
R ¼ ðh þ yÞ � a2 � 2
� ðρgÞ (7)
ða þ pÞ
" (� �2 )#
Eq. (8) can be used to determine the height of the liquid column in R0 R1 1 aþp R1
ðR1 þ a þ pÞðR1 þ 2a þ 2pÞ
Pn
the upper curved portion of a drop (Fig. 4). From the generalized ðaþpÞ3
aþp 12 R0
n¼1 yn
y¼ ¼
equation of the arc of the circle, the height at any point in a semi-circular n R0 cos θ
qffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi aþp

diametric line, y ¼ R20 x2 (Eq. (3)).

�a þ p�� cos θ �� 1
�
Based on Fig. 4, it is known that at the centre of a droplet (i.e., when y¼ R0 ðR1 þ a þ pÞðR1 þ 2a þ 2pÞ (12)
cos θ a þ p 12
x ¼ 0, y ¼ R0 ), as x increases, the value of y changes appropriately.
Eqs. (9a)-(9n) show the values of y for changes in x. � � 2 2 2
1 a π R0 cos θ:ρ:g
R¼ R0 sinθþR0 ðR0 cosθþaþpÞðR0 cosθþ2aþ2pÞ
Sum of the height of all columns 12 ðaþpÞ2
y¼ (8)
Number of columns (13)

57
T. Roy et al. Precision Engineering 61 (2020) 55–64

Fig. 6. Schematic of droop formation.

2.2.2. Surface tension at the periphery of the water droplet The force in the droop (F1 ) is due to the surface tension force created
A portion of the weight of a water droplet is balanced by the vertical by the contact line between the tops of the pillars and the water droplet
component of the surface tension at the periphery of the water droplet (Figs. 3 and 6). As squared pillars are considered in this model, the force
(Fig. 5). The horizontal component of surface tension cancels out and, due to droop can be written as shown in Eq. (21). Based on the values of
hence, has no effect on force balance. The surface tension due to pe­ R1 and ψ obtained from Eqs. (1) and (20), Eq. (21) can be modified and
riphery (F0 ) can be found from Eq. (14). written in the form of Eq. (22).
F0 ¼ ðCircumferencial lengthÞ � ðSurface tensionÞ πR21
F1 ¼ � 4a � ​ T sin ψ (21)
ða þ pÞ2
F0 ¼ ð2πR1 Þ � ½T sinð90 þ θÞ� ¼ ð2πR0 cosθÞ � T cos θ ¼ 2πR0 cos θ 2
(14)
2 3
2.2.3. Surface tension force due to droop 6
6
7
7
A part of the weight of a water droplet is balanced by the surface 6
6
7
7
tension due to droop ( F1 ). The schematic of droop formation and the 2
π R0 cos2 θ 6
6 p 7
7
F1 ¼ � 4a � T sin6cos 1 2 37 (22)
angle formed with the vertical axis is shown in Fig. 6. In order to ða þ pÞ 2 6 ( 7
6 �� � �2 )12 7
determine F1 , the radius of the circle needs to be evaluated first. Since A 6
6
6�p�2
6 1 p
2
2
77
77
� � 4 24 2 þ V 55
ðh; kÞ is the centre of the droop circle and B ð0; 0Þ, E 2p;
2V 2
V , and D
ðp; 0Þ are points at the periphery of the droop circle, the equation of the
droop circle at B, E, and D can be written as shown in Eqs. (15)–(17). 2.2.4. Development of the mathematical model
From solving these equations, the radius, r’ was determined to depend Based on the force balance method described in Section 2.1, a
on only the co-ordinates whose values are known (Eq. (18)). Based on mathematical model has been derived. Evaluating various forces using
Eqs. (18) and (19), Eqs. (6), (13), (14) and (22), Eq. (5) can be modified and written as Eq.
(23). This describes the relationship between water CA and the
(15)
02
ðhÞ2 þ ðkÞ2 ¼ r
geometrical parameters of the pillars.
� �2 � � � �
(16)
02
p2 =
h þð V kÞ2 ¼ r 4 1
πR30 ρg ​ ¼ R0 sin θ þ R0 ðR0 cos θ þ a þ pÞ ðR0 cos θ þ 2a þ 2pÞ
3 12
a2 πR20 cos2 θ:ρ:g πR20 cos2 θ
(17)
02
ðp hÞ2 þ ðkÞ2 ¼ r þ
ða þ pÞ2 ða þ pÞ2
sffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi�ffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi�
ffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi��
ffiffiffiffiffiffiffi 2 3
�p�2 1 �p�2
2
6 7
r ¼ ’
þ V 2 (18) 6 7
2 2V 2 6 7
6 7
6 p 7
ψ can be determined as shown in Eq. (20). 6
� 4a � T sin6cos 1 2
7
37
6 ( 7
6 �� � �2 )12 7
AC p2 =
6 6�p�2 2 77
sin ψ ¼ ; cos ​ ψ ¼ ’ (19) 6
4 2 6
4 2 þ 1 p
V 2 77
55
r’ r 2V 2

p
cosψ ¼ sffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi�
ffiffiffiffiffiffiffi�
ffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi��
ffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi þ 2π R0 Tcos2 θ
� �2 � �2 2
2 p
2
þ 2V 1 p
2
V 2 (23)

2 3 2.2. Simulation results and discussion

6 7
6 p 7
ψ ¼ cos 1 6 sffiffi ffi ffi ffi ffi ffi ffi ffi ffi ffi ffi ffi ffi ffi ffi ffi ffi ffi ffi ffiffi ffi ffi ffi ffi ffi ffi ffi ffi ffi ffi ffi ffi ffi ffi ffi ffi ffi ffi ffi ffi ffi ffi ffi ffiffi ffi ffi ffi ffi ffi ffi
ffi 7 Eq. (23) was solved for θ at different values of pillar size (a) and
6 �� � �� � ��2 7
4 p
2
1 p
2
2
5 spacing (p) using open source code. The following procedure shows the
2 þ 2V V
2 2 various steps carried out during the simulation.
(20)
1 p Step I: Finding ‘a’ and ‘p’
¼ cos 2 3
( � The initialization of the simulation was carried out using random
�2 )12
6�p�2 � �2 7 values for ‘a’ and ‘p’ such that an angle ðα ¼ 90� þθÞ greater than 150�
26 1
4 2 þ 2V 2
p
V2 7
5 were obtained. Several iterations were performed for refinement. Using
this method, the threshold maximum values of ‘a’ and ‘p’ were deter­
mined at which the CA was just above 150� . Once the range of desired

58
T. Roy et al.
Fig. 7. Simulated results for water contact angle vs scaling factor.
parameters was obtained, the values for ‘a’ and ‘p’ were further refined
to have rationalisation between their ranges so they would iterate faster.
Step II: Finding the minimum value of ‘p’
To study the effects of ‘a’ and ‘p’ on CA, the pillar size (a) was fixed,
and ‘p’ was varied for each set of ‘a‘. After several attempts, it was found
that by decreasing ‘p’ below a value equal to ‘a‘, the increase in CA is
meagre. Thus, the minimum value of spacing between pillars was
considered to be equal to pillar size (i.e., a ¼ p, or ap ¼ 1).
Step III: Finding the maximum value of ‘p’
From the previous step and observations, the maximum ratio of ‘a’
and ‘p’ has been finalised as ap � 1. A greater number of iterations were
carried out in which ‘p’ varied and ‘a’ remained fixed. It was observed
that for different ‘a’ values, at a particular ratio of ap , CA approaches 90� .
This value of ap was found to be 15
1
. Thus, the ratio of ap from 1 to 15
1
was
used for the simulation. This can be expressed mathematically as
1 a
� � 1
15 p dation of the model becomes holistic considering the hydrophobic and
More simulations were carried out in which pillar size varied using
ratios of ap from 15
1
to 1 to determine optimal pillar size and spacing as
discussed below.
Step IV: optimal pillar size and spacing
The relationship between ‘a’ and ‘p’ was described in the previous
step. The same method will be used here to optimize the pillar size. The
simulation was carried out by taking various pillar values ( a ¼ 5 μm,
10 μm, 25 μm, 30 μm, 50 μm, 60 μm, 120 μm, and 185 μm) and corre­
sponding spacing values ( p ¼ 5–75 μm, 10–150 μm, 25–375 μm,
30–450 μm, 50–750 μm, 60–900 μm, 120–1800 μm, and 185–2775 μm).
The optimum values of ‘a’ and ‘p’ were found to be at 30 μm after a
certain number of iterations. Above this value, it was always found that
the CA < 150� when ap � 1. After this range of ap, the CA did not increase
substantially and remained below 150� . Simulated results for various
values of ‘a’ and corresponding range for ‘p’ are shown in Fig. 7. The x-
��
axis shows the scaling factor ap , and the y-axis shows the corre­
sponding CA. The results of the analysis indicate that an SHS is achieved
with small micro-pillars (i.e., a � 30 μm).
Considering a pillar size of 5 μm and a corresponding spacing of
5–75 μm, CA increases with an increase in scaling factor. The maximum
CAe168.1� is obtained for ap ¼ 1. However, there is a steep decrease in
CA as the scaling factor falls below 0.2. This is due to increases in pillar
spacing, which allow the water to wet the sides of pillars, thus leading to
59
Precision Engineering 61 (2020) 55–64
a decrease in water CA.
The CA obtained for pillar sizes of 10, 25, and 30 μm and their cor­
responding ranges of ‘p’ (i.e., 10–150 μm, 25–375 μm, and 30–450 μm,
respectively) reveal a trend for CA ‘α’ that is similar to that observed for
a pillar size of 5 μm – that is, the maximum values of CA were 163.1� ,
153.7� , and 151.2� , respectively, for ap ¼ 1. With an increase in pillar
size, the steep decrease observed in CA shifted towards an increasing
scaling factor. This indicates that larger spacing between pillars is
required for larger pillar sizes in order to reduce CA sharply.
With a pillar size of 30 μm, the maximum CA (¼151.2� ) was obtained
at ap ¼ 1, which is just at the SHP threshold. With a decrease in CA
below 150� , superhydrophobicity no longer holds good. A pillar size of
30 μm can, therefore, be thought of as the limiting value for super­
hydrophobicity. Also, it was observed that the maximum CA decreases
from 168.1� to 151.2� for the ratio of ap ¼ 1 as pillar size increases from
5 μm to 30 μm. Therefore, it can be inferred that CA decreases as pillar
size increases. The minimum CA that can be obtained via this model for a
��
particular ratio of pillar size and spacing ap is 90� . This ratio is
different for different pillar sizes. For the present case, with a ¼ 5, 10,
and 30 μm, the pillar-to-spacing ratios that achieve minimum CA are
0.05, 0.07 and 0.15, respectively. Thus, as the pillar size decreases the
scaling factor for the fixed minimum value of CA ¼ 90� also decreases.
Simulations were also carried out for dimensions of micro-textures
which do not attain superhydrophobicity but are very close to it. Cor­
responding to a ¼ 50 μm, the maximum CA found from the model is
143.6� . The CA decreases with the decreasing ratio of ‘a’ and ‘p’ and falls
to 90� when ap ¼ 0:2, continuing until ap ¼ 0:11. The steep decrease
a
occurs in this case when p < 0:5.
The minimum value of θ can be zero but cannot be negative. Phys­
ically, this will occur when the drop has a hemispherical shape. At this
stage, the CA will be 90� because θ will be zero. Because the surface has
been assumed to be hydrophobic, CA will not fall below this value.
Higher pillar sizes of 60, 120, and 185 μm were also simulated, and
the trends obtained at these pillar sizes are similar to the trend observed
when the pillar size was 50 μm. These sizes were included in the model
because the fabrication of pillars of these sizes is feasible and the vali­
the SHP range.
From the simulation results presented here, it is concluded that for a
scaling factor of ap ¼ 1, the maximum pillar size at which super­
hydrophobicity is achieved is 30 μm. For pillars larger than this,
superhydrophobicity cannot be achieved. Also, as the ratio of ap decreases
for a fixed value of ‘a’ (i.e., when the value of ‘p’ increases), CA also
decreases. The rate of decrease varies with pillar size according to the
slopes for smaller pillar sizes (initially, a steep rise is observed, followed
by a gradual rise). An almost uniform slope is observed for larger pillars.
As pillar size decreases, the ratio of pillar-size-to-spacing needed to
obtain a CA of 90� also decreases. When ap > 1, the increase in CA is
minimal; hence, a ratio of up to ap ¼ 1 is adequate for designing an SHS.
3. Design and fabrication of micro-pillar arrayed surfaces for
SHS
The key design parameters of arrayed micro-pillars to develop an
SHS are the pillar cross section ðaÞ and the spacing ðpÞ between the
pillars. Since the droop in Cassie Baxter state depends on the pillar
spacing, the height of the pillars should be greater than the droop for the
drop to be in an ideal Cassie Baxter state. As a rule of thumb, the height
of the pillars may be taken as equal to or greater than the spacing size.
The surface behaves as an SHS based on the particular combination of
pillar dimensions and spacing values.
T. Roy et al. Precision Engineering 61 (2020) 55–64

Table 1 the workpiece by making the wire pass against the face. This was ach­
Designed Texture values for samples. ieved by aligning the sample with the vertical plane in two mutually
Fabrication Material Sl. Pillar Pitch, p Maximum perpendicular directions. The depth of the machining was 50 μm.
Aside from the two aforementioned micro-machining processes,
� �
process No. size, a (μm) a
ratio
(μm) p

DXRL PMMA 1 60 85 0.71

2 120 120 1
3 185 320 0.58
Micro wire Brass 1 50 50 1
EDM
Wire winding Nichrome wire 1 25 25 1
on aluminium

3.1. Fabrication of arrayed micro-textures using micro-machining

processes
Fig. 10. (a) Nichrome wire of 25 μm diameter wound to create micro textures
Based on the mathematical model described in Section 2, it was (b) Magnified view of the parallel wires compared to the sharp point of a
found that superhydrophobicity was possible via micro-texturing. The paper pin.
features of this can be created by micro-machining processes, including
micro wire EDM [21] and deep X-Ray lithography (DXRL) [22]. Ex­
periments were carried out on two different substrate materials (brass
and poly methyl methacrylate (PMMA)). The selected materials were
taken from two entirely different families (i.e., a metal and a polymer).
Brass was selected for micro-texturing with micro wire EDM, whereas
PMMA was selected for compatibility with DXRL. Table 1 shows the
dimensions relating to the size of the pillars and the spacing between
pillars that were fabricated using the two micro-machining techniques
mentioned above. These dimensions were selected in line with the di­
mensions used during the simulation.
Fig. 8a and b shows the generated arrayed micro features projected
onto PMMA using DXRL. The fabrication process is described in brief
elsewhere [23]. Fig. 9 shows the arrayed micro features projected onto
brass using a micro wire EDM process. A pillar size and spacing of 50 μm
was selected for this substrate. A clean cut was made on the face with
wire EDM to remove any impurities on the surface of the substrate. The
workpiece was held horizontally with its face along the vertical plane Fig. 11. Contact angle 135.950 Measured on PMMA sample having pillar size
and parallel to the wire. Criss-cross patterns were made on the face of and spacing as 60 μm and 85 μm respectively.

Fig. 8. (a) Arrayed projected micro textures on PMMA by DXRL (b) Magnified image of pillars.

Fig. 9. (a) Arrayed projected micro textures on brass (6 mm diameter) by micro wire EDM.

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T. Roy et al. Precision Engineering 61 (2020) 55–64

Fig. 12. Water drop on textured brass Sample and angle measured equal
to 139.960
Fig. 14. Validation of theoretical values of contact angle obtained from
mathematical model with experimental results.

(Fig. 11). The characterisation of micro-features generated by micro

wire EDM for water CA showed that the actual CA was 139.96� (Fig. 12).
The surface produced by the wire wound method was also characterised
by the developed measurement method. The resultant value of CA was
154.1� (Fig. 13).

4. Model validation

Eq. (23) was solved for water CA ‘α’ (CA ¼ 90 þ θ) at different

Fig. 13. Water drop on the wire wound surface, very close to spherical form
CA 154.100
micro-texturing was also carried out by winding a micro-sized nichrome
wire (diameter ¼ 25 μm) around a rectangular aluminium block in two
mutually perpendicular directions as shown in Fig. 10. This method
generated pillars with a size and spacing of 25 μm.
3.2. Characterisation of surfaces for CA
Water CAs were measured using a water CA measurement setup
developed in house. The details of the setup are provided elsewhere. The
setup was initially calibrated with a standard goniometer [23].
A total of three arrayed projected micro features were fabricated on
PMMA using DXRL (described in Table 1). The maximum CA of 135.95�
was obtained for pillars with a size of 60 μm and spacing of 85 μm
values of pillar size ‘a’ and spacing ‘p’ through simulations (Fig. 7). Out
of a total of eight parameters in the formulation, three were constants
that are already known (T, ρ, and g). The radius of the drop R0 was
selected as 1 mm while considering the average size of raindrops [24]. θ
was the only unknown variable, which was to found to depend on var­
iations in ‘a’ and ‘p‘.
Based on the simulation results illustrated in Fig. 6, the fabrication of
micro-features was carried out as explained in Section 3. The results of
the simulation and measured values of CAs are shown in Table 2. It was
found that the water CAs observed for all cases, irrespective of the type
of manufacturing process, showed very good agreement with the water
CAs obtained by the proposed mathematical model.
Comparisons of CA values obtained for measured and simulated
values with respect to pillar size are shown in Fig. 14. It was observed
that the theoretical CA is less than the actual CA up to a value of 140� ;
after this, the trend is reversed, and the theoretical CA rises above the
actual CA. The measured and simulated values show very good agree­
ment, with a maximum error of 2.31%, which indicates that the
approach followed for modelling and the assumptions considered in
designing an SHS are justified.
5. Conclusion
An SHS displays a CA of greater than 150� , due to which a droplet

Table 2
Actual and theoretical values of contact angle for different process.
Sl. No. a (μm) p (μm) a=p Actual values Model values % error

CA, θ (in degrees) CA, θ (in degrees)

DXRL 1 60 85 0.71 135.95 132.8 2.31

2 120 120 1 127.92 126.7 0.95
3 185 320 0.58 96.8 94.68 2.19
Wire EDM 1 50 50 1 140.7 143.6 2.02
Wire wound 1 25 25 1 153.7 154.1 0.26

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T. Roy et al. Precision Engineering 61 (2020) 55–64

attains an almost spherical shape. The well-defined micro/nano features
on the surface are responsible for this. An analytical model for designing
an SHS using micro-texturing was developed from a force balance
method. Experiments were carried out to validate the mathematical
model. The following conclusions were derived from this study.
� Based on the force balance equation and by incorporating a practice
of balancing the weight of a water droplet according to the reaction
due to pillars and surface tension at the periphery and the droop, an
equation was derived to determine the water CA based on variations
in the geometrical parameters of the micro-pillars.
� Simulated results showed that superhydrophobicity can be achieved
with a pillar size of 30 μm. A pillar any larger than this cannot result
in superhydrophobicity.
� The spacing between pillars was equally important in determining
superhydrophobicity. In each case, a pillar-size-to-spacing ratio of 1
resulted in the highest water CA.
� Based on the variation in the size of pillars and spacing used during
simulations of the mathematical model, the fabrication of arrayed
micro features was carried out on different materials using DXRL,
micro wire EDM, and the wire wound method. The values of water
CA measured on the fabricated structures showed very good agree­
ment with the values simulated via the proposed mathematical
model.
� An SHS with CA ¼ 153.7� was achieved on a surface with pillar size
of 25 μm with pillar spacing of 25 μm.
Funding source
This research did not receive any specific grant from funding
agencies in the public, commercial, or not-for-profit sectors.
Declaration of competing interest
There are no conflict of interest.
Acknowledgements
The authors are grateful to Dr. V. Dhamgaye for allowing us to use
the DXRL facility at RRCAT, India.

Appendix A. Supplementary data

Supplementary data to this article can be found online at https://doi.org/10.1016/j.precisioneng.2019.10.005.

Appendix

Simplification of Eq. (18).

Eq. (16)⇒
� �2
2
p2 h þ ð V kÞ2 ¼ r’
=

� �2
2
⇒ p2 =
þ h2 p:h þ V 2 þ k2 þ 2:V:k ¼ r’

� �2
p2 2
⇒ =
þ h2 p:h þ V 2 þ k2 þ 2:V:k ¼ r’

� �2
⇒ p2 =
p:h þ V 2 þ 2:V:k ¼ 0ðusing Eq: 15Þ (A1)

Eq. (17)⇒
2
ðp hÞ2 þ ðkÞ2 ¼ r’

2
⇒p2 þ h2 2:p:h þ k2 ¼ r’

⇒p2 2:p:h ¼ 0 (using Eq. (15))

p2
⇒p:h ¼ (A2)
2
p
⇒h ¼ (A3)
2
Eq. (15)⇒
2
ðhÞ þ ðkÞ2 ¼ r’
2

� �2
2
⇒ p
2
þ ðkÞ2 ¼ r’ (using A3)
rffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi�
ffiffiffiffiffiffi�ffiffiffiffi
p 2
⇒k ¼ r ’ 2
(A4)
2
Using A2 and A4 in A1,
�
�2 p2 rffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi�
ffiffiffiffiffiffi�ffiffiffiffi
p 2
⇒ p2 þ V 2 þ 2:V: r’ 2
=
¼0
2 2

62
T. Roy et al. Precision Engineering 61 (2020) 55–64

rffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi� ffiffiffiffiffiffi�ffiffiffiffi
p 2 p2 �p �2
⇒2:V: r’ 2 ¼ 2 V2 =
2 2
rffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi�
ffiffiffiffiffiffi�ffiffiffiffi � �
2 p 2 1 �p �2
⇒ r ’ ¼ 2 V2 =
2 2:V

�p�2 � 1 �� �2 ��2
2
⇒r’ ¼ p2 =
V2
2 2:V

�p�2 � 1 �� �2 ��2
2 p2
⇒r’ ¼ þ =
V2
2 2:V
sffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi�
ffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi�ffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi��
ffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
�p�2 1 �p �2
2
⇒r’ ¼ þ 2
=
V2
2 2:V

Eq. (23)
2 3
6 7
6 7
6 7
� � � � 2 2 6 7
4 3 1 a πR0 cos2 θ:ρ:g πR20 cos2 θ 6 p 7
6 7
πR0 ρg ​ ¼ R0 sin θ þR0 ðR0 cos θ þa þpÞ ðR0 cos θ þ2a þ2pÞ 2
þ 2
�4a �T sin6cos 1 2 37
3 12 ða þ pÞ ða þ pÞ 6 ( � 7
6 �2 )12 7
6 6�p�2 � �2 77
6 26 þ 1 p
V 2 77
4 4 2 2V 2 55

þ 2πR0 Tcos2 θ
(A5)

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T. Roy et al. Precision Engineering 61 (2020) 55–64

ρ: Density of water (kg/m3) r’ : Radius of circle formed by droop (mm)

g: Acceleration due to gravity (m/s2) V: Droop height (mm)
T: Water surface tension (N/m) SHP: Superhydrophobic
ψ : Angle between the tangent of the droop and normal to the pillar SHS: SHP surface
n: Number of pillars in any radial direction (due to symmetricity, only the radial line is
R1
considered to find the average) ¼ aþp ¼ R0aþp
cos θ

64