Fundamentals Of

Differential Protection
 Differential Protection

Used where:
X Protection co-ordination is difficult / not
possible using time delayed elements
X Fast fault clearance is critical

Can be used on all items of plant in one form or

another (i.e. Generators, transformers, lines, cables,
busbars, motors) to form a defined zone of
protection dictated by current transformer location.

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 Differential Protection Principle (1)

Protected
Circuit

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 Differential Protection Principle (2)

Protected
Circuit

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 High Impedance
Principle

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 High Impedance Principle (1)

Based on Merz-Price circulating current principle

X Requires matched current transformers of low

reactance design, typically class X or equivalent
X Equal CT ratios
X Typically current operated relay with an external
stabilising resistor
X Non-linear resistor may be required to limit
voltage across relay circuit during internal faults
X Suitable for zones up to 200 - 300 metres
(typically)

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 High Impedance Principle (2)

Protected
Circuit

ZM RCT RCT ZM

RL IF RL

IS

VS R

RL RL

Maximum voltage across relay circuit, Vs = If (RCT + 2RL)

To limit current through relay to < Is the relay impedance
Rrelay > Vs/Is
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 Stabilising Resistor

Use of stabilising resistor:

X Where relay impedance alone is too low to

ensure stability then the relay circuit
impedance can be increased through the
addition of an external resistor connected in
series with the relay
X Required circuit impedance > Vs/Is
X RSTAB > (Vs/Is) - Rrelay

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 Current Transformer Output

Current transformer knee point requirements:

X Current transformers must have sufficient

output to ensure fast operation of relay during
internal fault conditions
X Required Vk > 2 Vs (typically - depends on
actual relay type)

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 Non-Linear Resistors (Metrosils)

During internal faults the high impedance relay

circuit constitutes an excessive burden to the CT’s.
A very high voltage develops across the relay
circuit and the CT’s which can damage the
insulation of CT’s, secondary wiring and relay.
Magnitude of peak voltage VP is given by an
approximate formula (based on experimental
results)
VP = 2 √2VK (VF - VK)
Where VF = If (RCT + 2RL + RSTAB + Rrelay)
Metrosil required if VP > 3kV

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 High Impedance Circuit Arrangement
I

RST
VM VS

RR

Metrosil Characteristic
V = CIβ
Suitable values of C & β chosen based on :
(1) Max secondary current under fault conditions
(2) Relay setting voltage
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 Low Impedance
(Biased) Protection

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 Low Impedance Principle

X High Impedance protection limits the spill current to a

value less then relay setting
X Low Impedance principle provides no such limit on spill
but instead artificially raises the setting of the relay
X The higher the through current, the higher the potential
spill and hence the greater the increase in setting
Required
X The increase in setting is therefore normally based on a
percentage of the through current
X Protection is commonly referred to as percentage biased
differential protection

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 Biased Differential Scheme (1)

Spill
Current

Low Imp.

Trip

No Trip

Is High Imp.

Through Current

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 Biased Differential Scheme (2)

Differential
Current

BIAS BIAS I I1 - I 2
I1 2
OPERATE

I1 - I 2
OPERATE RESTRAIN

I1 + I2 Mean Thro Current

2

Bias = Differential (or Spill) Current

Mean Through Current

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 Low Impedance Principle

X Does not rely on equal ratio CT’s (ratio correction

can be done via external interposing CT’s or
internally to the relay)
X Limit on allowable spill dictated by percentage of
bias used - practical limit to give sufficient
sensitivity to internal faults
X Amount of spill related to CT size - stability limits
and CT requirements are therefore dependant on
each other

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 Unit Protection Involving Distance Between
Circuit Breakers (1)

A B

Relaying
R
Point
Trip B

Trip A

Simple Local Differential Protection

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 Unit Protection Involving Distance Between
Circuit Breakers (2)

A B
Communication
Channel

Relaying Relaying
Point Point
R R

Trip A Trip B

Unit Protection Involving Distance

Between Circuits

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 Summation
Transformers

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 Summation Transformer Sensitivity
for Different Faults (1)
IA
1
IB
1
IC Output for operation = K

IN

Let output for operation = K

(1) Consider A-E fault

for relay operation : IA (1 + 1 + 3) > K
IA > 1/5K or 20%K
20 >Differential Protection – January 2004 20
 Summation Transformer Sensitivity
for Different Faults (2)
(2) B-E fault
for relay operation : IB (1 + 3) > K
IB > 25%K

(3) C-E fault

for relay operation : IC x (3) > K
IC > 331/3%K

(4) AB fault
for relay operation : IAB x (1) > K
IAB > 100%K

(5) BC fault
for relay operation : IBC x (1) > K
IBC > 100%K

(6) AC fault
for relay operation : IAC (1 + 1) > K
IAC > 50%K
21 >Differential Protection – January 2004 21
 Line Charging Currents

Line charging currents flow in at one end of the feeder only

and is therefore potentially capable of unbalancing a
protective system.

Charging currents (or capacitance currents) of overhead lines

generally low.

Charging current levels of underground cables however can

be high enough to dictate minimum permissible operating
level of the protection.

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 Pilot Characteristics

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 Pilot Wire

Resistance and shunt capacitance of pilots introduce

magnitude and phase differences in pilot terminal currents.

Pilot Resistance
Attenuates the signal and affects effective minimum operating
levels.

To maintain constant operating levels for wide range of pilot

resistance, padding resistor used.

R Rp/2 R

Rp/2

Padding resistance R set to ½ (1000 - Rp) ohms

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 Pilot Capacitance

Circulating current systems :

X Pilot capacitance effectively in parallel with

relay operating coil.

X Capacitance at centre of pilots has zero

volts across them.

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 Pilot Isolation
Electromagnetic Induction

Field of any adjacent conductor may induce a voltage in the pilot

circuit.

Induced voltage can be severe when :

(1) Pilot wire laid in parallel to a power circuit.
(2) Pilot wire is long and in close proximity to power circuit.
(3) Fault Current is severe.

Induced voltage may amount to several thousand volts.

Danger to personnel
Danger to equipment

Difference in Station Earth Potentials

Can be a problem for applications above 33kV - even if feeder is

short.
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 Formula for Induced Voltage

e = 0.232 I L Log10 De/S

where I = primary line E/F current

L = length of pilots in miles
De = Equiv. Depth of earth return in metres = 655 . √e/f
e = soil resistivity in Ω.m
f = frequency
s = separation between power line and pilot circuit in
metres

Effect of screening is not considered in the formula.

If the pilot is enclosed in lead sheath earthed at each end, screening is
provided by the current flowing in the sheath.
Sheath should be of low resistance.

0.3 V / A / Mile Unscreened Pilots

0.1 V / A / Mile Screened Pilots

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 Isolation Transformers

Pilot circuits and all directly connected equipment should be

insulated to earth and other circuits to an adequate voltage
level.

Two levels are recognised as standard : 5kV & 15kV

Relay Case

5kV 15kV
Pilot
Terminal
Relay
Input Relay
Circuit
Pilot
Wire
2kV 5kV

28 >Differential Protection – January 2004 28

 Supervision of Pilot Circuits

Pilot circuits are subject to a number of hazards, such as :

Š Manual Interference
Š Acts of Nature (storms, subsidence, etc.)
Š Mechanical Damage (excavators, impacts)
Therefore supervision of the pilots is felt to be necessary.
Two types exist :
Š Signal injection type
Š Wheatstone Bridge type

29 >Differential Protection – January 2004 29

 Pilot Wire Supervision

Circulating
Current
Schemes

Pilot Wire Maloperate

Open Circuited

Pilot Wire Stable

Short Circuited

Pilot Wire Maloperate

Crossed
Maloperation occurs even under normal loading conditions if
3- phase setting < ILOAD.

Overcurrent check may be used to prevent maloperation.

Overcurrent element set above maximum load current.

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 Numerical Feeder
Differential
Protection

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 All Digital Design

0IIIIII0I0...0I0IIIIII0
Digital messages
End A End B

A/D μP

Digital communication
interface
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 Direct Optical Fibre Link

OPGW

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 Multiplexed Optical Link

Earth wire optical fibre

Multiplexer Multiplexer
34 Mbit/s

64k Telephone
bits/s
Telecontrol
End A End B
Teleprotection

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 Multiplexed Microwave Link

PCM PCM
Multiplexer Multiplexer

Telephone
64k
bits/s Telecontrol

End A End B
Teleprotection

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 Propagation Delay Problem

Relay A Relay B

Current at B

Current received from A

Propagation delay

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 Protection of Transformer Feeders

Power transformer

Ratio
correction

Vectorial
correction

Virtual interposing CT Virtual interposing CT

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 Direct Intertrip

Relay Relay
A B Transformer
Protection
DTT=1
Data
Message
- + - +

X The channel could alternatively be used along with

the distance elements and PSL to configure
permissive or blocking distance aided schemes
39 >Differential Protection – January 2004 39