IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON PLASMA SCIENCE, VOL. 38, NO.
10, OCTOBER 2010
High Pulsed Power Sources for Broadband Radiation
Baptiste Cadilhon, Laurent Pécastaing, Thierry Reess, Antoine Silvestre de Ferron, Pascal Pignolet,
Stephane Vauchamp, Joël Andrieu, and Michèle Lalande, Member, IEEE
Abstract—This paper explains the design and production of
two autonomous ultrawideband (UWB) radiation sources. These
sources consist of a high-gain broadband antenna that is driven by
one of two subnanosecond pulsed power sources. Each source is
made up of a Marx generator and a pulse-forming device based
on the use of a gaseous spark gap. The first source combines
a four-stage 200-kV/34-J Marx generator with a coaxial pulse-
forming line. Its main characteristics are an output voltage of
100 kV, a 250-ps rise time, a subnanosecond pulse duration, and
a repetition rate of about 40 Hz. The second pulsed source is
a ten-stage subnanosecond Marx generator that delivers pulses
in the 250-kV/1.5-J range, with a 300-ps rise time and a sub-
nanosecond pulse duration at a pulse repetition rate of 350 Hz.
Probes were produced based on capacitive line dividers to measure
both the temporal characteristics and the high-voltage (HV) am-
plitude of the pulses delivered by the pulsed power sources. The
antenna, combined with these two pulsed sources, is a traveling-
wave antenna called the Valentine antenna. Some mechanical
modifications were made to the antenna to improve its dielec-
tric strength. First, a 3-D model of the antenna was created on
time-domain electromagnetic software to study the influence of
these modifications on its main radiating characteristics. Its high
gain and its capability to radiate short pulses without dispersion
allow us to achieve a high measured figure of merit (the maximum
value of far-field peak-to-peak electric field strength multiplied
by the distance). A new method called the Instantaneous Elec-
tromagnetic Field Measurement by Signature of a Neutral Object
(MICHELSON) method is used to measure the very intense elec-
tromagnetic fields that are radiated. The incident field is diffracted
by a special small-dimension target. The diffracted field is mea-
sured by a conventional low-power UWB antenna. The target that
is used has small dimensions, and no cables are used in the field
region; thus, the electromagnetic interference that is generated
and undergone by the measurement device is considerably limited.
The figure of merit that is measured is 436 kV.
Index Terms—Compact pulsed power source, gaseous spark
gap, high-bandwidth probe, high-voltage (HV) generator, Marx
structure.
I. I NTRODUCTION /BACKGROUND
F OR the last few years, the generation of high-power elec-
tromagnetic waves has been one of the major applications
Manuscript received September 1, 2009; revised November 27, 2009; ac-
cepted January 25, 2010. Date of publication March 22, 2010; date of current
version October 8, 2010.
B. Cadilhon is with the Atomic Energy Commission (CEA), 33114 Le Barp,
France.
L. Pécastaing, T. Reess, A. Silvestre de Ferron, and P. Pignolet are with the
Laboratoire de Génie Electrique, Université de Pau et des Pays de l’Adour,
64053 Pau, France (e-mail: lesaca64@yahoo.fr).
S. Vauchamp, J. Andrieu, and M. Lalande are with the Department of
Waves and Associated Systems (OSA), XLIM Research Institute, University
of Limoges (National Center for Scientific Research (CNRS), 19100 Brive,
France.
Color versions of one or more of the figures in this paper are available online
at http://ieeexplore.ieee.org.
Digital Object Identifier 10.1109/TPS.2010.2042732
0093-3813/$26.00 © 2010 IEEE
2593
in high pulsed power (HPP). In each case, the HPP generator
is made up of a primary energy source and a load, separated
by a power-amplification system that forwards the energy from
this source to the load. When the load is an antenna, it is
possible to generate electromagnetic waves in the form of
pulses. The frequency band of the wave that is radiated can
cover a very broad spectrum. In this case, the technique is
of undoubted interest for a wide variety of civil and military
applications. These applications can include, for example, ultra-
wideband (UWB) pulse radars to detect buried mines [1] or to
rescue buried people, the production of nuclear electromagnetic
pulse (NEMP) simulators for electromagnetic compatibility and
vulnerability tests on electronic and IT equipment [2], and
UWB communications systems and electromagnetic jamming
[3], the principle of which consists of focusing electromagnetic
power waves on an identified target to compromise the target’s
mission by disrupting or destroying the electronic components
that constitute it [4], [5]. Modern digital electronics are in-
creasingly sensitive to electromagnetic radiation in the lower
gigahertz range. The application of high-power microwave
(HPM) weapons to destroy such electronics generates a new
capability for defense, antiterror, and rapid-reaction forces.
Due to the nonlethal and low-collateral-damage properties of
HPM weapons, they will play an important role in future
operations.
HPM technologies generate a significant threat for target
structures that are equipped with modern digital electronics.
The aim of an HPM weapon system is to interact with the
increasing combination of software and hardware functions in
electronics. To affect any target that uses such radiation, the fre-
quency has to be matched to the target’s frequency absorption
spectrum. However, pulsed UWB radiation with pulse durations
in the subnanosecond range does not need to be matched to a
single target this way.
It is in this context that this paper has been carried out,
which deals with the study, production, and characterization
of an “all-electric” device that can radiate intense transient
electric fields in a repetitive mode of operation. Our device is
composed of a dc/dc (300 V/60 kV) autonomous power supply,
a subnanosecond Marx generator (a few hundred kilovolts) and
a traveling-wave high-gain antenna that has been improved to
withstand high-voltage (HV) pulses in a wide frequency band.
An extremely short pulse is generated by this source and is
transmitted through the transmission antenna. Our device must
transmit waveforms in a frequency bandwidth of 300 MHz–
2.5 GHz.
The basic structure of our proposed repetitive HPM system
is shown in Fig. 1.
2594 IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON PLASMA SCIENCE, VOL. 38, NO. 10, OCTOBER 2010

Fig. 1. Basic structure of our repetitive HPM system.

II. D ESIGN OF T WO S UBNANOSECOND HPP S OURCES

BASED ON M ARX G ENERATORS
A. Pulsed Power Source of 100 kV-40 Hz: Leonardo
This source is made up of a 200-kV nanosecond-rise-time
Marx generator (described in [6] and [7]) that supplies energy
to two gaseous sharpening spark gaps in a pulse-forming line
(PFL) with an impedance of 50 Ω. The stability of the UWB
source’s parameters is closely linked to the stability of the HV
pulsed source’s pulse characteristics. It seems that the primary
driver has to deliver a HV pulse with a fast rise time and good
reproducibility to lead to the stable erection of the switches in
the PFL [8].
The mechanical and electrical characteristics of the Marx
generator on its own are described in [6]. The generator is
then associated with a pulse-forming device. The energy that is
released by the Marx generator thus supplies a forming line that
allows a voltage pulse to be created, the temporal characteristics
of which entirely depend on the operation of the two forming
spark gaps.
The line is created in an aluminum cylinder with a length of
240 mm and an outer diameter of 130 mm. It is made up of a
section of a coaxial line with an impedance (Z0 = 50 Ω) and
of two pressurized spark gaps (see Fig. 2): 1) the peaking spark
gap and 2) the crowbar spark gap. The first spark gap sharpens
the rising edge of the incident pulse. The second spark gap (the
“crowbar” spark gap) short-circuits the line by forming a falling
edge. The section of the line allows the signal to be formed
according to the principles of a line discharge, i.e.,
• a rectangular pulse whose duration is equal to twice the
electric length of the line (only if the crowbar spark gap
switches after this propagation time; otherwise, it is the
setting of this spark gap that establishes the duration);
• an amplitude that is equal to half of the Marx generator
when the load is equal to Z0 .
The second section of the line downstream these two spark
gaps allows the transverse electromagnetic (TEM) mode to
be reestablished to forward the signal that is generated to the
transmitting antenna. The insulating material that constitutes
the line is identical to the material for the construction of the
generator output to maintain the diameters and impedances
(50 Ω) of these two structures. The line’s imperviousness and
mechanical strength allow the spark gaps to be pressurized up
to approximately 100 bars.
An initial study allowed the most appropriate interelectrode
and inter (spark gap distances to be determined. In light of the
results of this paper, the most satisfactory configuration proves
Fig. 2. Three-dimensional schematic of the pulse-forming set.
to be the design in which the crowbar spark gap has a smaller
interelectrode distance (1 mm) to obtain the shortest possible
fall times. The peaking spark gap’s interelectrode distance must
be large enough to reach voltages of 100 kV but small enough
to switch as quickly as possible. The peaking spark gap’s
distance must also be greater than that of the crowbar spark
gap to favor short pulse durations. Furthermore, the center-to-
center distance between the two spark gaps must be as small as
possible to reduce the duration of the pulses. This distance is
set at 8 mm. For these last two reasons, the peaking spark gap
was set at 1.5 mm.
A series of experimental tests was carried out to determine
the performance of the complete device in this configuration
according to the air pressure (Marx) and hydrogen pressure
(PFL) involved. The rise time of a gas switch is found to be
strongly dependent on the electric field value [9]. Moreover,
for a given electric field, the rise time decreases with the gas
density. Hydrogen is therefore chosen in the PFL to minimize
this rise time.
All the tests were performed on a resistive load of 50 Ω.
First, we present the evolution of the device’s output voltage
according to the hydrogen pressure in the line’s spark gaps
(see Fig. 3). This paper is carried out at different pressures in
the Marx generator and, therefore, at different charging voltage
levels. Results are presented for only five significant pressures.
When there is a constant pressure in the line, the value of the
output voltage does not vary very much but slightly increases
as the amplitude of the voltage that is delivered by the Marx
generator increases. This result is due to an overvoltage on
the forming peaking spark gap when the pressure in the Marx
generator increases. For a pressure in the line of 50 bars and a
CADILHON et al.: HIGH PULSED POWER SOURCES FOR BROADBAND RADIATION
Fig. 3. Output voltage in relation to the pressure in the PFL, parameterized by
the voltage in the Marx generator.
Fig. 4. Rise time in relation to the pressure in the PFL, parameterized by the
pressure in the Marx generator.
pressure in the generator of at least 18 bars, the amplitude of
the voltage reaches 100 kV.
Fig. 4 shows the results of the experimental study on the rise
time of the output pulse in the same experimental configura-
tions. When there is constant pressure in the line, the rise time
decreases as the pressure in the Marx generator increases. The
variation in this pressure modifies the amplitude of the output
voltage of the Marx generator and, therefore, the value of the
electric field that is applied to the peaking spark gap [8]. For
the highest voltage that is applied to the line (the pressure in
the Marx generator is up to 18 bars), the rise time seems to be
only almost independent of the pressure in the line, whereas
it is fully independent for low-amplitude pulses (the pressure
in the Marx generator is down to 10 bars). When the Marx
generator is pressurized under 18 bars, the average rise time of
the output pulse is relatively constant at approximately 340 ps,
whereas when the Marx generator is pressurized under 10 bars,
the output rise time decreases from 550 ps to 450 ps as the
pressure in the PFL increases from 15 bars to 35 bars.
The fall of the pulse is governed by the crowbar spark gap.
The graph in Fig. 5 clearly shows that the pressure in the
line plays an important role in optimizing the switching time
of the spark gap. Similar to the previous study of the rise
time, the application of the higher amplitude pulse to the spark
gap results in the shortest switching times. Fall times of less
2595
Fig. 5. Fall time in relation to the pressure in the PFL, parameterized by the
pressure in the Marx generator.
Fig. 6. Setting the amplitude of the output voltage by adjusting the pressure
in the line.
than 200 ps (an average of five shots) are obtained in this
configuration with good reproducibility at the highest hydrogen
pressures.
Fig. 6 superimposes three pulses that are achieved on a
50-Ω broadband load. These signals are generated with three
hydrogen pressures (i.e., 20, 35, and 50 bars) in the line at a
constant pressure of 17 bars in the Marx generator. θ represents
the midheight pulse width. The amplitude of the voltage can be
set at 55, 75, and 98 kV, respectively, with an uncertainty of
5%–10%.
B. Pulsed Power Source of 250 kV-350 Hz: George
The second pulsed power source called “George” was de-
veloped to reach higher output voltages and a higher repetition
rate at a more suitable volume (power ratio. The original idea
of this source was to directly integrate the pulse-forming device
(a peaking stage and a crowbar switch) within the last stage of
a Marx structure.
This generator is made up of a stack of ten vertical stages.
Each stage consists of a capacitor, a set of stainless steel
electrodes, and a polyvinyl chloride (PVC) disc. The energy
is stored in HV 500-pF/100-kV dc capacitors through 33-kΩ
axial resistors. These ten capacitors are equally divided into two
2596
Fig. 7. Photograph of the generator, equipped with its load and referencing
resistors.
columns of five (see Fig. 7), which allows the loading time to
approximately be halved in relation to a conventional structure
(when the DC power supply is sufficient). Thus, the capacitors’
charging time (to reach 99% of the maximum load voltage [1])
is 2.3 ms. In this configuration, the repetition rate limitation is
435 Hz, with no loss of output voltage (compared to the single-
shot mode of operation).
Each spark gap is formed by two stainless steel electrodes.
These ten horizontal gaps are adjusted by increasing the gap
distance from the first gap to the last gap so that the generator
switch is regular. Thus, the first stage has a 0.8-mm gap, and
the last stage (largest) is set at 1.25 mm. Their 5-mm curvature
radius means that we obtain a relatively homogeneous field
in the insulating gap. The complete generator with the vessel
represents a cylindrical volume of 20 L (diameter = 20 cm and
length = 66 cm).
This generator’s main original feature lies in the design of its
last stage, as represented in Fig. 8.
The last stage was designed different from the other stages
to insert a peaking capacitor CP , which is necessary to obtain
very fast rise times, and to match the output to a 50-Ω coaxial
line structure. This peaking capacitor is made up of a PVC
component that is maintained between the electrode and the
vessel enclosure. This component’s geometrical dimensions
are defined in such a way that it withstands the considerable
dielectric constraints on this last stage and to establish a low-
value peaking capacitor (around 40 pF).
Moreover, with a crowbar spark gap on the output electrode
of the generator, it is possible to generate a subnanosecond
pulse width based on the Marx-generated pulse. This crowbar
switch allows the pulse’s exponential decrease to be cut off. It
is made up of two electrodes: the first electrode is the generator
output (an HV electrode due to the switch in the last stage),
and the second electrode (the ground electrode) is connected
IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON PLASMA SCIENCE, VOL. 38, NO. 10, OCTOBER 2010
Fig. 8. Diagram of the insertion of the PFL in the last stage of the Marx
generator.
Fig. 9. Output voltage in relation to pressure.
to the metal enclosure. This second electrode is a 5-mm-thick
stainless steel disc. After the crowbar, a coaxial line structure is
directly integrated to avoid dispersion of the pulses’ temporal
characteristics.
The first set of experiments was carried out without the
crowbar switch to determine the nature of the gas and the
related pressure that would make it possible to reach output
voltages with short rise times. The results of these different
tests are set out in Fig. 9. They were carried out in air and in
an air-SF6 mixture (75%–25%).
For a set number of stages, the Marx generator output voltage
increases according to the product pressure multiplied by the
gap distance for a given gas. In this case, voltage amplitude can
be adjusted to between 50 kV and 150 kV on a 50-Ω load in
air for pressures that range between 2 and 20 bars. A small per-
centage of SF6 (25% in this case) makes it possible to increase
the amplitude of pulses by approximately 1.7 times in relation
to those obtained with pure air. A 250-kV voltage amplitude
is obtained for a dc charging voltage of approximately 50 kV
with 20 bars of pressure in this air-SF6 mixture. For a maximum
CADILHON et al.: HIGH PULSED POWER SOURCES FOR BROADBAND RADIATION
Fig. 10. Rise time of the output pulses in relation to pressure.
Fig. 11. Marx generator output pulse shape (P = 17 bar, 75% air (25% SF6 ,
τ = 360 ps, VOU T = 225 kV).
dc charging voltage of 100 kV per stage, a 500-kV amplitude
pulse can be reached if the generator can withstand a pressure of
44 bars.
A similar study was carried out on the evolution of rise time
in relation to pressure for these two gases. The results are shown
in Fig. 10. For each gas configuration, the shortest rise times
are observed at the highest pressures. At a given pressure in
the generator, air induces rise times that are shorter than in
the air-SF6 mixture [10]. The measured rise times lie between
250 ps and 350 ps in the air and between 350 ps and 500 ps in
the air-SF6 mixture.
Fig. 11 shows a typical pulse of the George generator. It
is connected to a 50-Ω coaxial line and to the Valentine HV
antenna [11]. First, the crowbar switch gap distance setting
was tested to determine the solution that leads to a break-
down in the rising edge of the Marx-generated pulse. Thus, a
1.5-mm distance seems to be the best configuration to obtain a
subnanosecond pulse with minimized loss.
The pulse amplitude is 226 kV, the rise time is 362 ps, and
the midheight width is 410 ps. Tests were also carried out in a
repetitive mode of operation. The dc HV charger for these tests
allowed us to test the generator up to a maximum repetition rate
of 350 Hz for an output voltage of 170 kV on 50 Ω. The tests
were carried out by bursts of pulses that lasted a few seconds,
separated by a few minutes of downtime.
2597
III. I MPLEMENTATION OF T RANSIENT HV S ENSORS
To record fast transient phenomena, high-bandwidth diag-
nostics are required. Conventional measurement techniques do
not allow an estimation of both the rise time and the voltage
amplitude of the output waveform. Thus, a home-made probe
was manufactured. This probe is based on the principle of a
capacitive line divider that is fitted on the coaxial output of
the generator. It must have, on the one hand, a high bandwidth
to measure fast pulses and, on the other hand, an attenuation
rate that is constant within the bandwidth and is sufficient
to not damage the acquisition devices. The probe’s transient
characterization, the experimental setup for which is shown
in Fig. 12, is carried out using a Kentech APG1 generator.
This generator produces 220-V amplitude pulses. The spectral
range extends up to 5.1 GHz at −20 dB. The signal is recorded
using two PSPL attenuators of −20 dB/18 GHz and a Tektronix
DPO70804 scope (8 GHz/25 Gs.s−1 ). All coaxial cables and
attenuators were characterized up to 40 GHz to withdraw their
responses from the following results. A probe at the Kentech
generator output is used to give a reference pulse measurement.
The probe for this measurement is a commercially available
probe with a cutoff frequency of 5 GHz and a voltage atten-
uation of −56 dB.
In Fig. 13, the signal that is measured by our probe is com-
pared with the reference measurement (signals are standardized
for easier understanding). The perfect correspondence between
these two curves allows us to conclude that our probe can
measure pulses with rise and fall times of 100 ps without
distortion. A Fourier transform of the measured signal also
allows us to find the probe frequency response and to compare it
with the frequency analysis result by using a network analyzer.
In this numerical stage, all the frequency responses of the
cables, attenuators, and 50-Ω matching cones were taken into
account to leave only the probe’s response (see Fig. 14).
The frequency response that is determined by this method
(red curve) leads to the conclusion that the home-made probe
has a high cutoff frequency of 2.15 GHz at −3 dB. The attenu-
ation varies between −61.4 dB and −64.4 dB. The results that
are obtained by both frequency and transient characterization
show a very satisfactory correlation.
IV. I MPROVEMENT OF A UWB T RANSMITTING A NTENNA
The two pulsed power sources that are previously presented
will be combined to a UWB transmitting antenna to radiate high
electromagnetic fields. Due to its high gain and its capability
to radiate short pulses without dispersion in a frequency band
of 300 MHz–2.5 GHz, the Valentine antenna, which was first
used as a transmission antenna for a former radar application
[11], was chosen to be the radiating element of our high-
power UWB sources. The antenna was mechanically matched
using the CST Microwave Studio time-domain electromagnetic
software [12] to improve its dielectric strength. The antenna
was originally composed of two metal strips that were curved to
form a specific profile and a 50-Ω coaxial-to-stripline transition
at the input. This structure is supported by two wooden side
pieces. Thus, this whole unit is 1200 mm high, 1000 mm long,
and 400 mm wide.
2598
Fig. 12. Experimental setup of the transient analysis.
Fig. 13. Transient response of the capacitive divider.
Fig. 14. Comparison of the two characterization methods.
We first focused on the development of the new coaxial-
to-stripline transition. This transition was initially meant to
transform (in air) a 50-Ω coaxial transmission line geometry
into a 50-Ω stripline geometry at the antenna input. Simulation
allowed us to modify this transition for our application with
a very high voltage and very fast transients. When designing
the transition, it is essential to take the bandwidth into account.
IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON PLASMA SCIENCE, VOL. 38, NO. 10, OCTOBER 2010
According to Foster [13], the length of such a transition must
be one quarter of the lowest frequency wavelength. This length
is fixed at 300 mm. In addition, Farr [14] gives the following
simple formula for the rise time, which can be preserved in such
a transition as a function of several transition dimensions:
√  2
π 2 εr D2
tr = (1)
2 lc
where εr is the relative dielectric permittivity of the insulating
material, D is the inner diameter of the output conductor on
the coaxial transition part, l is the transition length, and c is the
light velocity. Based on (1), the selected dimensions and the
use of Univolt oil with a relative permittivity of 2.3 gives a
105-ps rise time, which is in accordance with the power
sources’ time-dependent parameters.
A PVC part was then inserted between the two strips and
was extended from the new transition to the end of the antenna
to ensure good dielectric insulation for the HV pulses. The CST
Microwave Studio software was used as a design-support tool.
The design of this modification, its shape, and its influence on
the antenna’s electromagnetic characteristics were studied. The
complete design of the HV antenna is shown in Fig. 15.
The HV antenna was studied in the 0–3 GHz frequency band.
A Gaussian pulse with a frequency spectrum that is larger than
the spectrum of the antenna, is used as the input signal for the
time-domain simulation, which seems to be the best solution
to study the calculation of the S11 parameter. The input port is
defined on the coaxial part of the transition.
Fig. 16 shows the measured S11 reflection parameter of the
modified antenna. This result is compared to the calculated S11
parameter in a frequency range of 300 kHz–3 GHz. Results are
quite similar. Except at 600 MHz, the S11 parameter is less than
−10 dB between 300 MHz and 3 GHz.
The new HV antenna’s measured gain up to a frequency of
3 GHz is shown in Fig. 17. This response is compared to the
calculated response, as well as to the measured gain of the
original low-voltage antenna. Both results are realized gains,
which take account of the matching of the antenna.
CADILHON et al.: HIGH PULSED POWER SOURCES FOR BROADBAND RADIATION
Fig. 15. Three-dimensional modeling of the Valentine HV antenna and the
Tulipe transition.
Fig. 16. S11 parameter of the new Valentine HV antenna.
Fig. 17. Realized gain of the Valentine HV antenna in the axial direction.
It has been shown in [15] that the wooden structure of the
antenna is responsible for the gain drop to below 10 dB between
800 MHz and 1.6 GHz. A parametric study was conducted
on the variation of the wood’s relative permittivity value by
using CST, and we have concluded that a structure with a
lower relative permittivity (e.g., εr = 2) can reduce this drop
2599
and stabilize the gain at around 10 dB within this frequency
range. Totally avoiding using a wooden structure would make
it possible to obtain a more satisfactory result.
The measured and calculated radiation patterns in the H
and E planes at 500 MHz, 1 GHz, and 2 GHz are shown in
Fig. 18(a)–(f).
Good harmony is obtained between the theoretical results
and the experimental results. In each plane, the radiation pat-
terns become narrower as the frequency increases. The back-
ward radiation is greater at lower frequencies. This result is due
to the low-frequency parts of the current pulse that are reflected
at the end of the antenna and propagated toward the end of
the metal strips. On the contrary, high frequencies are radiated
before reaching the end of the antenna. The backward radiation
is lower than −20 dB for frequencies greater than 1.5 GHz.
Moreover, the main lobe is narrower in the H plane than in the
E plane. The directivity of the antenna in this plane depends on
the width of the metal strips. The wider the strips, the greater
the antenna’s directivity in the H plane.
V. E XPERIMENTAL T ESTS OF THE T WO P ULSED
R ADIATION S OURCES
In this section, we present different experiments that aim at
determining the amplitude and temporal characteristics of the
electric field that is radiated along the axis of the Valentine
antenna when it is associated with each of the aforementioned
two pulsed HV sources. Two methods of measuring the field
are studied: 1) a direct measurement by using a derivative
field sensor and 2) an indirect measurement of the field that
is diffracted by a sphere, i.e., the Instantaneous Electromag-
netic Field Measurement by Signature of a Neutral Object
(MICHELSON) method [16], [17].
A. First Set: Leonardo Pulsed Power Source and
Valentine Antenna
The first whole emitting system (see Fig. 19) is composed
of the autonomous dc charger, the Leonardo Marx generator, a
70-cm-long 50-Ω coaxial line on which the capacitive probe is
inserted, and the Valentine HV antenna.
The pressure in the Marx generator is maintained at 17 bars
in an air-SF6 mixture throughout the tests. In this case, the
amplitude of its output voltage, which attacks the forming line,
is close to 200 kV. This line is set according to the most effective
spark gap configuration. Varying the pressure in these spark
gaps to between 20 and 55 bars allows the amplitude of the
voltage at the input of the antenna to be increased to between
55 kV and 100 kV. The rise times are between 300 and 400 ps,
and the width of the pulses remains close to 500 ps.
In Fig. 20, we compare the rate of the pulse that was obtained
in the configuration where the pressure in the forming line is
55 bars, with an estimation that was calculated based on the
transfer function of the antenna and the Fourier transform of the
excitation pulse. The fields are measured at a distance of 10 m
to benefit from a sufficient clear time and to stay out of the
near-field region. Experimentally, the measured pulse has a rise
time of 280 ps, a width of 2 ns, a positive amplitude (reduced to
2600 IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON PLASMA SCIENCE, VOL. 38, NO. 10, OCTOBER 2010

Fig. 18. Radiation patterns in the H and E planes at 500 MHz: (a) and (b) 1 GHz, (c) and (d) 2 GHz, and (e) and (f). (a) H plane: 500 MHz. (b) E plane:
500 MHz. (c) H plane: 1 GHz. (d) E plane: 1 GHz. (e) H plane: 2 GHz. (f) E plane: 2 GHz.

Fig. 19. First repetitive high-power UWB source.

1 m) of 141 kV/m, and a negative amplitude, in absolute terms,
of 82 kV/m. In the end, the measured figure of merit that is
reached for this transmission unit is 223 kV.
The general rate of the estimation is relatively close to the
pulse measured. However, we can see a significant difference
in amplitude in terms of the negative peak (17%). The peak-to-
Fig. 20. Comparison of measurements by using the MICHELSON method
and calculated radiated fields (first source).
peak amplitude of the estimated figure of merit is 270 kV. This
difference in level has not clearly been identified. Additional
measurements on the characterization of the sensor must be
carried out.
CADILHON et al.: HIGH PULSED POWER SOURCES FOR BROADBAND RADIATION
Fig. 21. Second repetitive high-power UWB source.
B. Second Set: George Pulsed Power Source and
Valentine Antenna
The second whole emitting system (see Fig. 21) is composed
of the autonomous dc charger, the George Marx generator, a
70-cm-long 50-Ω coaxial line on which the capacitive probe is
inserted, and the Valentine HV antenna.
The XLIM Laboratory, Limoges University, has developed a
new method for measuring intense electromagnetic fields called
the MICHELSON method [17].
The principle is based on the use of a target that scatters
the electromagnetic field whose characteristics we are trying
to find out. We then measure the scattered field in a given
direction with a conventional antenna that is adapted to the field
bandwidth. The purpose is to come back to the incident field
from the output antenna voltage. With this method, high-power
sources can be studied with simple equipment, because there
is no risk of breakdown. The conventional receiving antenna
recovers only a fraction of the incident field, and the target
is insensitive to this field. The target is small in size, and no
cable is used; therefore, disturbances are also limited with this
measurement system. Another advantage is the possibility of
also measuring harmonic signals as transient signals by simply
choosing a receiving system that is suited to the situation.
The measurement principle is shown in Fig. 22. The target is
illuminated by the incident field ei (t) that will be measured.
This field is diffracted by this target in different directions
and according to different polarizations. A receiving antenna
is placed at a location so that it is protected from the direct
radiation of the high field source. This antenna receives the
field ed (t), which is diffracted by the target. The voltage
vR (t), which is an accurate reflection of the receiving field, is
measured by a sampler that is connected to the antenna output.
Based on the transfer functions, which are both from the target
and the receiving antenna, and after few calculations, we can
link the field ei (t) and the measured voltage vR (t).
Fig. 23 represents the evolution of the radiated electric field
measured by the antenna, which has been extrapolated to 1 m by
using this method. The metal sphere target (with a diameter of
24 cm) is located at a distance of 5 m from the emitting antenna.
The receiving antenna is a UWB antenna that is developed by
XLIM, whose bandwidth lies between 300 MHz and 3 GHz.
The result of this measurement is compared with a theoretical
estimation.
2601
Fig. 22. MICHELSON experimental setup.
Fig. 23. Comparison of measurements by using the MICHELSON method
and calculated radiated fields (second source).
The figure-of-merit value of the radiated field, which was
measured using this method, is 436 kV, with a positive am-
plitude of 233 kV and a negative amplitude of −203 kV. The
impulse width is 1.82 ns. The theoretical estimation gives an
estimated value of 460 kV. The results that are obtained by this
method of measurement are thus very close to the results that
are estimated by calculation.
VI. C ONCLUSION
This paper has brought together the results of work that is
carried out on the production of two UWB radiation sources
based on the sole use of a Marx generator with gaseous
spark gaps.
The first pulse source associates a Marx generator
(Leonardo) of 200 kV, 34 J, and 2 ns with a coaxial line struc-
ture that is equipped with two forming spark gaps. Setting the
hydrogen pressure between 20 and 55 bars allows us to adjust
the amplitude of the unit’s output voltage to between 55 kV
and 100 kV. The pulses have rise and fall times of 300 ps and
200 ps, respectively, and a subnanosecond midheight duration.
The peak power that is transmitted on a 50-Ω load is 200 MW.
The maximum repetition rate at 100 kV is 40 Hz. The second
pulsed source is solely a Marx generator (George) with lower
energy, which allows higher voltage amplitudes to be obtained
at higher repetition rates. This Marx generator integrates the
2602
pulse-forming device directly into its last stage. In an air-SF6
mixture, pulses have been measured with a subnanosecond
midheight duration and an amplitude that can exceed 250 kV,
with rising edges of close to 300 ps. The maximum voltage
pulse that is reached corresponds to a power of 1.25 GW, with
a resistive load of 50 Ω. Due to the power limitation of the
charger, the repetitive mode of operation tests at 350 Hz can, for
the moment, only be carried out at an output voltage of 170 kV.
Further work must be carried out on this generator, but its
performance is nonetheless encouraging. A mechanical im-
provement that leads to a better pressure strength (greater than
40 bars) would make it possible to generate pulses of 500 kV
on the load at full charging voltage (100 kV) without altering
its temporal characteristics. We could also consider reducing
the number of stages in the generator for an output voltage that
is equivalent to the voltage that we have obtained. In addition,
with a suitable charger, a repetition rate of 435 Hz could be
reached with no loss of efficiency.
The radiation system is a UWB antenna called Valentine, to
which several mechanical modifications have been made using
the 3-D electromagnetic simulation. This antenna can withstand
voltages of more than 250 kV at a repetition rate of a few hertz.
With regard to the antennas that are developed in other projects
of the same type, we could consider carrying out integration
work on this antenna, because we always observe that antennas
play a major role in the creation of compact systems of this type.
A new method for measuring intense electromagnetic fields
(i.e., MICHELSON), which was developed in the XLIM Labo-
ratory, Limoges University, has been approved. It allows strong
fields (> 100 kV/m) to be measured in the UWB domain, as
in wideband and narrowband. For the second UWB radiation
source (the George generator and the Valentine antenna), we
measured a figure of merit of 436 kV. By a direct measurement
with a derivative field sensor, it has been shown that the first
radiation source (the Leonardo generator and the Valentine
antenna) had a figure of merit of 223 kV.
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Baptiste Cadilhon was born in Mont de Marsan,
France, in 1982. He received the M.Sc. degree in
electrical and electronic engineering from the Uni-
versity of Toulouse, Toulouse, France, in 2004 and
the Ph.D. degree in electrical engineering from the
Université de Pau et des Pays de l’Adour, Pau,
France, in 2008.
From 2005 to 2008, he was with Thales for the
study and realization of an autonomous source of
high-power electromagnetic waves. He is currently
a Researcher with the Atomic Energy Commission
(CEA), Le Barp, France—a French-government-funded technological research
organization. His research interests include high pulsed power generation, ul-
trawideband antenna, nonlinear transmission lines, high-power electromagnetic
waves, and high-voltage transient probes.
Laurent Pécastaing was born in Bayonne, France,
in 1974. He received the M.Sc. and Ph.D. degrees in
electrical engineering from the Université de Pau et
des Pays de l’Adour, Pau, France, in 1998 and 2001,
respectively.
He is currently a Lecturer with the Laboratoire de
Génie Electrique, Université de Pau et des Pays de
l’Adour. His research interests are focused on high-
power microwave (HPM) sources, compact pulsed
power devices, including pulse-forming lines or
Marx generators, and ultrafast transient probes.
Thierry Reess was born in Pau, France, in 1968. He
received the M.Sc. degree in plasma physics from the
University of Toulouse, Toulouse, France, in 1992
and the Ph.D. degree in electrical engineering from
the Université de Pau et des Pays de l’Adour, Pau, in
1996.
He is currently a Lecturer with the Laboratoire de
Génie Electrique, Université de Pau et des Pays de
l’Adour. His research interests include pulsed power
devices and electrical discharges in gases and liquids.
CADILHON et al.: HIGH PULSED POWER SOURCES FOR BROADBAND RADIATION
Antoine Silvestre de Ferron was born in Tarbes,
France, in 1977. He received the M.Sc. degree in
electrical and electronic engineering from the Uni-
versity of Toulouse, Toulouse, France, in 2002 and
the Ph.D. degree in electrical engineering from the
Université de Pau et des Pays de l’Adour, Pau,
France, in 2006.
From 2006 to 2008, he was a Researcher with
the Atomic Energy Commission (CEA), Le Barp,
France—a French-government-funded technological
research organization. He is currently an Engineer
with the Laboratoire de Génie Electrique, Université de Pau et des Pays de
l’Adour. His research interests include high pulsed power generation with
military and civil applications and combined high-voltage transient probes.
Pascal Pignolet was born in Rennes, France, in
1951. He received the Ph.D. degree in gas and
plasma physics from the University of Orléans,
Orléans, France, in 1984. His dissertation was de-
voted to the spectroscopic study of nonresonant
laser–atom interaction.
He is currently a Professor with the Université de
Pau et des Pays de l’Adour, Pau, France, where he is
also the Head Manager of the Laboratoire de Génie
Electrique. His main research interest is focused on
pulsed power domain, materials for electrical engi-
neering, and laser applications.
Stephane Vauchamp was born in Limoges, France,
in 1979. He received the M.Eng. and Ph.D. de-
grees in electrical engineering from the University
of Limoges, Limoges, France, in 2003 and 2008,
respectively.
He is currently a Contractual Engineer with
the Department of Waves and Associated Systems
(OSA), XLIM Research Institute, University of
Limoges–National Center for Scientific Research
(CNRS), Brive, France. His research interests in-
clude the metrology and measurement of pulsed
fields for high-power and detection applications.
2603
Joël Andrieu was born in Figeac, France, in 1964.
He received the Ph.D. degree and the Research
Directorship Habilitation from the University of
Limoges, Limoges, France, in 2003 and 2008,
respectively.
Since 1991, he has been a Lecturer with the Uni-
versity of Limoges. His research work is performed
in the Department of Waves and Associated Sys-
tems (OSA), XLIM Research Institute, University
of Limoges–National Center for Scientific Research
(CNRS), Brive, France. His research interests in-
clude ultrawideband metrology for various applications, radar, electromagnetic
compatibility (EMC), and high-power microwaves (HPMs).
Michèle Lalande (M’92) was born in Noth, France,
in 1962. She received the Ph.D. degree in electronics
from the University of Limoges, Limoges, France,
in 1986.
She is currently a Professor with the University
of Limoges. She is a Member of the Department of
Waves and Associated Systems (OSA), XLIM Re-
search Institute, University of Limoges–National
Center for Scientific Research (CNRS), Brive,
France. Her research interest includes antennas and
transient measurement applications.