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Articolul este partea de vorbire care insoteste ,de regula,un substantiv.In limba engleza
exista trei tipuri de articole.Acestea stau intotdeauna in fata substantivului.
A se pronunta [ei] cand este accentuat si [ð] cand este neaccentuat,fiind folosit in fata
unui substantiv care incepe cu consoana sau cu unul din sunetele semivocalice w si y
on the table
in the classroom
7)in fata numeralelor ordinale
8) in fata adjectivelor la gradul superlativ relativ
9)cu sens de pronume demonstrativ:Stephen the Great
1)nume proprii (aici se poate vorbi despre inexistenta articolului din cauza caracterului
de unicitate a substantivului)
Life is wonderful.
But the life in that house is unbearable.
.
3)atunci cand substantivele
bed,church,court,harbour,hospital,jail,market,port,prison,school,sea,shore,table,town,sunt
folosite pentru a numi locurile respective utilizate in scopul pentru care au fost facute:
It’s time to go to bed.
Dar:The boy has put the book on the bed.
The teacher and the pupils go to school.
Dar:The woman goes to the school to wash the windows.
The criminal was sent to prison.
Dar:they turned the prison into a museum.
5)nume de zile,luni,anotimpuri
8)nume de orase:London,Bucharest
Exceptii:the Hague
I.CLASIFICAREA SUBSTANTIVELOR
2) Substantive comune:table,cat,flower,friendship,love
II.GENUL SUBSTANTIVELOR
a) prin adaugarea unor sufixe la substantivul de gen masculin se obtin substantive de gen
feminine:
ambassador-ambassadress
actor-actress
adventurer-adventuress
athor-authoress
baron-baroness
count-countess
doctor-doctoress
duke-duchess
god-goddess
heir-heiress
masculin feminin
brother sister
dad,daddy mum,mummy
earl countess
father mother
friar nun
monk nun
gentleman gentlewoman,lady
husband wife
king queen
lord lady
Animale
Persoane
Masculin Feminin Gen comun
bridegroom-mire bride spouse
boy (sau man) friend girl friend friend
grandson-nepot de bunic granddaughter grandchild
male nurse nurse
male patient female patient patient
mankind female servant servant
airman womankind
barman airwoman pilot
chairman-presedinte barmaid bar attendant
madman chairwoman
milkman madwoman
salesman milkmaid
policeman saleswoman salespeople
spaceman policewoman police
businessman spacewoman astronaut
Animale
Pentru a exprima sexul unei persoane care apartine unei anumite nationalitati se adauga cuvintele
man, respectiv woman, la substantivul care indica nationalitatea. Daca acest substantiv nu este
insotit de cuvintele mentionate mai sus, el este de gen comun.
NOTA-Substantivele baby, infant si child, ca si cele care denumesc animale, sunt de genul neutru.
Animalele pot fi desemnate prin pronumele corespunzator sexului lor ( he, she) in urmatoarele situatii:
a)din considerente de ordin afectiv
b)cand animalul este personificat.In acest caz substantivele care desemneaza animale mari sau
puternice sunt de genul masculin (lion,elephant,tiger,dog,horse,donkey,eagle,pig,etc.).iar cele care
desemneaza animale mici sunt de obicei de gen feminin (cat,mouse,parrot,etc).intr-o lucrare literara
autorul are dreptul sa hatarasca sexul animalului respectiv in functie de propria sa fantezie.
Exista o serie de obiecte sau notiuni abstracte care pot fi personificate si in acest caz criteriile
generale de fixare a genului masculin sau feminin sunt urmatoarele:
a)sunt de gen masculin substantivele care desemneaza:
-pasiuni puternice sau actiuni violente (love,hate,war,anger,murder,crime,fear,terror,etc)
-fenomene naturale puternice precum si aspecte impresionante din natura
(wind,storm,river,mountain,sun,summer,autumn,winter,day,death,nume de fluvii,rauri si munti,etc)
b)sunt de gen feminine substantivele care denumesc notiuni ce sugereaza ceva bland,lipsit de putere,ca
si idea de fertilitate.
-sentimente si insusiri (friendship,pity,modesty,faith,hope,wisdom,patience,etc.)
-trasaturi de character negative(envy,vanity,ambition,jealousy,pride,avarice,etc.)
-aspecte din natura(spring,morning,evening,night,moon,nature,sea,earth,etc.)
-notiuni abstracte(liberty,peace,victory,eternity,experience,prosperity,memory,etc.)
-nume de tari,de ambarcatiuni,vehicule (Romania,boat,ship,car,etc.)
Acestea sunt criterii generale de atribuire a genului,scriitorul sau vorbitorul avand insa toata libertatea
de a hotari singur.
III.NUMARUL SUBSTANTIVELOR
1)Numarul singular este folosit atunci cand substantivul arata un singur obiect.
2Numarul plural este folosit atunci cand substantivul desemneaza mai multe obiecte.
Pluralul substantivelor se formeaza adaugandu-se –s la forma de singular.
Reguli de ortografie la adaugarea terminatiei –s:
a)substantivele terminate in –s,-z,-sh,-ch primesc terminatia –es pronuntata [iz]
bus-buses fish-fishes
class-classes match-matches
fox-foxes sandwich-sandwiches
buzz-buzzes watch-watches
NOTA:
In cazul substantivelor terminate in –ch pronuntat [k]sau [h] se adauga terminatia –s.
Czech[k]-Czechs[ks] epoch[k]-epochs[ks]
Patriarch[k]-patriarchs[ks] loch[k]-lochs[k]
b)-y final precedat de consoana se transforma in –ie:
baby-babies story-stories
Exceptie fac numele proprii terminate in –y cat si anumite parti de vorbire substantivizate:
two Marys whys(de ce –uri)
c)Unele substantive terminate in –f, -fe formeaza pluralul in –ves:
leaf - leaves shelf – shelves
thief – thieves wolf – wolves
loaf – loaves knife – knives
Alte substantive terminate in –f, -fe primesc terminatia –s:
chief – chiefs cliff – cliffs
dwarf – dwarfs grief – griefs
gulf – gulfs handkerchief – handkerchiefs
d) Substantivele terminate in –o precedat de consoana primesc terminatia –es atunci cand ele
au fost introduse de mai mult timp in limba engleza :
Dar :
flamingo – flamingos, flamingoes lasso – lassos, lassoes
fresco – frescos, frescoes memento – mementos, mementoes
grotto – grottos, grottoes motto – mottos, mottoes
halo – halos, haloes soprano – sopranos, soprani
zero – zeros, zeroes
Plurale straine:
a)plurale latine:
alga-algae larva-larvae
libra-libr persona grata-personae-gratae
bacillus-bacilli
cumulus-cumuli
b)plurale grecesti
acropolis-acropoleis analysis-analyses
antithesis-antitheses apotheosis-apotheoses
axis-axes basis-bases
c)plurale italiene
gondoliere-gondolieri condottiere-condottieri
amoretto-amoretti bambino-bambini
palazzo-palazzi autostrada-autostrade
Exista substantive al caror plural poate avea si un inteles diferit de cel al singularului,in multe
cazuri existand si alte forme de plural.
2.Folosirea atat a genitivului sintetic cat si a celui analytic in situatii ca cele de mai jos
duce la inlaturarea unor confuzii:
V.FORMAREA SUBSTANTIVELOR
O mare parte din substantivele unei limbi s-au format prin trei procedee si anume;
-compunere
-derivare
-schimbarea valorii gramaticale
1.Compunerea este un procedeu foarte folosit ,care consta din unirea a doua sau mai
multe parti de vorbire,obtinandu-se astfel un cuvant nou.partile componente se pot scrie
separat,legate prin liniuta sau intr-un singur cuvant.
2.Derivarea este o metoda prin care se poate forma un substantive prin adaugarea unui
prefix sau a unui suffix la radacina.
Iata cateva dintre cele mai folosite sufixe si prefixe:
Prefixe:
ante-,anti-:anticlimax,antibiotic,antechamber,antedate,anteroom
arch-:archbishop,archangel,archetype
co-,con-:co-parner,co-author,coexistance,confederacy,contact
countet-:countet-attack,countetaction,counterpoint
dis-:dissatisfaction,dishonour,disgust,display
ex-:ex-soldier,exchange
fore-:forefinger,forefather,forhead,foreleg,foreman
in-:inattention,incorporation,increase,indecision
im-:impossibility,imbalance,immobility
mid-:midday,midland,midway,midwife
mis-:misprint,mistake,misunderstanding
non-:nonconformist,nonsense
neo-:neologism,neoplasm
over-:overall,overcharge,overdose
post-:postmeridian,postface,postscript,post-war
pre-:precaution,preconception,preface,preposition
pro-:proclamation,proconsul,procreation,pro-rector
re-:recover,reform,return,reassurance,reaction
self-:self-confidence,self-pity,self-respect,self-support
semi-:semi-centenary.semicircle,semi-globe,semitone
sub-:subtitle,subaltern,subdivision,sublunar,supercharge
super-:superstructure,superabundance,supercharge
under-:undercharge,underclothes,underdose,undergrowth
vice-:vice-admiral,vice-president,viceroy
Sufixe:
-er,-or:writer,reader,leader,runner,actor,vibrator
-ment:agreement,basement,adornment
-age:marriage,passage
-al:refusal,recital,trial
-ence,ance:prudence,appearance,resistance,performance
-ee:refugee,employee
-ese:Chinese,Portuguese
--ess:lioness,actress
-ine:heroine
-ion,-tion,-sion:description,legion,suspension
-ty:beauty,loyalty
-ism:heroism,realism
-ist:pianist,artist,scientist
-ette:cigarette,kitchenette
-ness:goodness,carelessness
-ship:friendship,hardship
-hood:childhood,brotherhood
-ing:smoking,cleaning,reding,drawing
a) fara ca partea de vorbire sa-si schimbe forma,se pot obtine substantive din:
Adjective:
Participii:
Verbe:
to have a drink/walk/rest/swim/try
a has-ben-un fost,o fosta
to give somebody a ring-a suna pe cineva la telefon
to feel like a smoke-a simti nevoia de fumat
Adverbe,prepozitii,conjuctii,onomatopee
Tell me the when,the how and the why of it all-Spune-mi cand,cum,si de ce (amanunte in
aceasta problema).
Show him the inside of the house.
The buzzof flies-bazaitul mustelor
The twitter of swallows-ciripitul randunelelor.
Adjective:
chemicals,goods,shorts,greens,elders,riches,news,valuables
Forme verbale:
Numerale:
Adverbe,conjunctii,prepozitii:
PRONUMELE
The pronoun
1)Pronumele personal
Cazul nominativ
singular plural
I-eu we-noi
You-tu you-voi,dv
He-el they-ei/ele/dansii/dansele
She-ea
It-el/ea (neutru)
Singular plural