1.

Regular plurals :
It is formed by adding The suffix –s to the singular
Eg. Cat- cats
2. Irregular plurals
 Nouns ending –ss; -sh; -ch; -x form their plural by adding –es
Eg. Glass- glasses , dish- dishes , box- boxes
 Nouns in –o form their plural by adding – es
Eg: tomato- tomatoes; hero – heroes
They add –s only if they are foreign or abbreviated words
Eg; bamboo- bamboos; kilo – kilos
 Nouns in –y preceded by a consonant: y I +es
Eg: fly- flies ; country-countries
Nouns in –y preceded by a vowel : by adding –s only
Eg: boy- boys; journey – journeys
 12 Nouns in – f or –fe Form their plural by changing ending
-f/fe  -v/ve + -es :
1.calf – calves 5.life – lives 9.shelf - shelves
2.half – halves 6.loaf – loaves 10.thief - thieves
3.knife – knives 7.self – selves 11.wife - wives
4.leaf – leaves 8.sheaf – sheaves 12.wolf – wolves
--Other nouns ending in – f or –fe form their plural in the regular way :
Fife – fifes ; handkerchief – handkerchiefs
 Mutation – 7 nouns form their plural by a vowel change:
1.Foot – feet 5.mouse – mice
2.goose – geese 6.man – men
3.tooth – teeth 7, woman - women
4.louse – lice
 3 nouns form their plural by adding –en to the singular :
1.brother – brethren ( members of a religious society)
2. child – children
3. ox – oxen
 Foreign nouns  Latin
-a  -ae -Is  -es
Alga  algae Analysis  analyses
Antenna  antennae Axis axes
Aurara  aurarae Basisbases
Larva  larvae Crisiscrises
Nebula  nebulae Diagnosisdiagnoses
Vertebra  vertebrae Ellipsisellipses
Hypothesis  hypotheses
Oasisoases
Prognosisprognoses
Synthesissyntheses
-on  -a -um  -a

Phenomenon  phenomena Bacterium  bacteria

Criterion  criteria Curriculum  curricula

-ix  ices Datum  data

Appendix appendices Medium  media

Matrix  matrices Millennium  millennia

-ex  -ices Referendum  referenda

apex  apices Stadium  stadia

index  indices Ultimatum  ultimata

-us  -i

Alumnus  alumni

Cactus  Cacti

Cerberus  ceberi

Colosuss  colossi

Crocus  croci

Locus  loci

Lungus  lungi

Syllabus  syllabi
GENDER – affects only nouns and pronouns. 4 kinds of gender in Eng
1. Masculine e.g man dog
2. Feminine e.g woman bitch
3. Neuter e.g. table idea
4. Common e.g. doctor baby (can be either male or female)
Exceptions :
1. Some neuter nouns can be personified and they can become male or female
male e.g death
female e.g creation, nature, luck
2. The names of countries are female if they denote political or economic units, but when
they indicate geographical units they are neuter.
3, The moon, religion, ships are feminine
The distinction between masculine and feminine
1. The F is formed from the masculine by adding –ess
count-countess, host-hostess
However, a number of nouns ending in –er or –or drop the –e or –o
waiter-waitress actor-actress
Other including zero, morphological markers are used
bridegroom-bride widower-widow hero-heroine usher-usherette sultan – sultana
2. Different words are used for M or F
uncle – aunt bull – cow
3. One element indicating the gender is introduced
man-servant – maid-servant he-goat – she-goat
A gender marker’ is also used when a given activity is expected to be M or F, thus
a nurse – a male nurse a doctor – a woman doctor

GENERAL NAME MALE FEMALE

Bear Boar Sow
Cat Tom cat Queen
Cattle Bull Cow
Chicken Cock / Rooster Hen
Deer Buck / Stag Doe / Hind
Dog Dog Bitch
Donkey Jack Jenny
Duck Drake Duck
Ant Winged Queen
Bee Drone Queen
Dolphin / Elephant Bull Cow
Fox Dog Vixen
Goose Gander Goose
Goat Billy Nanny
Horse Stallion / Colt(young) Mare / Filly(young)
Kangaroo Buck Doe
Lion Lion Lioness
Owl / Monkey Male Female
Ox Bull / Steen Cow
Pig Boar Sow
Sheep Ram Ewe
Rabbit Buck / Jack Doe / Jill
Tiger Tiger Tigeress
Whale Bull Cow
Wolf Dog Bitch
Zebra Stallion Mare
Zero Articles :

 Before some nouns, of which there is Only one :

Heaven, Hell, Paradise
 Before the following nouns
Bed; church; college; court; gaol; hospital; market; prison; school
 When these places are used for their primary purpose
We learn at school
But we use an article when we visit sb in that places:
I’m going to the hospital to visit my mother
 Before names of meals :
breakfast, lunch, tea
 Before following geographical names :
Continents
Asia, Africa
Countries, states
Poland, Vermond
Single Islands :
Malta, Corsica
Unless their names contain a preposition :
The Isle of Wight, The Isle of Man
Towns and Cities :
Cambridge, Warsaw
Lakes :
Lake Baikal, Lake Victoria
Single Mountains :
Mount Everest, Mount Blanc
Unless their names contain a preposition :
The Mountain of the Seven Sights, The Mount of Olives
Places :
Trafalgar Square ; Times Square
Bridges :
Brooklyn Bridge; Tower Bridge
But tere is one exeption :  The Humber Bridge !!
Parks :
Hyde Park
Stations :
Victoria Station
Airports :
Heathrow; Getwick
Zamki :
Warwick Castle ; Canterbuy Castle
Banki :
Lloyds Bank
Choroby :
Measles : Mumps;  mogą być użyte z ‘’the’’ oraz bez
Personal names ::
Professor Smith, Adam Brown
Names of festivals :
Christmas, Easter
Names of certain periodicals :
Time , Newsweek
Names of some organizations :
British Rail, British Airways
 Names of some buildings, bridges , Streets :
Welbeck, Mansion, London Bridge, Regent Street
When common names are given temporary designation:
Gate C, Column 8
Before names of seasons, months and days of the week :
Autumn , January , Monday

Nouns with definite article :

 Before a noun which is mentioned a second time :

I have found a coin . The coin is worth 50p.
 Before a noun which is qualified by a phrase or clause :
How old is the boy in jeans
I don’t remember the moment when the Browns left my flat
 When the speaker assumes that a noun can be identifies by the hearer :
See you at the station
 Before the following nouns when they are used for their primary purpose of entertainment
CINEMA; PICTURES; OPERA; THEATRE ; RACES; RADIO
We should go to the cinema
I’m listening to the radio
 Before a musical instrument when it refers to ‘’playing’’
I’m playing the piano now
She has been taught the violin since her childhood
But if it doesn’t refer to ‘’playing ‘’:
I want to buy a piano
 Before a particular or special meal :
I met him at the dinner given by the Quakers
 Before Unic nouns:
The moon ; The sun ; The equator
Teatry/Kina/Hotele
The Globe , The Rex, The Odeon
Museums
 eg. The British Museum
Galleries
 The Tate Gallery
Statki
 The Marry Rose; The Mayflower ; The Queen Victoria
Well known trains
The Orient express
Nazwy gazet
 The Time ; The Sun ; The Observer ; The Guardian
Oceany
The Pacific, The Atlantic
Seas:
The Baltic, The Black Sea
Rivers:
The river Vistula or The Vistula
The river Thames or The Thames
Kanały :
The Panama Canal
Countries if their names contain the words : KINGDOM, UNION, REPUBLIC, STATE:
The United Kingdom; The United States; The Republic of China
Exeptions : The Netherlands, The Argentine but ( Argentina), The Vatican City

Some provinces :
The Ruhr , The Riviera
Groups of islands
The Canary Islands o The Canaries
The Bahama Islands or The Bahamas
Chains of mountains
The Alps; The Tatra Mountains or The Tatras
Exceptionally, before names of towns :
The Hague, The Piraeus
Nationalities z koocówką – sh, - ch, - ese
The Chinese
Speial period of time, wars :
The Middle Ages ;The Crimeon War The Second World War ( but World War II – without
‘’the’’)
Geographical names, dates, names of institutions :
City of London, The August of 1920
Names of certain buildings :
TheAlbert Hall ; The Mansion House ; The White House
Names of three streets :
The Strand street, The Mall ; The High Street;
Motorways :
The A1,THE m1 ITD