Alexandria Engineering Journal (2017) xxx, xxx–xxx

H O S T E D BY
Alexandria University

Alexandria Engineering Journal

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REVIEW

Traffic loads used in the design of highway RC

bridges in Egypt
Mohie El-Din Shoukry, Zaki I. Mahmoud, Nessreen A. Khalf *

Faculty of Engineering Alexandria University, Egypt

Received 30 December 2016; revised 28 February 2017; accepted 4 March 2017

KEYWORDS Abstract Recently, a considerable research effort has been devoted to bridge design and evalua-
Traffic loads; tion in Egypt. The traffic loading in the Egyptian code (ECP) gets heavier from 1963 to 2012.
Reinforced concrete bridges; So, it was necessary to evaluate how much safe are the existing bridges when loaded with heavier
Slab/girder bridges; traffic loading. For this reason, a comparative study is presented between the internal forces (bend-
Egyptian code ECP201 ing moments) in longitudinal girders and deck slabs, in slab/girder bridges, resulting from traffic
loads recommended by ECP 1963, ECP 1994 and ECP 2012. Tables and figures are displayed to
show the variation in live load moments when using the three different codes for bridges with
10.5 m width (three traffic lanes) and with spans 15, 20 and 25 m. Since most highway bridges
are continuous ones, the present analysis was expanded to cover the effects of the different recom-
mended live loads on continuous bridges. The results reveal big differences between the different
versions of traffic loads in the Egyptian codes. In addition, modified equations to calculate maxi-
mum moments in longitudinal girders according to ECP2012 are proposed. The proposed equations
show excellent results when compared with the numerical study.
Ó 2017 Faculty of Engineering, Alexandria University. Production and hosting by Elsevier B.V. This is an
open access article under the CC BY-NC-ND license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/).

Contents

1. Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 00
2. The parametric study . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 00
3. Results and analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 00
3.1. Simply supported bridges . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 00
3.2. Continuous bridges (Figs. 13 and 14 and Table 1b) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 00
3.3. Analysis of deck slabs of slab/girder bridges . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 00

* Corresponding author.
E-mail addresses: mohieshoukry_33@hotmail.com (M.E.-D. Shoukry), Zmahmoud2001@yahoo.com (Z.I. Mahmoud), nessren_ahmed87@ya-
hoo.com (N.A. Khalf).
Peer review under responsibility of Faculty of Engineering, Alexandria University.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.aej.2017.03.022
1110-0168 Ó 2017 Faculty of Engineering, Alexandria University. Production and hosting by Elsevier B.V.
This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC-ND license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/).
Please cite this article in press as: M.-E.D. Shoukry et al., Traffic loads used in the design of highway RC bridges in Egypt, Alexandria Eng. J. (2017), http://dx.doi.
org/10.1016/j.aej.2017.03.022
2 M.E.-D. Shoukry et al.

4. Proposed emperical design equations. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 00

5. Conclusions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 00
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 00

1. Introduction terms of both the direct repair costs and the economic loss aris-
ing from traffic delays during repairs. In the assessment of any
Bridges form important part of a nation’s infrastructure. highway bridge structure, traffic loading is one of the most
Maintenance and upgrading of these bridges are costly in variable factors. While approaching the problem of live loads

= , n: Number of loaded lanes

a- Standard truck type for road bridges (Egyptian specifications 1963)

= 0.4 0.008 , where L = span length

b- Lane loads according to the Egyptian Code 1994

Loads including impact

c- Lane loads according to the Egyptian code 2012

Figure 1 Lane loads according to the Egyptian code 1963, 1994 and 2012.

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org/10.1016/j.aej.2017.03.022
Design of highway RC bridges 3

for bridges, it is necessary to make a comparison between the
maximum moments in different bridge members as obtained
from the codes.
Since a large amount of bridges in Egypt were built accord-
ing to 1963 specifications [2] and ECP1994 [3], these bridges
should be checked against the current traffic loads to ensure
their structural integrity. This study focuses on the comparison
of the last version of the Egyptian Code for loads (ECP 2012
[4,5]) and the other old versions (1963 specifications and
ECP1994), for concrete bridge girders, slabs and continuous
bridges. The live load for bridges is represented in many ways,
including an uniform load and a combination of trucks and
uniform loads. The different versions of the Egyptian code
for road bridge design loads are as follows:
1. Egyptian Railway General Inspectorate of Structural Engi-
neering (1963),
2. The Egyptian code for the calculation of loads and forces in
structural work (1994), and
3. The Egyptian code for the calculation of loads and forces in
structural work (2012). This traffic load is the load model
no.1 (LM1) recommended by Eurocode 2010 [6].
Fig. 1 shows the traffic loads as given by the above three
codes.
2. The parametric study
Commercial Finite Element software, SAP 2000 [8], was used
to analyze a large number of concrete slab-girder bridges.
The bridge consisted of a deck slab supported on a grillage sys-
tem of longitudinal and transverse girders.
The deck slab was modeled as a 4-node shell element with
six degrees of freedom at each node (3 translations and 3 rota-
tions). The longitudinal and transverse girders were modeled
as 2-dimensional, 2-node beam elements with six degree of
freedom at each node.
Concentrated loads were applied at nodes and uniform dis-
tributed loads were applied on the shell elements.
The models studied include several parameters affecting the
behavior of slab-girder bridges, especially the different rigidi-
ties in transverse and longitudinal directions.
The deck bridges analyzed consisted of a deck slab with
0.22 m thickness supported on a system of orthogonal (longi-
tudinal and transverse) beams. Width of roadway
(W = 10.5 m; i.e. three traffic lanes), four longitudinal girders
with spacing = 3.5 m, width of transverse beams (0.25 m), and
width of longitudinal girders (0.5 m), were all considered con-
stant in the analysis. Also, modulus of elasticity Ec = 24.8 kN/
mm2 was considered constant for all models.

Simply Supported Bridges

Group1: B15 Group 2: B20 Group 3: B25

span= 15.0m span= 20.0m span =25.0m
depth of longitudinal girder; hm= 1.50m depth of longitudinal girder; hm=2.00m depth of longitudinal girder ; hm=2.50m

For all bridges:

Roadway width=10.5 m Number of traffic lanes = 3 lanes
Spacing of longitudinal girders = 3.50 m
Spacing of transverse beams = 5.0 m
Deck slab thickness = 0.22 m
Width of longitudinal girder = 0.5 m
Width of transverse beam = 0.25 m
Depth of transverse beams; hx :
- Group 1: 0, 0.5, 0.8, 1.0, and 1.3 m
- Group 2: 0, 0.5, 0.8, 1.0, 1.3, 1.5, and 1.8 m
- Group 3: 0, 0.5, 0.8, 1.0, 1.3, 1.5, 1.8, 2.0, and 2.3 m

= 10.5m

Figure 2 Summary of studied bridge models.

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org/10.1016/j.aej.2017.03.022
4 M.E.-D. Shoukry et al.

Figure 3 Truck loading and U.D.L according to ECP1963 span 15, width 10.5 m.

Figure 4 Truck loading and U.D.L according to ECP1994 span 15, width 10.5 m.

Fig. 2 shows details of the studied models together with the
cross and longitudinal sections for simply supported bridge
models. For these models, the main parameters studied were
as follows:
1. Span of the bridge (length of longitudinal girders), the val-
ues of the span studied were 15 m, 20 m, and 25 m.
2. Spacing of transverse beams, i.e. the number of transverse
beams: 4, 5 and 6 beams with spacing 5 m.
3. Depth of transverse beams: 0.5 m, 0.8 m, 1.0 m, 1.3 m,
1.5 m, 1.8 m, 2.0 m and 2.3 m.
Twelve two-spans continuous bridges were also analyzed,
each with length; L = 25 m, roadway width = 10.5 m. Two
cases of transverse beams were considered: slab on girder (no
transverse beams) and transverse beams of depth = 2.3 m.
Simply supported bridges, loaded according to the codes,
are shown in Figs. 3–5 for span = 15.0 m, while loading of
continuous bridges is shown in Figs. 6–8. Detailed data for
all other models are given in Ref. [7].
In addition, it was necessary to check the safety of deck
slabs for bridges built during the last 50 years using old codes

Please cite this article in press as: M.-E.D. Shoukry et al., Traffic loads used in the design of highway RC bridges in Egypt, Alexandria Eng. J. (2017), http://dx.doi.
org/10.1016/j.aej.2017.03.022
Design of highway RC bridges 5

Figure 5 Truck loading and U.D.L according to ECP 2012 span 15, width 10.5 m.

Figure 6 Truck loading and U.D.L according to ECP2012, span 25 m, width 10.5 m (continuous bridge).

Figure 7 Truck loading and U.D.L according to ECP1994, span 25 m, width 10.5 m (continuous bridge).

compared to the current version of the code. For this purpose, loads. The only variable studied was the rectangularity ratio
a total of 13 slabs were analyzed under the effect of wheel of the slab; b/a, which ranged from 1.0 (square slab) to

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org/10.1016/j.aej.2017.03.022
6 M.E.-D. Shoukry et al.

Figure 8 Truck loading and U.D.L according to ECP2012, span 25 m, widths 10.5 m (continuous bridge).

Table 1 Maximum working moments in outer and inner longitudinal girders according to the Egyptian codes.
Bridge Height of Outer girder Inner girder Outer girder Inner girder
span L, transverse beams,
M ECP 2012/ Average M ECP 2012/ Average M ECP 2012/ Average M ECP 2012/ Average
m hx, m
M ECP 1963 M ECP 1963 M ECP 1994 M ECP 1994
a. Simple bridges
15 No beams 2.63 2.48 2.06 2.05 1.09 1.11 1.19 1.21
0.5 2.53 2.04 1.10 1.20
0.8 2.46 2.01 1.11 1.21
1.0 2.42 2.00 1.12 1.22
1.3 2.37 1.98 1.13 1.22
20 No beams 2.44 2.24 1.90 1.88 1.12 1.15 1.21 1.25
0.5 2.35 1.88 1.13 1.22
0.8 2.26 1.86 1.15 1.24
1.0 2.22 1.86 1.15 1.26
1.3 2.17 1.87 1.16 1.28
1.5 2.14 1.88 1.17 1.29
1.8 2.12 1.89 1.17 1.29
25 No beams 2.06 1.93 1.77 1.74 1.16 1.19 1.23 1.26
0.5 2.01 1.76 1.17 1.23
0.8 1.96 1.73 1.18 1.24
1.0 1.93 1.72 1.18 1.24
1.3 1.90 1.73 1.19 1.26
1.5 1.89 1.73 1.19 1.30
1.8 1.88 1.74 1.20 1.28
2.0 1.87 1.74 1.20 1.28
2.3 1.87 1.74 1.20 1.28
b. Continuous bridges
25 No beams 1.41 1.33 1.18 1.12 1.23 1.23 1.24 1.24
2.3 1.25 1.06 1.24 1.24

b/a 1.5. The Egyptian Code considers the deck slab as a two- 3. Results and analysis
way slab if b/a
1.5, where (b) is the long side of the slab
(generally the spacing of transverse beams), and (a) is the short 3.1. Simply supported bridges
side of the slab (spacing of longitudinal beams). If b/a 1.5,
the slab is considered as one-way slab with moments in one
For the simply supported bridges, Table 1a gives the ratios of
direction only. Due to the large inertia (width and depth) of
live load maximum working moments, in both inner and outer
the supporting girders (longitudinal and transverse) compared
bridge girders, as obtained using the traffic load proposed by
to the slab thickness, it is common in design to assume that the
the current Egyptian code (2012), to those obtained using both
deck slab is fixed to the girders along its four edges. Bending
the old specifications (1963) and ECP 1994. The results are also
moments in the slabs in the two directions are obtained by hand
plotted in Figs. 9–12, and indicate that:
calculations.

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Design of highway RC bridges 7

2.6 15 m
20m

M ECP 2012/M ECP 1963

2.4
2.2 25 m
2
1.8
1.6
1.4
1.2
1
0.8
0.6
no beam 0.5 0.8 1.0 1.3 1.5 1.8 2.0 2.3
Depth of transeverse beam, m

Figure 9 Relation between the longitudinal bending moments obtained using ECP2012 and ECP 1963 (outer girder, W = 10.5 m).

15 m
2.6
M ECP 2012/M ECP 1963

2.4 20m
2.2 25 m
2
1.8
1.6
1.4
1.2
1
0.8
0.6
no beam 0.5 0.8 1.0 1.3 1.5 1.8 2.0 2.3
Depth of transeverse beam, m

Figure 10 Relation between the longitudinal bending moments obtained using ECP2012 and ECP1963 (inner girder, W = 10.5 m).

2.6 15 m
2.4
M ECP 2012/M ECP 1994

20m
2.2
2 25 m
1.8
1.6
1.4
1.2
1
0.8
0.6
no beam 0.5 0.8 1.0 1.3 1.5 1.8 2.0 2.3
Depth of transeverse beam, m

Figure 11 Relation between the longitudinal bending moments obtained using ECP2012 and ECP1994 (outer girder, W = 10.5 m).

2.6
2.4 15 m
M ECP 2012/M ECP 1994

2.2
20m
2
1.8 25 m
1.6
1.4
1.2
1
0.8
0.6
no beam 0.5 0.8 1.0 1.3 1.5 1.8 2.0 2.3
Depth of transeverse beam, m

Figure 12 Relation between the longitudinal bending moments obtained using ECP2012 and ECP 1994 (inner girder, W = 10.5 m).

Please cite this article in press as: M.-E.D. Shoukry et al., Traffic loads used in the design of highway RC bridges in Egypt, Alexandria Eng. J. (2017), http://dx.doi.
org/10.1016/j.aej.2017.03.022
8 M.E.-D. Shoukry et al.

1.80 2012/1963 outer

The rao of moments

1.60 2012/1963 inner
1.40
1.20
1.00
0.80
0.60
no beam 2.30
Depth of transverse beam

Figure 13 Relation between the longitudinal bending moments obtained using ECP2012 and ECP 1994 (continuous inner girder,
W = 10.5 m).

1.80 2012/1994 outer

The rao of moments

1.60 2012/1994 inner

1.40
1.20
1.00
0.80
0.60
no beam 2.30
Depth of transverser beam

Figure 14 Relation between the longitudinal bending moments obtained using ECP2012 and ECP 1994 (continuous inner girder,
W = 10.5 m).

(a) Live load moments obtained using the current Egyptian

code (2012) are much higher than those obtained using 3.2. Continuous bridges (Figs. 13 and 14 and Table 1b)
the old code (1963) with a ratio MECP2012/MECP1963 ran-
ged from 1.93 to 2.48 for outer girders and from 1.74 to
As discussed for simply supported bridges, the traffic load in the
2.05 for inner ones. The lowest ratios were for bridges
current Egyptian Code (2012) produced higher values of negative
with large span; L = 25 m, while the higher ratios were
moment at support compared to those obtained using 1963 rec-
for bridges with span L = 15 m. Since a large amount of
ommendations or 1994 code. Table 1b indicates that the average
bridges in Egypt were built according to 1963 specifica-
ratio Mve 2012/Mve 1963 was 1.33 for outer girder and 1.12 for
tions, these bridges should be checked against the cur-
inner one. When traffic load of ECP 1994 was used, the average
rent traffic loads to ensure their structural integrity.
ratio was 1.23 for outer girder and 1.24 for inner one.
(b) Live load moments obtained using the current Egyptian
Comparing these ratios with those obtained for simply sup-
code 2012 are higher than those obtained using
ported bridges, the following is noted:
ECP1994 with a ratio (MECP2012/MECP1994) ranged from
1.11 to 1.19 for outer girders and form 1.21 to 1.26 for
– The train–type loading of 1963 traffic load produced nega-
inner ones. The higher ratios were for bridges with large
tive moment closer to those of the ECP 2012, especially for
span; L = 25 m, while the lowest ratios were for bridges
inner girder.
with span L = 15 m.
– The negative (support) moments obtained using the traffic
(c) The effect of transverse beam stiffness on the maximum
load of 1963 specifications are close to those obtained by
moment of longitudinal girders was clear. Increasing
ECP 1994 recommendations.
depth of transverse beam caused an increase in outer
– The results also indicate that the ratio of moments obtained
girder moment and a decrease in inner girder moment.
by different codes depend not only on the value of axle or
The stiffness of the transverse beam affects the distribu-
U.D.L, but also on the configuration of these loads to each
tion of load among the bridge girders. As shown in
other. For example, the moment produced by U.D.L as rec-
Figs. 9–12, transverse beam with depth close to that of
ommended by 1963 on inner and outer girders was very
the longitudinal girder caused a reduction in moment
small since UDL occupies only the third lane while the axle
of inner girder by 15–25% compared to the slab-on-
load produced large moments compared to those obtained
girder bridge. However, the increase in moment of outer
using the current code 2012.
girder was large (up to 30% when using ECP1963) while
it was only 5–10% for other codes. Also, the figures
3.3. Analysis of deck slabs of slab/girder bridges
indicate that the ratio of MECP2012/MECP1963 for outer
girders reduces with the increase in transverse beam
depth while it remains approximately constant for inner Tables 2 and 3 show a comparison between values of moments
girders. obtained using the different versions of the codes for the two-

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org/10.1016/j.aej.2017.03.022
Design of highway RC bridges 9

Table 2 Comparison of maximum moments of two-way slabs.

Dimensions a  b (m) b/a ECP 2012/ECP 1963
Short direction Long direction
Mve M+ve Mve M+ve
a
3.0  3.0 1.00 1.56 1.62 2.50 2.21
3.0  3.5 1.17 1.64 1.70 2.67 2.32
3.0  4.0 1.33 1.63 1.74 2.79 2.43
3.5  3.5 1.00 1.68 1.78 2.87 2.56
3.5  4.0 1.14 1.69 1.80 3.03 2.68
3.5  4.5 1.29 1.75 1.86 3.07 2.73
3.5  5.0 1.43 1.80 1.91 3.18 2.84
4.0  4.0 1.00 1.62 1.75 2.96 2.62
4.0  5.0 1.25 1.70 1.84 3.09 2.78
4.0  6.0 1.30 1.75 1.88 3.19 2.89
Dimensions (m) b/a ECP 2012/ECP 1994
Short direction Long direction
Mve M+ve Mve M+ve
b
3.0  3.0 1.00 1.17 1.22 1.31 1.31
3.0  3.5 1.17 1.12 1.16 1.22 1.22
3.0  4.0 1.33 1.08 1.15 1.12 1.15
3.5  3.5 1.00 1.15 1.22 1.31 1.35
3.5  4.0 1.14 1.11 1.18 1.23 1.26
3.5  4.5 1.29 1.07 1.13 1.11 1.17
3.5  5.0 1.43 1.06 1.13 1.05 1.12
4.0  4.0 1.00 1.13 1.23 1.32 1.35
4.0  5.0 1.25 1.03 1.12 1.11 1.18
4.0  6.0 1.50 1.00 1.08 1.06 1.12

Table 3 Comparison of maximum moments of one-way slabs.

Dimensions (m) b/a < 1.5 ECP2012/1963 ECP2012/1994
Mve M+ve Mve M+ve
2.5  4.0 1.60 1.52 1 1.63 1.61
3.0  5.0 1.67 1.38 1.55 1.55 1.48
3.5  5.5 1.57 1.27 1.45 1.44 1.39

way slabs and one-way slabs, respectively. The comparison
reveals that:
1. For two-way slabs (b/a
1.5), the values of negative and
positive moments in the long direction, as calculated using
1994 and 2012 recommendations, are higher than values
of moments in short span. According to both codes the val-
ues of moments in long direction are about 45% higher than
those in short direction for b/a = 1.43. The ratio of
Mlong/Mshort increases with the increase of b/a; this ratio
was 1.00–1.15 for square slabs (b/a = 1.0) for the two codes.
However, the moments obtained using the traffic load of
1963 specifications were higher in the short span than in
the long span, as common in the classical theory of plates
subjected to uniform or patch loading. For ECP 1994 traffic
load, the small longitudinal distance between axes (1.5 m)
allowed the use of three axles along the long span (b) which
results in covering the long span with uniform loading,
producing large values of moments. For ECP 2012 traffic
load, the dimensions of contact area in long span were about
twice that in the short span, which may be the reason for
obtaining large values of moment in the large span.
2. According to the Egyptian code, the final distribution in
one-way slabs depends on both span and the ratio of the
secondary steel (in the long direction) to the main steel
(in the short direction). In Table 3, the values of moments
were calculated for the maximum ratios allowed by the
code (A0 s/As = 2/3), and for any other ratio, the values of
moments will change.
3. For two way-slabs, negative moments in short direction
obtained using the traffic load of the current ECP 2012
were much higher than those obtained using traffic load
of 1963 specifications by 56–80%. The highest ratio was
obtained for the slabs with b/a = 1.43. However, for posi-
tive moments the above ratios of increase were 60–90%
with the large ratios for slabs with b/a = 1.43.

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10 M.E.-D. Shoukry et al.

a- Intrior girder Fi= 1.28

M(FE)/M(Eq)
1.05
15m
0.95
20m
0.85
0.50 m 0.80m 1.0m 1.3m 1.5m 1.8m 2m 2.3m 25m
Depth of transeverse beam,m

b- Outer girder Fo= 1.15

M(FE)/M(Eq)

1.05 15m
0.85 20m
0.50 m 0.80m 1.0m 1.3m 1.5m 1.8m 2m 2.3m 25m
Depth of transeverse beam,m

Figure 15 Comparison between FE moments and moments obtained using the proposed equations, for bridge width W = 7.5 m.

a- Interior girder Fi= 1.28

M(FE)/M(Eq)

1.05

0.95 15m
20m
0.85
0.50 m 0.80m 1.0m 1.3m 1.5m 1.8m 2m 2.3m 25m
Depth of transeverse beam,m

b- Outer bgirder Fo= 1.15

M(FE)/M(Eq)

1.05 15m
1.00
0.95 20m
0.90
0.85 25m
0.50 m 0.80m 1.0m 1.3m 1.5m 1.8m 2m 2.3m
Depth of transeverse beam,m

Figure 16 Comparison between FE moments and moments obtained using the proposed equations, for bridge width W = 10.5 m.

4. The moments in the short direction for the two-way slab as 4. Proposed emperical design equations
obtained by ECP 2012 were higher than those obtained
using ECP 1994 by only 6–17% for negative moments
In 2012, Abdel-Hady [1] proposed design equations for pre-
and by 13–22% for positive moments.
dicting the live load bending moments in outer and inner lon-
gitudinal girders of RC bridges. These equations were obtained
The heavy wheel loading for ECP 2012 and the presence of
according to the traffic load of ECP 1994. The equations were
four wheels on the slab distributed on a small contact area,
for right simply supported bridges with 15 m
L
25 m and
may be the reasons for obtaining high values of moments when
7.5 m
W
10.5 m, where L = span length and W = bridge
compared to ECP 1994 and 1963 specification.
width.
The two equations proposed by Abdel-Hady are as follows:
5. A large difference was obtained between the value of
moments in the long direction of the two–way slabs using Maximum M L:L inner girder
ECP 2012 and those obtained using 1963 specifications. ¼ ððL 2:04
 S0:72  C0:007  I0:24  K0:06 ÞÞ
m x
ECP 2012 values were higher by 2.5–3.19 times the
moments obtained by the old code (1963). However, when Maximum M L:L outer girder
ECP 2012 values were compared with those of ECP 1994,
the ratio of Mve 2012/Mve1994 ranged 1.05–1.32, and the ¼ ððL 2:24
 S0:6  C0:006  I0:31
m  K0:013
x ÞÞ
lowest ratio was for slab with b/a = 1.43. where
S: Longitudinal girder spacing, m.
Similarly, for one-way slabs, ECP 2012 results were C: Transverse beam spacing, m.
higher than those of 1963 by 27–52% (for negative Im: Longitudinal girder inertia, m4.
moments) and by 45–72% (for positive moments), and the Kx: Distributed transverse beam stiffness (Ix/W), m3.
above ratios were 44–63% and 39–61% when compared to Ix: Transverse beam inertia, m4 = (b * hx3/12).
1994 code. hx: Height of transverse beam, m.

Please cite this article in press as: M.-E.D. Shoukry et al., Traffic loads used in the design of highway RC bridges in Egypt, Alexandria Eng. J. (2017), http://dx.doi.
org/10.1016/j.aej.2017.03.022
Design of highway RC bridges
For the current version of the Egyptian code (ECP 2012), it
was necessary to modify these two equations according to the
current traffic load. It is suggested to multiply the equations by
a correction factor (F) obtained from the results of the present
study. So, the proposed equations take the form:
Maximum M inner girder ¼ Fi ððL2:04  S0:72  C0:007  I0:24
m  K0:06
x ÞÞ
Maximum M outer girder ¼ F0 ððL2:24  S0:6  C0:006  I0:31
m  K0:013
x ÞÞ
where Fi and F0 are correction factors for the maximum
moments in inner and outer girders respectively. Note that Fi
and F0 are 1.0 since the traffic load recommended by ECP
2012 is heavier than that of the old version: 1994.
The values of Fi and F0 were calculated by dividing the
maximum working moments obtained from the FE analysis
by those obtained from the original equations. These values
of Fi and F0 were calculated for different spans: L = 15, 20,
25 m, and different depths of transverse beams. It was found
that the average values of Fi were 1.27, 1.27 and 1.30 for spans
15, 20 and 25 m respectively. For simplicity a value of
Fi = 1.28 was chosen for all spans and width of interior girders
in this study.
The average values of F0 were 1.11, 1.17 and 1.18 for spans
15, 20 and 25 m respectively. For simplicity a value of
F0 = 1.15 was chosen for all spans and width of outer girders
in this study.
Therefore, the proposed equations are as follows:
Maximum M inner girder ¼ 1:28 ððL2:04  S0:72  C0:007  I0:24
m  K0:06
x ÞÞ
Maximum M outer girder ¼ 1:15 ððL2:24  S0:6  C0:006  I0:31
m  K0:013
x ÞÞ
The application of the proposed equations to the bridge mod-
els analyzed in the present study shows an excellent agreement
with an average value of MEq/MFE = 1.01 as shown in Figs. 15
and 16.
It should be noted that Saleh et al. [9] presented formulas
for load distribution factors based on ECP 2012 traffic load
for slab/girder bridges. These formulas were tested against
the present FE results in Ref. [7].
5. Conclusions
Based on the results of this study, the following conclusions
may be drawn:
Please cite this article in press as: M.-E.D. Shoukry et al., Traffic loads used in the design of highway RC bridges in Egypt, Alexandria Eng. J. (2017), http://dx.doi.
org/10.1016/j.aej.2017.03.022
11
a. The traffic load recommended by the Egyptian code
2012 for design of highway bridges predicts higher val-
ues of moments on bridge girders when compared with
the old versions of the code: 1963 and 1994. The differ-
ence in moment values reached about 150%. Accord-
ingly, bridges built before 2012 should be checked
against the current traffic loads to ensure their structural
integrity.
b. For continuous bridges, the train-type loading of 1963
traffic load produced negative moments closer to those
of the ECP 2012, especially for inner girders.
c. Deck slabs designed according to old versions of the
Egyptian code should also be checked against ECP
2012, since a value of 80% increase of moment was
recorded for slabs analyzed according to ECP 2012.
d. Two empirical design equations are proposed for the
calculation of maximum bending moments in girders
of simply supported bridges. These equations were
obtained according to traffic loads of the current Egyp-
tian code.
References
[1] M. Abdel Hady, Load Distribution in Reinforced Concrete Right
Bridge M.Sc. Thesis in Structural Engineering, Alexandria
University, Egypt, 2012.
[2] Egyptian Railway General Inspectorate of Structural Engineering
– Bridge Department – General Specifications for the Design and
Construction of Works, 1963.
[3] Egyptian Code for the Calculation of Loads and Forces in the
Structural Works, 1994.
[4] Egyptian Code for Loads and Forces on Buildings and
Structures, EC 201, 2012.
[5] Egyptian Code for Planning, Design, and Construction of
Bridges and Elevated Intersections, ECP 207, Part 4, 2013.
[6] Eurocode1: Actions on Structures – Part 2: Traffic Loads on
Bridges, 2010.
[7] N.A. Khalf, Study of Live Load Used in the Design of Highway
Bridges in EGYPT M. Sc. Thesis (in Preparation), Faulty of
Engineering, Alexandria University, Egypt, 2016.
[8] SAP (2000): V14.2 Manual.
[9] A. Saleh, M. Rabie, E. Kamel, Live load distribution factors
suitable for concrete bridges under ECP 201 and eurocode 1991
loading, J. Am. Sci. 8 (4) (2012) 707–721.