Chapter 52
Mud Logging
Alun H. Whittaker, Exploration Logging IX.*
Introduction
Conventional mud logging has been commercially
available since 1939. The service involves extraction of
gases from the returning mud stream and analysis of the
gas for combustible hydrocarbons. Commonly, the
resulting analyses are logged at drilled depth and plotted
alongside a drill-time or rate of penetration log and a cut-
tings sample geological log. Although the mud log data
cannot be related directly to undisturbed reservoir prop-
erties, they are important indicators of potentially pro-
ductive horizons in the well. The conventional mud log
continues to be the most important geological data
source available before wireline logs are run.
The mud logging unit offers a useful location for the
operation of other wellsite analyses and services. It pro-
vides a clean, well-lighted laboratory area with a stable
electrical supply and is continuously operated by
geologists or geologically trained technicians. Many
mud logging contractors have made use of these assets to
augment conventional mud logging with an extensive
range of geological and engineering services. Often
unrelated to the traditional gas analysis function of the
unit, these services nevertheless generally are considered
aspects of mud logging now in the same manner as
sonic, density, and neutron logs often are grouped with
“electric logs.”
The earliest expansion of mud logging services began
in the 1960’s with the introduction of improved methods
of geopressure detection. New techniques were added to
the logging unit and it became common for a separate
“pressure log” to be prepared alongside the mud log.
The 24-hour activity of the mud logging unit allowed
continuous operation of this service in which early detec-
tion was essential.
In the 1970’s, the advent of rugged microelectronics
allowed the introduction of more sophisticated and
automated equipment into the logging unit. Most
notably, the use of drilling rig data-acquisition systems
‘The chapter on this topic In the 1962 edibon was written by A.J. Pearson.
linked to minicomputers introduced a range of drilling
optimization and control services. Unlike conventional
mud logging and geopressure detection, these services
are essentially nongeological. Generally, engineering
personnel are added to the logging crew for these
services.
In the 1980’s three new aspects to mud logging ser-
vices have been introduced. First, direct links between a
wellsite minicomputer and an office data center allow
centralized surveillance and control of several wells. The
logging unit provides a wellsite access point to the cen-
tral computer data base and analytical software.
Second, there is the increasing use of the mud logging
unit as the surface receiving and control center for
downhole measurement-while-drilling (MWD) services.
The mud logging unit provides both a convenient work-
ing environment and support data (e.g., total depth
measurement) for this service. Additionally, the ability
to integrate mud logging and MWD data in a single com-
puter adds economy and speed to the well evaluation
process.
Third, the 1980’s have brought the first fundamental
changes in the methods of hydrocation and geological
analysis, which continue to be the common denominator
of all mud logging services. Improved sampling techni-
ques, pyrolysis, chromatography, and other geochemical
techniques have enhanced the diagnostic and quantitative
value of mud logging. Wellsire geochemical screening
for reservoir and source-bed type may now be performed
in the mud logging unit.
Service Types
The number and range of mud logging contractors is
possibly greater than that of any other oilfield service.
The logging services offered by any single contractor
may range from basic hydrocarbon logging, using equip-
ment barely more sophisticated than that introduced 40
years ago, to complex chemical and physical analyses
and a complete engineering surveillance and control
center.
52-2
Similarly, logging personnel may be graduate
geologists or engineers, or technicians of various levels
of expertise. In specifying the mud log service for a well,
the operator’s engineer, geologist, and the logging con-
tractor should define the objectives and problems an-
ticipated and select those aspects of the service required.
Since extra service usually implies extra cost,
economics must play a part in the decision. In engineer-
ing monitoring, it is relatively easy to compute the sav-
ing in drilling time or cost required to justify some addi-
tion to logging service day rate. This is discussed in
detail at the end of this chapter.
Although overlaps occur, the services provided in mud
logging may be grouped in line with the traditional
oilfield disciplines: (1) formation evaluation ser-
vices ’-hydrocarbon analysis, geological analysis, and
geochemical analysis; (2) petroleum engineering ser-
vices-geopressure evaluation and petrophysical
measurements; (3) drilling en@neering services-data
acquisition and data analysis. This order is convenient
for the following discussion of logging services since it
closely parallels the historical development of mud log-
ging and the level of sophistication of logging units used
today.
Formation Evaluation Services
Gas Extraction Methods
Although the modem mud logging unit may perform
many different services, probably its most critical one is
the analysis of hydrocarbon gases. 2 Before this analysis
can be performed, a sample of gas must be extracted
from the drilling mud. This is performed by the gas trap
(Fig. 52.1).
The gas trap is a square or cylindrical metal box im-
mersed in the shale shaker ditch, preferably in a location
Fig. Cl-Gas
PETROLEUM ENGINEERING HANDBOOK
of maximum mud flow rate. Ports in the lower part of the
trap allow mud to enter and leave the trap. An electric or
pneumatic agitator motor provides both pumping and
degassing of mud passing through the trap.
Gas evolved from the mud is mixed with ambient air in
the upper part of the trap and drawn through a vacuum
line to the logging unit for analysis. This device provides
a relatively cheap and reliable method of obtaining a
continuous gas sample. However, the efficiency of the
device is somewhat affected by drilling practice. Pump
rate and ditch mud level will influence mud flow rate
through the trap; mud rheology will be a factor in the
degassing efficiency of the trap; and mud and ambient
air temperature around the trap and vacuum line will af-
fect the relative efficiency with which light and heavy
hydrocarbons are extracted and retained in the gas phase.
This latter effect is most noticeable in areas of high diur-
nal temperature variation, where heavier alkane gases
seen in daylight may condense and be lost in the cold of
night.
An alternative to the conventional gas trap is the
steam, or vacuum, mud still. In this device, a small sam-
ple of drilling mud is collected at the ditch, returned to
the logging unit, and distilled under vacuum. The
method provides a relatively high and uniform extraction
efficiency for all hydrocarbons. It is, however, a time-
consuming manual process. Analyses are noncontinuous
and subject to human error; for example, light hydrocar-
bons can evaporate while the sample stands prior to
analysis.
While a useful addition to the conventional gas trap at
times, the mud still does not provide a real alternative.
The development of a continuous gas trap with good and
consistent efficiency of extraction is a high priority in the
improvement of mud logging technology.
extraction at the ditch
MUD LOGGING 52-3

Hydrocarbon Analysis :VACuUM

PUMPr PRESSURE
1 REGULATOR
The basic form of gas analysis involves the analysis by
combustion of the bulk sample. Although commonly
called “total gas analysis,” it is, in reality, analysis for
total combustible gases and primarily detects the low-
molecular-weight alkanes (paraffins) such as methane,
ethane, propane, butane, and pentane (with partial con-
centrations of hexane and heptane at higher ambient
temperatures).

Catalytic Combustion Detector (CCD). After filtration

and drying, the gas stream is injected at constant
pressure and flowrate into a detector chamber (Fig.
52.2). The original type of mud logging gas detector, Fig. 52.2-Gas analysis system.
and probably still the most widely used, is the catalytic
combustion, or “hot wire” detector (Fig. 52.3).
The hot wire detector is a Wheatstone bridge circuit
consisting of four resistances: a fixed resistor, Rf; a
rheostat, R,, used to trim or balance the bridge; and a
matched pair of coiled platinum wire filaments, Rd and
R,. The two filaments are enclosed in an analysis cell ZERO ADJUST
with the detector filament, Rd, exposed to the flow of POTENTIOMETER
gas sample and the reference filament, R,, isolated in
pure air.
When a bridge voltage, V, is applied, the filaments
become heated. A voltage between two and three volts is
commonly selected to give a high enough filament
temperature for hydrocarbon combustion at the filament
surface (actual voltage used depends on the particular
detector design). Combustion heat causes the
temperature and hence resistance of the detector filament
to rise relative to the reference filament. The bridge is
unbalanced and current flows between the two sides of
the bridge. Using a galvanometer of resistance R, , this
current, I,, can be measured. Since combustion occurs
at the filament surface only, the galvanometer current is L SPAN ADJUST
quite sensitive and linear with changing gas POTENTIOMETER
concentration.
Obviously, detector response will depend on both the
concentration and composition of the sample gas phase,
since each hydrocarbon species will have its own par-
ticular heat of combustion. Table 52.1 shows these for Fig. 52.3-Catalytic combustion detector.
the low-molecular-weight alkanes.
Since gas composition is unknown, the total gas detec-
tor cannot be calibrated for tme compositional response.
The detector is calibrated with a mixture of a single
alkane, usually methane, in air. Detector response is
then reported in percentage “equivalent methane in air”
or EMA. Using a variable resistance, R,, in the bridge TABLE 52.1-HEATS OF COMBUSTION OF THE SIMPLE
ALKANES
it is possible to adjust the bridge current, I,, and
graduate the galvanometer directly in percentage EMA. (3n + 1)
An older practice, which is now becoming obsolete, was Cn +2n+2) +-O,-nCO,+(n+l) H,O+E
2
to take the galvanometer reading in milliamps and
relabel it as “gas units.” Such units are obviously equip-
Molecular E
ment specific although some company or regional stan- n=1 Weight (kcallmol) kcallgm Structure
dards have been enforced. Where this practice continues, Methane 1 16 191 11.9 i
confusion can be avoided by requiring the logging con-
tractor to report calibration data on the mud log heading. Ethane 2 30 342 11.4 u”
For example, the contractor would report “ 100 total gas
Propane 3 44 493 11.2 tit
units=2% EMA.”
Fig. 52.4 shows the response of a typical CCD to com-
Iso-butane 4 56 648 11.2 A
monly occurring combustible gases. Notice that a
response of 1% EMA, or 50 total gas units, may indicate Butane 4 58 650 11.2 j-c+4
a concentration of 1% methane or a somewhat lower
52-4
ZERO 0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 x2 I.4 16
AO.JvsT PERCENT ““DROt.aRBON IN AIR
Fig. 52.4-Catalytic combustion detector response.
concentration of a mixture of methane and heavier
alkanes. Total gas response may be thought of as a “gas
richness indicator,” increasing both with gas concentra-
tion and with addition of heavier fractions.
To assist in discriminating light alkanes from heavy
ones, a second identical detector may be used. By setting
a lower bridge voltage (1 to 1.4 V) and filament
temperature, the detector is no longer capable of induc-
ing combustion of methane. The resulting detector out-
put, still reported in percentage EMA, is commonly
labeled petroleum vapors, wet gas, or heavies, although
only qualitative comparison of the two detector
responses allows recognition of dry and oil-associated
gas shows.
Response of the CCD can be maintained linearly up to
the stoichiometric, or ideal, combustion composition of
hydrocarbon in air. Above this composition, approx-
imately 9.5% EMA, the detector “saturates,” in-
complete combustion occurs, and response becomes
nonlinear. At higher concentrations, the sample must be
diluted with air before it is introduced into the sample
chamber to maintain a combustible gas mixture.
Theoretically, by using progressive sample dilution, a
CCD can be maintained linearly up to concentrations of
100% EMA. In reality, each dilution stage requires a
reduction in gas sample volume and an increasing mix-
ing error. It is generally accepted that 40% EMA is the
maximum limit of reliability of a CCD.
As an alternative to progressive dilution, where high
gas concentrations are regularly expected, the detector
can be reconfigured to operate as a thermal conductivity
detector (TCD). Though the detector circuit remains
essentially unchanged, it is operated at a lower voltage
such that no gas combustion occurs. Bridge current now
is reversed, responding to the cooling effect of the gas
stream passing over the detector filament. Methane,
which has a substantially greater thermal conductivity
than air, will produce a large cooling effect, which may
be linearly calibrated up to very high concentrations. The
device is, however, poorly responsive to the heavier
alkanes, CO2 and hydrogen sulfide (HzS), which have
thermal conductivities close to that of air. The high con-
ductivity gases, hydrogen and helium, will give
responses even greater than that of methane.
The CCD is quite selective for hydrocarbons. Carbon
dioxide (COZ) and hydrogen sulfide (HzS) will not bum
at the detector filament. They will marginally reduce the
PETROLEUM ENGINEERING HANDBOOK
+ Ii20
HYDROGEN
+1 7+ *In
SAMPLE +-J
Fig. 52.5-Flame ionization detector.
, 8 20 thermal conductivity of the gas mixture and induce a
small heating effect at the detector filament. This
positive response is commonly so small as to be in-
significant when compared with the greater hydrocarbon
response. However, if the concentration of noncombusti-
ble gases becomes so high as to prevent complete com-
bustion of hydrocarbon with air, a much larger negative
response will occur.
Hydrogen will bum in the detector, even at low
voltage, giving a concentration response similar to
methane. Although free hydrogen does occur as an in-
termediate product of petroleum maturation, it is ex-
tremely reactive and diffusive. Occurrence of hydrogen
in a petroleum gas show is therefore most uncommon.
Significant concentrations of hydrogen have been shown
to result from deep-seated structural movement, but the
most common origin is from the corrosion of aluminum
drillpipe or of steel drillpipe in extremely low pH drilling
fluids.
A serious disadvantage of the CCD is the tendency of
the catalyst surface to become poisoned by the ac-
cumulation of impurities and partial combustion prod-
ucts. This may result in a slow, progressive degradation
of performance or a sudden, catastrophic loss, when, for
example, silicon compounds are present in the mud.
Regular detector calibration is essential to maintain
reliable operation.
Flame Ionization Detector. The inherent limitations of
the CCD resulted in a search for a more reliable detector
technology. The most accepted and increasingly used is
the flame ionization, or “hydrogen flame,” detector
(FID) (Fig. 52.5).
One important difference between the flame ionization
and the catalytic combustion principles is that the flame
ionization method involves complete combustion of the
sample. A small quantity of sample is introduced into a
hydrogen/oxygen mixture that is continuously burning in
a combustion chamber. The heat generated by the
hydrogen flame is sufficient to initiate complete combus-
tion of all hydrocarbons in the sample. A large oxygen
excess is maintained relative to the small sample volume
and saturation never occurs. The heat output of the
hydrogen flame is the sum of the heats of combustion of
hydrogen and the sample hydrocarbons.
Unfortunately, most of the heat produced is from the
large volume flow of pure hydrogen. The small, dilute
flow of hydrocarbons produces such a small proportion
of the total heat of combustion that it cannot be measured
accurately. Combustion heat then cannot be used as a
measure of hydrocarbon concentration. Detection of the
hydrocarbons instead relies upon an unusual in-
MUD LOGGING 52-5

termediate stage in combustion that only occurs in

hydrocarbons burning at high temperatures. This in-
volves the creation of unstable electrically charged
anions and cations. By placing a positive electrode, or
anode, in the form of a cylindrical chimney above the
hydrogen flame, the negative anions may be collected
and the resultant electric current used to determine
hydrocarbon concentration.
The ionization/combustion sequence is a complex one
that involves many intermediate and alternate reaction
steps. The number of ions created, and therefore the cur-
rent flowing, is in direct proportion to the concentration
of the alkanes and to the number of carbon atoms in the 0 0.2 0:4 0.6 0.8 1 :o
alkanes (Fig. 52.6). The FID response in percentage HYDROCARBON CONCENTRATION % IN AIR
EMA is, therefore, like the CCD, a richness indicator
Fig. 52.6-Flame ionization detector response.
showing increases with increasing concentration and in-
creasing alkane molecular weight.
The FID is totally selective for compounds containing
carbon-to-hydrogen (C-H) bonds. Other gases and im- In routine logging, a chromatograph usually will be set
purities in the sample stream produce zero or negligible to cycle through continuous automatic analyses for
response and do not degrade detector performance. methane, ethane, propane, isobutane and n-butane. This
Although the detector response is effectively linear requires approximately 3 to 5 minutes. If heavier alkanes
throughout all concentrations, the electrometer used to (e.g., pentanes) need to be detected, the automatic con-
monitor and amplify the detector current has perfor- trol is disengaged and the analysis allowed to continue
mance limits of linearity. Since mud log gas shows may for a longer period of time.
vary from tens of parts per million (ppm) to tens of per-
Infrared Absorption Detector. The third, and least
cent, both electrical signal attenuation and sample split-
used, form of detector is the infrared absorption detector.
ting are required to ensure low-range sensitivity and
This instrument uses the principle that any chemical
high-range linearity of FID response. In most modem in-
bond will absorb infrared energy of a specific frequency
struments this is handled automatically, ensuring a
governed by the chemical nature and geometry of that
higher degree of accuracy than manual sample dilution.
bond. For example, methane contains four identical
carbon-to-hydrogen (C-H) bonds. If a gas sample is ir-
Gas Chromatography. In addition to a total gas detec-
radiated with infrared energy at a frequency
tor, most modem logging units will also contain a gas
characteristic of this bond, the energy absorbed by the
chromatograph. This device allows the separation of the
sample will be in proportion to the number of C-H bonds
individual alkanes and their separated detection, giving a
and hence to the concentration of methane in the sample.
gas analysis of composition and concentration. While
All other alkanes contain C-H and carbon-to-carbon
this analysis is of greater value than the total gas
(C-C) bonds. Although these bonds are chemically iden-
response in EMA, the chromatograph does not provide a
tical, they vary in geometry and hence characteristic in-
continuous analysis but processes batch samples
frared frequency, depending on their position within the
separated by a number of minutes. In drilling terms, this
alkane molecule. Theoretically it should be possible to
translates into separate analyses several feet apart. The
pass the gas sample through a series of test cells, testing
chromatograph does not replace the total gas recorder in
for infrared absorption at a series of characteristic in-
showing the fine detail and progressive changes in a gas
frared frequencies. Combination of the results would
show.
provide a continuous analysis of both alkane type and
In gas chromatography, a fixed volume gas sample is
concentration-i.e., the equivalent of a continuous
carried through a separating column by a carrier gas,
chromatogmph.
usually air. The column contains liquid solvent surface
Unfortunately, the C-H and C-C bonds show such a
or a fine molecular sieve solid. By difference in gas
large number of minutely varying geometries that, in-
solubility or by differential diffusion, the gas mixture
stead of a series of discrete characteristic frequencies, a
becomes separated into its components, the lightest
continuous band of overlapping absorptions occurs. At
traveling most quickly through the column and the
best, using a two-absorption cell system, it is possible to
heaviest most slowly.
provide an estimate of methane concentration and total
Depending on the nature of the column, each compo- hydrocarbon concentration, in EMA. This result is com-
nent will pass through and exit the column in a parable to the result obtainable from a dual CCD system
characteristic time. From the column, the components and inferior to the results from an FID-equipped gas
pass in turn to a detector, which may be a CCD, TCD, or chromatograph.
FID. The detector is calibrated with a gas mixture of
known composition and concentrations. A separate Detection of Nonhydrocarbon Gases. ’ The most
calibration factor for each component can be used for commonly occurring nonhydrocarbon gases in petroleum
detector response as the components occur in turn. exploration are CO*, HzS, helium, nitrogen, and
Since heavier components take longer to traverse the hydrogen. As discussed previously, the occurrence of
column, the time and depth interval between samples is naturally produced hydrogen is rare. Helium and
governed by the number of components to be analyzed. nitrogen also tend to have regionally or geologically
52-6
specific occurrences. CO2 and H2 S arc common trace or
significant components of natural gases and equipment
for their detection should be used on any exploration
well.
Chromatograph-Thermal Conductivity Detector.
The most versatile device for detection of nonhydrocar-
bons is a chromatograph equipped with a TCD. By se-
lecting an appropriate column material and length, any
single component or combination may be separated. The
TCD will provide a response to any gas that has a ther-
mal conductivity different from that of the carrier gas.
This response will differ for each sample gas/carrier gas
combination but, by using gas mixtures of known com-
position, calibration curves for each component can be
developed.
Best response and sensitivity is achieved when the
maximum difference exists between the thermal conduc-
tivities of the sample gas and the carrier gas. Thermal
conductivity generally declines exponentially with in-
creasing molecular weight. Thus the light gases
(hydrogen and helium) may be readily detected by use of
air as the carrier gas. For the heavier gases (nitrogen,
CO;, , and HzS) that have thermal conductivities closer
to that of air, a lighter and higher thermal conductivity
carrier gas must be used. Helium is a common choice but
hydrogen also may be used if available.
An important consideration when assessing the
reliability of analyses for nitrogen and CO2 is their
presence in the sample caused by the introduction of air
into the gas trap and the aeration of drilling fluid.
Air of normal atmospheric composition, dissolved and
entrained in drilling fluid, will be introduced continuous-
ly into the borehole. In the hot downhole environment,
corrosion and other oxidation reactions will deplete oxy-
gen from this air resulting in a relative increase in
nitrogen and CO* concentration. Oxidation of car-
bonaceous material will further add to CO2 enrichment.
Alternatively, the presence of corrosion inhibitors in the
mud may deplete both oxygen and CO*. Regardless of
the mechanism involved, oxygen depletion will increase
with temperature and length of circulation time through
the downhole system.
At the surface, this oxygen-depleted air and any gas
recovered from the formation is mixed with ambient air
at the gas trap. This air will vary in composition with the
surrounding atmosphere-e.g., emissions from rig
motors, vehicles, and others.
Any show of nitrogen or CO2 from the formation must
be recognized above background concentrations, which
will show some random variation and a progressive in-
crease as the hole is deepened and mud circulation
becomes hotter and of longer duration. Regardless of the
analytical method used, precision of the ppm level can-
not be provided by the analysis. When only trace quan-
tities of gas are expected or when a precise composi-
tional analysis is required, mud logging analysis of CO2
or nitrogen cannot be relied upon.
Of the nonhydrocarbon petroleum gases, HIS and
CO? are the most significant. They are the most com-
monly occurring gases in high concentrations and
because of their polar nature pose serious problems of
corrosion of drilling and production equipment. H2S is
PETROLEUM ENGINEERING HANDBOOK
also toxic in relatively low concentrations. In many
areas, detectors specific to these gases are considered
standard mud logging equipment.
Infrared Absorption Detector. Continuous CO2 detec-
tion is best handled with infrared absorption. An infrared
analyzer is used that is responsive to the characteristic
frequency of the carbon-to-oxygen (C-O) bond unique to
COz. Correction of atmospheric CO2 concentration is
performed by alternately scanning two sample cells. One
contains a sample from the gas trap and the other con-
tains ambient air. Differential output provides a measure
of CO2 concentration above atmospheric.
Tube-Type Detector. Several types of H2S detectors
are used, all of which monitor a change resulting from
the chemical oxidation of the gas. The simplest detector
is the tube-type device in which the sample gas mixture
is drawn at a controlled flow rate through a glass tube
containing reactive lead acetate. The lead acetate, which
is deposited on a substrate of high-surface-area silica gel
granules, reacts with HzS to produce lead sulfide and
changes from white to dark brown or black in the
process:
Pb(CH3C00)2 +H2S-‘2CH3COOH+PbS.
Since the amount of lead acetate in any unit length of
tube is constant, the tube may be graduated in terms of
concentration of H2S in a fixed volume of sample.
The panel-mounted instrument has two tubes installed.
Flow of sample from the ditch is constant through one of
the tubes, and, if H2 S is present in the gas being evolved
at the ditch, the lead acetate begins to discolor pro-
gressively from bottom to top (the direction of sample
flow). Since the sample, and hence the discoloration, is
continuous, this response is qualitative only. The
discoloration indicates that H2S is present in only trace
or in enriched quantities, but no estimate of actual con-
centration can be made.
As soon as this discoloration is seen, a warning must
be given since even trace quantities of gas can be
dangerous. A quantitative analysis can be made by
switching flow to the second tube and introducing a
timed sample. In this case, a fixed amount of discolora-
tion occurs and the scale allows reading of the H2S
concentration.
An alternative configuration for the tube indicator is in
a small handbellows, often called a “puffer” or “snif-
fer,” which can be used to sample the atmosphere in
various locations around the rig.
Since the lead acetate reaction is not reversible, once
the tube is used it must be replaced. The instrument can-
not keep a continuous record of HzS concentration but
only a series of individual measurements. This is a
drawback, but not a serious one since any quantity of
H 2 S in the atmosphere is both a health hazard and an in-
dication that the mud system is totally saturated. Once
HzS is detected, mud treatment to remove it must begin.
Gas measurement is required to ensure that it is removed
and does not reappear.
The tube indicator may be used to detect CO2 or any
other gas for which a discoloring reactant is available.
For CO*, hydrazine is used in place of lead acetate.
MUD LOGGING
Presence of CO2 is indicated by a purple coloration of
the chemical in the tube:
CO2 +N2H4 -‘NH2NHCOOH.
The tube method, however, is poorly suited to con-
tinuous monitoring since there will be a uniform rate of
discoloration by atmospheric CO2
Paper-Tape-Type Detector. A more sophisticated ver-
sion of this detection principle uses continuous paper
tape, impregnated with lead acetate, to allow continuous
analysis and a quantitative electrical output for chart
recording and activation of alarms.
The detector mechanism is similar in appearance to an
open-reel tape recorder. Its operation and operating com-
ponents are analogous to that of tape recording. Paper
tape, a porous filter paper coated with an even concentra-
tion of lead acetate, is wound from reel to reel at a con-
stant speed. The tape passes through a sample chamber
through which gas from the ditch passes continuously.
The tape will be discolored by an amount proportional to
the concentration of lead acetate on the tape, the speed at
which the tape is moving (both of which are constant),
and the concentration of H2S in the sample. From the
sample cell the tape passes to a detector where light from
a collimated source is reflected from the tape to a
photoelectric cell. The output of the photoelectric cell is
readily calibrated in terms of H2S concentrations by
passing through the system test paper strips with zones of
different color that correspond to a range of known
concentrations.
The paper-tape-type detector may be used for the
detection of COz or other gases if a suitably impregnated
paper tape is available. Unlike the tube indicator, it is
possible to discriminate between a baseline of at-
mospheric discoloration and a true “show” above
baseline.
Although the paper-tape-type is superior to the tube in-
dicator, both suffer the disadvantage of requiring
periodic replacement of the reactive material, lead
acetate, and the possible degradation of the product in
storage. Indicator tubes and rolls of paper tape are sup-
plied in sealed, dated packages and should never be used
if the seal is broken or the package is beyond its expira-
tion date.
Solid-State Electrical Detector. The most modem Hz S
analyzers involve use of a solid-state electrical detector.
This device depends on the reversible reduction of
metallic oxides by HzS as its means of detection. A
semiconductor sensor element is exposed to a flow of gas
drawn from the ditch. The surface of this element con-
sists of a proprietary metallic oxide layer. In the presence
of HzS, this layer will be partly reduced to metallic
sulfides, and its electrical resistance will change:
(metal) O+HzS-+(metal) S+HzO.
This is an equilibrium reaction. If Hz S ceases to be pres-
ent, the reaction reverses with the reoxidation of sulfides
to oxides. At all times, the sulfide-to-oxide ratio (and
52-7
hence the electrical resistance) of the layer is a direct
function of the concentration of H2S in the sample pres-
ent in the vicinity of the sensor.
Alternative configurations of this device involve
multiple installations with either samples being drawn
from, or sensor elements located in, various locations
around the rig with centralized monitoring and alarm
functions. Locating the sensor in a remote location may
cause problems if the sensor is exposed to potential
damage or mistreatment. It does, however, remove the
risk of loss of response resulting from gas dissolving in
condensation in long vacuum lines.
The device has high reliability and accuracy and is
widely used in the industry. There are, however, two
deficiencies that should always be considered. The first
and most important is that if the sensor is operated for a
period of time without any H2S present, it tends to lose
reaction speed. (It is important to note here that the sen-
sor does not lose sensitivity! It will respond, within
calibration, to the presence of H2S, but will respond
somewhat sluggishly to the first appearance.)
For safety reasons, the sensor must be reactivated
regularly by using a sample of H2S to maintain its reac-
tion speed.
Second, the sensor will respond to certain organic
sulfides that may be present in oil or result from mud ad-
ditive decomposition. The response to these compounds
is low but may result in a false H2 S show.
Soluble Sulfide Analyzer. One disadvantage common
to all Hz S gas analyzers results from the high solubility
of the gas in water. H2.S will not be liberated from the
drilling fluid and will not be seen by a gas analyzer until
a saturated solution of the gas exists. Since serious corro-
sion problems may be caused by low concentrations of
the gas in mud and even a few ppm of the gas in air is a
health hazard, it can be seen that by the time that HzS
gas is detected at the surface, a major problem already
has developed.
Early detection of H2 S requites analysis of the drilling
mud. This can be accomplished by regular sampling and
wet chemical analysis, but the mud logging service can
provide continuous soluble sulfide analysis by using a
selective ion electrode measurement system.
With this device, a sensor probe, which is immersed in
the drilling fluid, contains pH (hydrogen ion) and pS
(sulfide ion) specific electrodes and a temperature sen-
sor. When HzS dissolves in water it will in part
dissociate into bisulfide (HS -) ions and sulfide (S ~ -)
ions. The solubility of H2S and the degree of dissocia-
tion are controlled by the pH and temperature of the solu-
tion If these two parameters and the concentration of a
single dissolved sulfide species are measured it is possi-
ble to deduce the concentration of all other species. In
the soluble sulfide analyzer this is done automatically by
a microprocessor. By using this device it is possible to
detect H2 S and begin treatment to remove it from the
mud without concentrations ever becoming high enough
for gas detectors to be effective or for personnel to be
placed at risk.
Geological Analysis
After gas analysis, the most important function of mud
logging is the sampling and evaluation of drill cuttings.
52-a
Even when the mud logging unit operator is not a profes-
sional geologist, the minimum requirement is for iden-
tification and brief description of sample lithology,
estimation of reservoir properties (amount and type of
porosity and permeability), and description of oil
staining.
Sample Lag Time. Hydrocarbon and geological
analysis depend on the representative sampling of drill
cuttings and gases liberated by the cutting action of the
drillbit. In interpreting the analytical results, it is
necessary to account for the lag time and physical effects
of the gas and cuttings travel from the bottom of the hole
to the surface. ’
Lagging of samples is essential so that results may be
reported or logged at the depth from which the sample
originated (at the time the sample arrives at surface, the
depth, of course, will be somewhat greater). Lag time
may be obtained simply by calculating the time
necessary to displace the total annular volume of drilling
fluid as given by
van=v, -VP, ,..,.....,.....,...........(l)
qP
van=- v ) . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . .. . . . . . . .
an
and
D take cuttings samples. 3-5 If the shaker screen is used, a
I/=-, ... .. . .......... ..... .
VCWI
where
V = annular volume, m3/m,
VT = hole capacity, m3/m,
VP = pipe capacity and displacement,
V, = annular velocity, m/s,
qP
= pump output, m3/s,
tl = lag time, s, and
D = depth, m.
Separate calculations must be performed for each an-
nular section (drillpipe in casing, drillpipe in open hole,
drill collars in open hole, etc.).
Calculated lag times ate used when first drilling out of
casing or in hard rock areas where an in-gauge hole is ex-
pected. However, a calculated lag time cannot take into
account capacity variation in out-of-gauge holes or varia-
tion in pump rate or efficiency (for example, when the
pump is stopped to make a connection).
Determining and using lag in terms of pump strokes
has distinct advantages over lag determined on a time
basis. The counters tracking the cuttings up the hole stop
automatically when the pump is stopped. Clocks would
continue to run, and some subtractive factor would have
to be introduced. The most important advantage,
however, lies in accuracy. A lag determined in terms of
an interval of time is correct for only one speed of the
circulating pump (that speed at which the lag determina-
tion was run), whereas the lag in pump cycles is accurate
for any pump rate.
PETROLEUM ENGINEERING HANDBOOK
The lag can be determined by placing a tracer in the
drillpipe at the surface when the kelly bushing is
“broken off,” allowing the tracer to be pumped through
the hole and back to the surface, and counting the
number of strokes requited of the circulating pump to
make this circulation. From this total pump stroke count,
the number of strokes required to pump the tracer down
through the pipe to the bottom of the hole is subtracted.
This figure is calculated on the basis of the capacity of
the drillpipe and the displacement of the circulating
pump. The result is the “lag stroke.”
Various materials (such as whole oats, barley, or strips
of colored cellophane) may be used as tracers and picked
up on the shaker screen for approximating the lag. Under
ordinary circumstances, however, calcium carbide
placed in the drillpipe will react with the mud to form
acetylene. This gas will be picked up by the mud gas
detector and is the most convenient and reliable method
for determining the lag. Acetylene gas appears as wet
gas on the gas detector and is easily distinguished from
methane produced from the formation.
Representative Cuttings Samples. There is no
substitute for representative cuttings samples accurately
correlated to the depth from which they came. They are
(2) the required supportive data for the evaluation of any
mud logging, geological, geophysical, or engineering
data. Every rig has a shaker screen for separating the cut-
tings from the mud as they reach the surface. The shaker
screen may or may not be a good place from which to
. .(3) board or catching box should be placed at the foot of the
screen for collecting composite samples. This becomes
especially important where drill rate is low, to ensure
that the sample collected is representative of the whole
interval drilled and not just the final few inches.
Where a traditional “rhumba” shaker is used, dif-
ferences in flow through the possum belly (ditch at the
m3/m,
rear of the shale shaker) will result in density and size
sortings of cuttings across the various screens. This sort-
ing can be of assistance to the logging geologist in par-
tially separating large cavings from the smaller bot-
tomhole cuttings. However, great care must be taken to
ensure that a representative sample is caught. Where a
modem “doubledeck” shaker is used, cuttings on both
the upper and lower screens should be sampled.
A sampling depth interval should be set that thz mud
logger can be expected to maintain while keeping up
with other responsibilities. Sample intervals can be
shortened as the hole is deepened and drill rate falls. The
mud logger should never allow more than 15 minutes to
pass between catching samples. For example, if the sam-
ple interval is 10 ff and the drill rate is 10 ft/hr, the mud
logger should take four scoops of samples over the hour
to fill the sample bag for the interval. Special samples
should always be taken whenever background gas
changes are seen or the lag time after drilling breaks oc-
cur. If a board or catcher box is used, it must be cleaned
off after each sample is taken.
Samples should be taken from the desilter or desander
outlets whenever these are running. In this way, the log-
ging geologist can establish the quantity and appearance
of sand and line solids commonly contaminating the mud
system. If an unconsolidated formation is penetrated,
MUD LOGGING
sample from the desander will contain both formation
sand and mud solids. The logging geologist must be able
to discriminate between these.
Washing and preparing the cuttings to be examined are
probably as important as the examination itself. In hard
rock areas, the cuttings are usually quite easily cleaned,
in which case washing is a matter of merely hosing the
sample in a container of water to remove the mud film.
Washing the cuttings in many areas, however, par-
titularly areas and zones of tertiary sands and shales, is
more difficult and requires several precautions. The
clays and shales present are often soft and of a consjsten-
cy which goes into solution and makes mud. Care must
be taken to wash away as little of the shale as possible,
and, in determining the sample composition, to take into
account that which is washed away.
After washing the cuttings to remove the mud, they are
washed through a 5-mm sieve unless doing so will fur-
ther cause excessive loss of shale or clay. It is generally
considered that the cuttings will pass through the S-mm
sieve, and that the material that does not is cavings and
may be discarded. However, the material that does not
pass through should be examined for sand cuttings. If
they should be present, these afford an excellent oppor-
tunity for study of larger-than-normal cuttings chips.
Cuttings from wells drilled with oil-based or oil-
emulsion muds are usually more representative of the
drilled formation than cuttings drilled with water-based
mud because the oil emulsion prevents sloughing and
dispersion of clays and shales into the mud. At the same
time, washing and handling cuttings drilled with this
type mud poses somewhat of a problem; they cannot be
cleaned by washing in water alone. It is usually
necessary to wash the cuttings first in a detergent solu-
tion to remove the mud. Some of the liquid commercial
detergents available may be used. In extreme cases, it
may be necessary to wash the cuttings first with a
nonfluorescent solvent such as naptha, and then wash
them in a detergent solution to remove the solvent. Use
of a solvent is not advisable unless absolutely necessary
because of the risk of removing any oil staining present.
An oven mounted on the wall of the logging unit can
be used to dry a portion of the cuttings sample after it has
been washed, but some of the washed cuttings are ex-
amined wet under the microscope. A sample of un-
washed cuttings also is required for cuttings analysis in
the blender. Although these cuttings should not be
rigorously washed, a light rinsing to remove surface
drilling mud film is advisable.
The logging geologist should extract a small amount of
sample from each stage of the sample preparation proc-
ess. From examination of all samples, an accurate
estimate of sample composition can be produced. 3 Once
the percentages of the various constituents have been
estimated, the sample description in logical order should
contain (1) rock type, (2) color, (3) hardness (indura-
tion), (4) grain size, (5) grain shape, (6) sorting, (7)
luster, (8) cementation or matrix, (9) structure, (10)
porosity, (11) accessories, and (12) inclusions.
Only a visual sample examination usually is required
at the wellsite in elastic (sand/shale) formations. In car-
bonates, other tests may be required to determine the
chemical and physical nature of the rock. The simplest of
these is to test cuttings with dilute hydrochloric acid; the
52-9
rate of reaction, which is rapid for calcite and slow for
dolomite, provides a guide to relative composition.
This test can be made more quantitative by use of a
calcimeter. In this device a weighed sample is treated
with acid in a sealed reaction chamber. Reaction is
monitored by measuring either the volume or pressure of
evolved CO;! over time until reaction is complete. Out-
put is percentage of calcite and dolomite in the rock
sample.
In more complex mixed carbonates and sulfates (e.g.,
anhydrite and gypsum), a chemical stain kit may be
used. Small samples of washed drill cuttings are spot-
tested with a series of chemical test solutions.
Characteristic coloration of a test solution is indicative of
the presence of a particular mineral in the sample.
Many excellent texts are available that discuss the
geological aspects of mud logging. These include Low, 6
Maher, 7 and McNeal. * Since this chapter deals primari-
ly with the technology of mud logging, they are not
discussed further here.
Hydrocarbon Content of Samples
In addition to a geological evaluation, cuttings samples
must be tested for hydrocarbon content. A blender or
cuttings gas analysis must be performed on every sample
caught. This involves disintegration of a sample of cut-
tings in a blender, extraction of a sample of liberated
gas, and injection into a total gas analyzer. This can be
performed by manual extraction with syringe and injec-
tion into the unit’s online gas analyzer. However, for
speed and continuity of operation, modem logging units
use automatic extraction and injection into an indepen-
dent catalytic combustion cuttings gas analyzer.
As soon as a representative cuttings sample has been
taken, a measured amount (100 cm3 in a measuring cup)
of unwashed sample is placed in the blender jar and
covered by 600 cm3 of water, then blended for 30
seconds and left to stand for another 30 seconds before
taking a gas sample. If the hole is caving badly, the
amount of cuttings may be increased but should be con-
sistent-especially before and through a show. With hard
carbonates, low-porosity sandstones, or similar reservoir
rocks that cannot be efficiently pulverized by the cutter
blades (40 to 60 seconds’ blending is recommended), the
blender jar should be allowed to stand for 2 or 3 minutes
before taking any gas readings. After the gas analysis is
performed, the water should be inspected for oil signs or
petroleum odor. Any droplets can be skimmed off for ex-
amination. The crushed rock material also may be of
value in clarifying lithological evaluation.
The blender is a good evaluation tool because it gives
some indication of the quality of the reservoir with
respect to the porosity and the GOR. A good porosity
sandstone generally will be well-flushed by the time it
reaches the surface, so the amount of cuttings gas ob-
tained will increase proportionately to the decreasing
porosity. This is also true with a sucrosic dolomite or
high-porosity limestone such as chalk. However, if the
reservoir is a fractured carbonate, etc., with all the oil
and/or gas in the fractures, little or no cuttings gas will
be recorded and the use of the blender as a porosity in-
dicator is of limited value, because future production is
52-10
going to be more dependent on the complexity of the
reservoir fracturing than the inherent porosity and
permeability of the rock itself.
In oil reservoirs, gas is normally in solution with the
oil, and the agitation of a covered sample provides an ex-
cellent index of the amount of gas with the oil, which is
significant in view of the gas already recorded from the
ditch. A high cuttings gas with an oil show should be
treated as a very significant show and should be one of
the more important factors to consider in the overall
evaluation.
When large intervals of reservoir rock are cored, the
blender readings obtained are not likely to be as infor-
mative as those obtained if the section had been drilled
normally. Generally, the amount of sample is reduced
because the center is still in the core barrel. With the
often slower drill rate, the percentage of cavings may be
increased. Also, if a diamond head is being used, the
rock will be coming back in a very ground-up and often
badly altered state. Thus, if the geologist is agreeable,
representative loo-cm3 samples from the more broken-
up parts of the recovered cores may be blended with
water, and any readings can be used to supplement the
readings obtained during the actual coring.
Inspection for liquid hydrocarbons should be made at
the microscope (oil-stained cuttings), the blender jar
(petroleum sheen and odor after blending), and in an
ultraviolet light inspection box (fluorescent oil droplets
on cuttings and diluted mud samples).
Visible oil stain and color is an important indication of
oil presence and type as are ultraviolet fluorescence in-
tensity and color, grading from dull brown for the
heaviest (residual or wet) oil to bright blue-white for
light oils and condensate. However, crosschecking of
observations is essential to confirm the presence of oil.
Many mud additives, contaminants, minerals, or rig
floor debris will have an oily appearance or odor and
may fluoresce under ultraviolet light. Only if visible
stain and ultraviolet fluorescence yield the same conclu-
sion is oil confirmed. For example, samples con-
taminated with pipe-dope will have a dark oily ap-
Fig. 52.7-Comparative results of REII, OSA, and THA
PETROLEUM ENGINEERING HANDBOOK
pearance suggesting heavy oil. However, the same cut-
tings examined under ultraviolet light will show a bright
blue-white fluorescence characteristic of the highest
gravity. This incompatability allows the identification of
a contaminant and avoids the logging of a false show. A
good mud logger should examine all mud additives
stocked at the wellsite and determine, before their use,
their characteristic properties and appearance when
mixed with drilling mud or cuttings.
If a true oil stain is identified, a single, representative
cutting should be tested with an organic solvent. This is
the “cut test.” Solvent cut is valuable in assessing
fluorescence and allows deductions to be made of oil
mobility and permeability of the reservoir. By removing
the oil from the colored background of the cutting, the
solvent allows a better estimate of fluorescence. The way
in which the solvent cut occurs (e.g., instantly for high-
gravity oils, more slowly for more viscous lower-gravity
oils, or irregularly streaming from limited permeability)
also yields useful information. If no cut can be obtained
from a washed cutting, the test should be repeated on a
dried cutting, a crushed cutting, or after application of
dilute hydrochloric acid. This will produce the required
cut and yield further evidence on permeability or effec-
tive porosity. After the cut solvent has evaporated, a
residue of oil remains in the cut dish, displaying the oil’s
natural color.
Finally, if sufficient oil is present, it may be possible
to determine its refractive index. Just as oil stain color
and fluorescence progressively change with oil type,
refractive index correlates well with oil gravity. Portable
refractometers that require only a small droplet of sample
are available for use in the mud logging unit. By using a
small quantity of oil (skimmed from the surface of the
blender jar or a diluted mud sample), a very reliable
estimate of oil gravity can be obtained.
Geochemical Analysis
More sophisticated analyses of hydrocarbon and
hydrocarbon source material involve the principle of
pyrolysis-thermal decomposition of a sample in an inert
atmosphere. Three such devices are presently available:
the Rock-Eva1 II*” (RE), the Oil Show Analyzer’”
(OSA), and the Therrnalytic Hydrocarbon Analyzer’”
(THA). All these devices use variations of the lnstitut
FranGais du Pitrole-Centre de Recherches du Groupe
Petrofina (IFP-FINA) temperature-programmed
pyroanalysis method developed by Espitalie. 3,9 The
process involves the heating of a weighed rock sample
through an increasing temperature program in an inert
helium stream. Since combustion cannot occur, the
helium carries away from the sample hydrocarbons and
CO2 resulting from the thermal volatilization of
petroleum and organic source material in the rock. These
evolved gases may be analyzed by flame ionization and
thermal conductivity detectors. The amount of gas ex-
pressed as milligrams per gram of rock, the evolved gas,
and the time and temperature of evolution may be used to
characterize the richness and type of a reservoir or source
rock.
The differences between the three devices are shown
in Fig. 52.7. The RE 11uses a uniform temperature ramp
of 25”Umin up to 550°C. The helium stream carrying
evolved gases passes to a CO2 trap and then to an FID.
MUD LOGGING
On completion of the pyrolysis the trapped CO2 is
passed to a TCD. The output showing temperature, FID
and TCD response is called a “pyrogram.”
The RE II pyrogram characteristically shows two
distinct peaks in FID response. The first, SI , represents
true hydrocarbons, oil and gas, volatilized from the sam-
ple. The second, 52, represents hydrocarbons generated
by the thermal cracking of hydrogen-rich organic source
material, kerogen, in the sample. The temperature,
Tmaxi at which the peak of S2 occurs is indicative of the
maturity of the kerogen. Mature kerogen, capable of
generating oil or gas, will have a T,,, in the range of
435 to 470°C. A lower T,,, indicates immature kerogen
and a T,,, above 470°C indicates postmature material
that has already yielded the majority of its hydrocarbon
product.
The TCD response, S3, represents the yield of CO2
from the thermal cracking of oxygen-rich kerogen in the
sample. A comparison of S2 and S3 provides the relative
hydrogen/oxygen richness of the kerogen. This is useful
in estimating source type. Hydrogen-rich kerogen is
prone to rich oil yields, whereas oxygen richness gives
more gas-prone and lower-yield kerogen.
The oil show analyzer (OSA) differs from the RE II in
that it uses a nonuniform temperature consisting of two
temperature steps followed by a temperature ramp.
Following completion of pyrolysis the sample is further
heated in an oxygen atmosphere causing the complete
combustion of all remaining organic carbon in the
sample.
The OSA pyrogram generally shows three
characteristic peaks in FID response with SO and Sl cor-
responding to the two temperature steps and representing
the splitting of the RE II Sl peak into a lower-
temperature (gas-indicating) peak and a higher-
temperature (oil-indicating) peak. The S2 peak and T,,,
are the same as those seen in RE II. S4 represents CO2
produced by pyrolysis (S3 equivalent) and by combus-
tion. Combination of the pyrolysis and combustion gas
products provides a measure of the total organic carbon
content or the gross organic richness of the rock.
RE II has become widely used as a laboratory instru
ment and both it and the OSA have seen use in the mud
logging unit in frontier exploration. The restriction on
their wider implementation in mud logging has been the
high complexity (and price) of these instruments, which
has limited their use to the most advanced logging units
and demanding exploration environments.
The THA, a much simpler device, is better suited to
routine mud logging services. It uses only an FID and a
temperature program similar to the OSA pyrolysis phase
(without the final combustion phase). The THA
pyrogram provides SO, Sl, S2 and T,,, . Neither CO;!
analysis, S3, nor S4 is available from the THA.
The Modern Mud Logging Unit
There are six basic requirements for a modem mud log-
ging unit* based on the previous discussions.
1. A total combustible gas analyzer using catalytic
combustion or flame ionization detector.
2. A gas sample dilution system, allowing
maintenance of linear detector response at high gas con-
centrations or a backup thermal conductivity detector.
3. An automatic cycling chromatograph capable of
52-11
isolating and detecting methane, ethane, propane,
butane, and isobutane or a second, low-voltage catalytic
combustion detector, allowing discrimination of “total
gas” from “petroleum vapors.”
4. A separate cuttings gas analyzer, allowing gas
analysis from blended cuttings samples.
5. A microscope and ultraviolet light inspection
chamber for the identification and description of
lithology and liquid hydrocarbons.
6. A pumpstroke counter, which, in conjunction with
calcium carbide lag tests, allows gas readings and cut-
tings samples to be lagged back to correct drilled depth.
In addition, the unit requires a drilling depth and time
recorder for the determination of sample depth and the
calculation of rate of penetration, an important rock
strength/porosity indicator. Ideally, this should be in-
dependent of the driller’s depth recorder.
Since mud logging samples (gas, oil, and cuttings) are
extracted from the mudstream, changes in mud
chemistry and rheology must be considered when
evaluating mud log results. The logging unit should be
equipped to perform basic mud tests-e.g., mud
balance, Marsh funnel, sand test kit, and filter press.
Laboratory glassware and chemicals are required to per-
form chemical tests and titrations on cuttings and mud
filtrate samples.
Although pressure control is not a standard function of
mud logging (see Petroleum Engineering Services), the
mud logger, by continuously monitoring mud gas con-
tent, should be aware of situations of potential drilling
hazard. It is therefore usual for the mud logging unit to
be equipped with a level monitor for the active mud pit.
This allows the mud logger to be a second line of
defense, after the driller, in detecting a well kick or loss
of circulation.
The Mud Log
Format ’
Fig. 52.8 shows a typical modem mud log. There are
currently no industry standards for mud logs, and presen-
tation varies among operators. However, the track order
commonly follows that shown in the example.
Truck I is used for rate of penetration (ROP). Also in-
cluded in this column are items of drilling data that may
affect interpretation of the log (bit types, changes in
drilling parameters, circulation breaks, etc.).
Track 2 is for depth notation and for symbolic
representation of special evaluations (for example, cored
or tested intervals).
Truck 3 is a graphical representation of formations
penetrated. Usually the column is subdivided into 10
equal columns and graphic symbols are used to represent
10% increments of lithology types seen in cuttings.
Unlike other tracks on the log, the lithology track is not a
calibrated physical measurement but a subjective assess-
ment. Care should be taken to establish rules of drafting
acceptable to the preparer and user of the log. -
Even after removal of cavings and contaminants, a
cuttings sample is not truly representative of a single
depth interval. Variation in particle size and density
cause differences in annular recovery rate and mixing of
cuttings in the annulus. A true cuttings percentage will
never show sharp formation boundaries as a result of this
mixing. For example, a thin sandstone within a massive
52-12 PETROLEUM ENGINEERING HANDBOOK

IOLE SIZE

XL MUD LOGGING
COMPANY :ASING RECORD \EBREVIATIONS
30 AT 400 9”aAT 4185
COMPANY ABC OIL COMPANY OF THE 20’AT 735 7 A, 5340’
NETHERLANDS
x *T 2995 AT
WELL DESMOND Xl
F,ELD ANDORRA IUD TYPES
REG,ON DUTCH NORTH SEA SEAWATER GEL TV 2300’
COORDINATES 5’ ‘0’ 50” N KCL POLYMER TO 5345’
02 1530’E TO ~
API WELL INDEX NO
.ITHOLOGY SYMBOLS
SPUD DATE 514!78
ELEVATION AKBlo MSL 84 5
RKB lo SF 174 2
TOTAL DEPTH 5345
CONTRACTOR DEEPER DRILLING CO
,q,G , TYPE CHARLIE JONES’JACKUP

LOG INTERVAL
DEPTH FROM 400 TO 5345
DATE FROM5478 TO 20 5 78
SCALE -UNIT
1 500 69, STANDARD
LOG PREPARED BY A EVANS,G JONES
f3 EDWARDS

FORMATION EVALUATION LOG

Fig. 52.8-Mud log formal

MUD LOGGING
shale with sharp boundaries shown clearly by ROP and
total gas analysis may appear from cuttings to be a sandy
shale horizon of much greater vertical extent.
A geologist may use all available data to prepare an in-
terpretive lithological log. That is, in the previous exam-
ple, to sharply show the sandstone boundaries as in-
dicated by ROP. Sometimes a mud logger will attempt to
add some degree of interpretation to a cuttings log.
Again, in the example the mud logger would show the
presence of sand in all the cuttings samples but exag-
gerate the percent sand in the sample coinciding with the
higher ROP.
This “semi-interpretation” may result in confusion
when later sample examinations are compared with the
mud log and, in my opinion, mud loggers should be in-
structed to prepare a true cuttings log representing the
percentages of lithologies actually seen in the sample. If
the mud logger is geologically qualified and the
operator’s geologist requires geological interpretation,
then an interpretive lithological log should be prepared
as an additional track on the mud log.
Track 4 presents the results of hydrocarbon analyses.
It may consist of one single width track but most often is
subdivided into two or more separate tracks, as in the ex-
ample. Track 4 will include the results of total gas, cut-
tings gas, and chromatographic analyses and when oil
shows occur, an estimate of oil show quality and oil cut
will be added. Supplementary gas analyses (helium,
hydrogen, CO 2, or H 1 S) also may be added to this track
or plotted on a supplementary log.
Track 5 primarily is used for brief sample descriptions.
Also included in this track are mud test results, casing
and cementation records, hole deviations, carbide test
results, and many other operating data used in interpreta-
tion of the mud log. On wider format logs, Track 5 also
may be subdivided to add an interpretive lithology and
an extra data track to be used for the results of special
analyses or calculations.
Interpretation
The object of logging drilling-mud gas shows is to iden-
tify potentially productive oil and gas horizons. While
such zones often may be indicated by major
events-e.g., large gas and fluorescence shows-more
critical interpretation is required to avoid false alarms or
missed opportunities.
Total Gas shows
The magnitude of a total gas show is not in itself a con-
clusive indication of show quality. Gas detected at the
surface originates in three ways: (1) from the disintegra-
tion of a cylinder of rock by the drill bit as the hole is
deepened, (2) from the influx of gas from previously
drilled formations exposed in the borehole wall, and (3)
from the drilling mud itself in the form of recycled oil
and gas and decomposition of mud additives.
In extreme cases (for example, in long, geopressured
shale sections or when using oil-based drilling fluids) in-
flux or contamination may constitute the majority of gas
seen at the surface. In such circumstances the magnitude
of a gas show from a potential reservoir must be
evaluated against the established background gas level
from overlying sediments. Gas shows from relatively
52-13
thin horizons may be submerged in a high background
and not identified from total gas alone (Fig. 52.9).
Even gas reliably identified as resulting from a drilled
interval may be misleading as a show-quality indicator.
Factors that affect the magnitude of a gas show include
the volume of the rock cylinder crushed in the drilling
process, controlled by bit diameter and ROP and dilution
of liberated gas in mud (i.e., the flow rate of drilling
mud passing bottom as the hole is cut). Thus, gas show
magnitude will be expected to increase in larger diameter
holes, at higher ROP’s, or at reduced mud flow rate
(Fig. 52.10).
A simple technique is available to remove these factors
from evaluation by normalizing gas show magnitude to a
standard or “normal” set of drilling conditions:
R, (4)
where
l-R OB ’ ”
G pOs = observed total gas, %,
G,, = normalized total gas, %,
4oB = observed mud flow rate, m”/s,
9n = “normal” mud flow rate, m’/s,
d OB = observed bit diameter, m,
d, = “normal” bit diameter, m,
R = observed ROP, m/s, and
it = “normal” ROP, m/s.
Once a “normal” set of conditions are selected, the
equation can be readily simplified giving
0.010
G,, = Gpo~
R OB
-
and
0.0126 Gpos90B
G,, = (d,B)2 RoB ) . . . . . . .. . (5)
where
9n = 0.050 m3/s (793 galimin),
d, = 0.251 m (9.875 in.), and
R, = 0.010 m/s (118 ft/hr).
Normalization can be very useful in correlation of gas
shows between wells drilled with very different pro-
grams. However, it should be remembered that nor-
malization cannot remove the effect of influx and con-
tamination; nor does it account for varying gas trap effi-
ciency with ambient conditions.
Finally, remember that the gas produced by drilling is
liberated by the crushing of material at the bottom of the
hole and is representative of the fluid composition within
the rock pore space at the time of impact. Remember that
oil and gas flow from a producing well; they are not
mined. The presence of a fluid within a rock is not
52-14
Fig. 52.9-Mud
Fig. 52.10-Variation of total gas with drilling parameters.
necessarily indicative of productivity of that fluid ,fram
that rock. Comparison of total gas analyses from mud
and cuttings and chromatography can yield useful clues
as to the productivity of a hydrocarbon-containing
formation.
Total gas from the cuttings blender test is a good in-
dicator of fluid mobility. As the crushed rock cuttings
are carried to surface and relieved of formation
PETROLEUM ENGINEERING HANDBOOK
log total gas shows.
hydrostatic pressure, exsolution and expansion of gas
should effectively flush the cuttings, leaving only a small
volume of residual fluid at the surface. When higher cut-
tings total gas, relative to ditch total gas, is observed,
this is an indication that this flushing has been impeded.
An obvious explanation is that the rock lacks sufficient
permeability to allow gas expansion and flushing.
However, residual low-gravity oil or tar will have a
similar effect in impeding gas exsolution and escape. In-
spection of cuttings lithology, fluorescence, and the cut
test should provide confirming evidence (Fig. 52.1 I).
For example, strong cementation or shaliness in the cut-
tings would be indicative of low permeability, whereas
dark or dull oil stain and fluorescence with a slow cut or
absence of cut is more indicative of heavy oil.
At the opposite extreme of mobility, a formation may
be so permeable that it is flushed effectively with mud
filtrate even before being drilled. On recovery to surface
neither mud nor cuttings will contain hydrocarbons. In-
deed, no cuttings may be seen since such formations are
commonly unconsolidated and disintegrate on recovery.
In this circumstance the first observations will be a
sharp increase in rate of penetration followed, after the
lag time, by a “negative” gas show; total gas declines
below the original background. Testing the desander ef-
fluent or a mud sampling probably will show an increase
in loose sand grains. The negative gas shows confirms
only the excellent permeability, and for this reason alone
the zone deserves closer inspection when a resistivity log
is available. No evidence is available of the formation’s
fluid content from the mud log.
Most potential reservoirs fall between these two ex-
tremes: producing (1) a positive gas show and (2) cut-
tings blender gas, depending on permeability and oil
MUD LOGGING 52-l 5

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::._...::. :;I,:;’ j .: :
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52-16
gravity. Color and fluorescence of the oil stain and
results of the cut test are indicative of oil type. However,
note again that presence of hydrocarbons in the rock and
even presence of porosity and permeability are not con-
clusive evidence of hydrocarbon productivity.
Chromatogram Interpretation
The hydrocarbon chromatogram is often a useful guide
to reservoir productivity. It is not the actual amount of
any one alkane that is significant but the relative amounts
of light and heavy components characteristic of the
overall reservoir fluid. Such characteristics normally can
be recognized on the mud log itself. An aid to this can be
the calculation and plotting of the numerical ratios of the
values of the various hydrocarbons (e.g., C2/C I)
C3/C1, etc.). Such gas-ratio plots will often yield
distinctive “character” or “events” not always im-
mediately evident from the chromatogram itself.
However, interpretation of the plots depends on the same
logical procedures.
Most petroleum hydrocarbons originate from a similar
organic source and proceed in their maturation by a
similar temperature- and pressure-controlled physico-
chemical process. For this reason, petroleum accumula-
tions, although markedly different in composition, tend
to show a spectral relationship to each other in terms of
the type and amount of hydrocarbon species present.
Therefore, although two crude oils of 30”API gravity
may be extremely different in total composition, they
will contain some similar components in similar com-
positional relationships to each other. Since petroleum
maturation continues by the continuous “cracking” of
complex branch molecules into simpler straight chain
molecules, these significant relationships are readily
seen in the petroleum gases methane through butane.
Thus, study of chromatographic analysis of these gases
often may lead to a gross estimate of the type and quality
of the reservoir.
At low temperatures and shallow burial, biological and
catalytic decomposition of organic debris results in a
low-yield production of methane and CO2 Though the
CO2 will dissolve in and migrate with pore waters, the
methane will accumulate in porous zones either as free
gas or in solution in water. Such zones will yield im-
pressive gas shows when drilled, but with few excep-
tions will produce only gas-cut water.
It is a reasonable general rule that a gas show contain-
ing methane as the only significant component is not
commercially productive and is unworthy of further
evaluation. However, it also should be remembered that
exceptional cases do occur, including the southern North
Sea nonassociated gas reservoirs that produce +94%
methane.
At higher temperatures, organic material first
polymerizes to form kerogen, which is then
hydrogenated and cracked with increasing temperature to
form bitumens, tars, and progressively higher-gravity oil
and gas. Associated petroleum gases are fragments of
this cracking process and as cracking continues, the pro-
portion of light to heavy gases increases in a manner
similar to the lightening of the liquid hydrocarbon. This
fractionation of gases and liquids continues during the
migration of the hydrocarbons from source to reservoir.
PETROLEUM ENGINEERING HANDBOOK
The end result of this process is reflected in a gas show
chromatogram. A gas-productive interval will show
predominantly methane and ethane with only traces of
the heavier alkanes. Oil productivity is signaled by the
enrichment of the heavier alkanes, especially propane.
Decreasing oil gravity is reflected by progressively
greater proportions of propane and the butanes. In lower-
gravity oils, the concentration of these gases may exceed
that of ethane. But all productive horizons will contain
methane as the dominant alkane. Zones in which
methane represents at least half of the total gas usually
contain heavy residual oil from which the lighter gas and
liquid fractions have migrated, leaving an immovable,
nonproductive fluid.
These general rules of chromatograph evaluation can
prove useful in reservoir evaluation but of course should
not be used in isolation. Conclusions regarding oil gravi-
ty and mobility should be compared with the results of
blender tests, cuttings examination, fluorescence, and
cut tests. Furthermore, evaluation should proceed from
the prior-show baseline values and throughout the show
interval. Considering the variables inherent in the drill-
ing, transportation, and extractions of samples, no con-
clusion may be drawn from a single sample or analysis.
Conventional Mud Log
The conventional mud log offers more drilling and for-
mation evaluation data in a single form than any other
data source. Many of these data are subject to uncon-
trolled variables in the measurement technology and by
the very nature of borehole environment. As a result, no
simple conclusive rules of quantitative log evaluation are
available. However, integration of all the data on the log
with geological and regional experience can make the
conventional mud log a most powerful exploration tool.
Petroleum Engineering Services
Geopressure Evaluation
The petroleum engineering functions of mud logging
developed from the introduction of a number of pressure
evaluation techniques during the 1960’s. These tech-
niques are practiced conveniently in the logging unit and
in some cases use data or equipment already available in
the unit. Also, interpretation of the resultant data rc-
quires the same integrative approach, using drilling data
and geological evaluation, as required in mud log inter-
pretation. Unlike mud log evaluation, however, pressure
evaluation techniques are able to provide reliable quan-
titative estimates of formation parameters, such as
pressures and porosity. lo
Drilling into a geopressured zone causes a change in a
number of basic formation/drilling relationships. This
change is usually a reversal of a gradual de th-related
trend in a lithologically uniform formation. IP Compac-
tion increases uniformly with depth in a normal
pressured clay rock. A geopressured zone may be poorly
compacted relative to those zones overlying it. Porosity
and water content decrease uniformly with depth in a
normal pressured clay rock. A geopressured zone in
which dewatering has been slowed will show a reversal
in the trend, with increased water content and increased
porosity. Other factors relating to fluid movement, such
as ionic concentrations, hydrocarbon saturations, etc.,
MUD LOGGING 52-17

may be different in geopressured zones. Differential

pressure across bottom is the difference between the
drilling mud hydrostatic pressure and the fluid pressure
in pores of the undrilled formation at the bottom of the
hole. Since drilling mud usually is denser than formation
fluids, this difference will be positive and will increase
with depth. In a geopressured zone, the formation pore
pressure is abnormally high and the differential pressure
across bottom will decline or even become negative.
Thus, any measureable parameter that reflects any or
all of these factors may be used as a means of inter-
preting changes in formation pressure and eventually as a
means of evaluating and obtaining quantitative estimates
of formation pore pressures.

Gas Analysis. The incursion of formation fluids into the

borehole may result from a number of causes, some but
not all of which result from an underbalanced condi-
tion-either temporary or permanent. ‘* If an under-
balanced condition exists, there will be a natural tenden-
cy for fluid to flow from the formation into the borehole.
With a formation having good porosity and permeability,
this flow will be massive and a kick will occur. Such a
kick will be indicated by the incursion of formation fluid
downhole, causing the expulsion of mud from the
borehole at surface. Were this to continue, a blowout
would result. It is the logging geologist’s responsibility
(other duties permitting) to monitor the mud pit level and
to report any unpredicted or unexplained level changes.
A massive incursion of fluid resulting in a well kick is
unlikely to be misinterpreted as a gas show. In fact, if the
hole is full, the kick should be recognized by a rise in pit
level long before the fluid causing it has time to appear at
surface.
However, minor incursions caused by slight or tem-
porary underbalance, or where insufficient permeability
to provide a sustained kick exists, do occur and must be
interpreted correctly.
When an underbalance sufficient to cause a kick exists
but there is insufficient permeability to sustain a massive
fluid influx, a steady fluid “feed-in” may result. If this
minor flow is from a discrete formation already cut, it
will be noticeable - producing a sustained minimum gas
background even when circulating but not drilling. If this
is the case, the logging geologist should make a note of
this sustained circulating gas on the mud log.
If the feed-in is from the formation currently being
drilled, then as a greater and greater area of formation in
the borehole wall is exposed by drilling, increasing flow
will take place. If this is the case, the mud gas will ex-
hibit a sustained minimum when circulating but will con-
sistently rise as drilling proceeds. Cuttings gas will in-
evitably be high relative to mud gas since it is only the
lack of permeability that is preventing the feed-in from
becoming a kick. Where permeability is effectively ab-
sent (e.g., in clays or shales) even a minor feed-in cannot
take place. Fluid pressure in the rock will gain access to
the borehole by the opening of pre-existent microfrac-
tures and partings in the rock. The result will be the cav-
ing or sloughing of rock fragments into the borehole, ac-
companied by a small amount of gas. A minimum gas
background and, in this case, cavings recovery exist
when circulating without drilling.
Fig. 52.12-Connection gas indicating underbalance.
Circulating bottomhole pressure is higher than when
the mud is static. This is caused by annular pressure
losses when circulating. It is therefore possible for a
feed-in, caving, or even a kick to result because of a
resultant underbalance when circulation is stopped. Fur-
thermore, pressure is further reduced because of the
swabbing effect when pipe is moved upward-e.g.,
when making a connection. The literal meaning of
“swabbing” is the pulling of a full-gauge tool from the
hole, acting like the plunger in a syringe and initiating
fluid flow into the borehole. Swabbing by moving the
drillstring does not work in this way. When pipe is
pulled upward, the high-viscosity gelled mud will at-
tempt to move with the pipe, thus reducing the effective
hydrostatic pressure acting on the borehole wall.
Pressure reduction is a function of pulling speed, mud
rheology, and annular diameter. The important con-
sideration is that pressure reduction takes place not just
below the bit but at all points in the open hole.
Downtime gas or connection gas is a gas show
resulting from the momentary underbalance caused by
pump shutdown and/or pipe movement. It can be
recognized by the occurrence of discrete gas show ap-
pearance at, or slightly less than, the lag time after cir-
culation recommences. This is gas actually being pro-
duced by the formation and, while not being plotted on
the mud log, the value should be reported on the log
because it is indicative of formation permeability and
fluid content. When a connection gas occurs, the logging
geologist also should check a flowline mud sample for
evidence of produced oil or salt water with the gas. The
incidence of connection gas should be reported to the
52-18
TOTAL GAS
:ONNEiC
GA:SE
Fig. 52.13-Normalized
drilling supervisor, who may choose to increase mud
density in response to the indicated underbalance.
It is important to remember that the entire openhole
section will be underbalanced by swabbing. The connec-
tion gas may not come from the bottom of the hole but
from some horizon above. In fact, two or even more con-
nection gases may result from a connection. For this
reason it is important that lag time and annular velocities
should be identified accurately by the logging geologist
so that connection gases can be identified with the pro-
ducing formation and the mud log annotated
accordingly.
Drilling into a permeable reservoir with an under-
balance is potentially dangerous because a kick may
result. Even if a kick does not occur immediately, the
hazardous situation will be marked by an increasing
feed-in as more formation is drilled, accompanied by
progressively larger connection gases (Fig. 52.12). The
condition should be reported by the logging geologist
and noted on the mud log. If increases in mud density
alleviate or remove the effect, this should also be noted
on the mud log in explanation of the consequent reduc-
tion in gas.
Fig. 52.13 demonstrates the effect of varying differen-
tial pressure on gas show magnitude. The total gas
curves for two wells drilled through a similar section are
shown. The data for both wells have been normalized to
reduce the effects of hole diameter, ROP, mud pump
output, and surface extraction efficiency. Well A was
PETROLEUM ENGINEERING HANDBOOK
I NORMALIZED I
total gas.
drilled with a constant mud density, whereas in Well B
mud density was controlled to maintain a constant
positive differential pressure (overbalance).
In the upper portion of the section, the two gas curves
are similar and the normalized gas curves coincide
almost exactly. In the lower portion a progressive devia-
tion between the two wells is seen that is somewhat
reduced but remains evident even in the normalized
curves. We can interpret this as being caused by the
penetration of a transition zone into a geopressured zone.
In Well A, maintaining a constant mud density results
in a decreasing overbalance and eventually an under-
balance or increasing negative differential pressure.
Connection gases occur and become larger with deeper
penetration. Additionally, feed-in of gas from the under-
balanced borehole wall causes an increase in background
gas that, since it is not a product of freshly cut formation,
cannot be accounted for in the normalization calculation.
Well B, on which a constant overbalance was main-
tained by increases in mud density, did not show in-
creases in gas background or connection gases. Indeed,
if any zone showed good permeability, the overbalance
may have resulted in flushing gas away from the
borehole and a reduction in observed total gas.
By careful observation of these phenomena, a fairly
accurate log of differential pressure (and hence pore
pressure) may be obtained. This information should be
used in conjunction with the other techniques described
in the following paragraphs.
MUD LOGGING
Cuttings Evaluation. During the normal mud-logging
process, cuttings are sieved and graded to a size assumed
to be representative of drilled cuttings. The larger
fragments are cavings from the walls of the borehole and
play no part in the compilation of a lithological log.
In geopressure evaluation, these cavings play a major
role. The presence of cavings in the sample indicates that
the borehole wall is unstable. The most noticeable and
usually most predominant cavings are those of clay,
shale, or calcareous lithologies. Coal, however, will
cave as a matter of course, hence interpretations should
not include coal cavings. The amount of cavings in the
bulk sample is an indication of the degree of instability
of the borehole walls. Simply watching the cuttings
traverse the shaker screens will give a reasonable indica-
tion of the amount and size of the cavings in relation to
the bulk sample.
Cavings are produced by underbalanced drilling and
stress relief. Abrasion of the walls by the drillpipe will
also cause cavings, but generally these will not be discer-
nible from cuttings because of their small size.
If the pore pressure is higher than the hydrostatic
pressure in the borehole, the hydrostatic pressure dif-
ferential will cause the pore fluids to move toward the
borehole. In an impermeable formation, the resultant
pressure gradient adjacent to the borehole wall may
become great enough to overcome the tensile strength of
the rock. When this occurs, the rock fails in tension and
cavings are formed.
All parts of the earth’s crust contain stresses that
change with depth, area, lithology, history, etc. Drilling
a hole in the ground relieves some stresses other than
those in the vertical plane, and the hole geometry in rela-
tion to some stresses acts to concentrate them. If the
borehole wall is not supported sufficiently by the mud
column, it may fail either (1) in compression from the
vertical stress or (2) in tension from the horizontal stress,
or both.
The drilling process causes the formation of
microcracks and fractures, and these act as areas of stress
concentration and potential initial failure points. Thus it
is sometimes noticed that part of a borehole may cave
copiously for a short time and then become stable. This
is because of the removal of the damaged zone (i.e., cav-
ings) adjacent to the bore/formation interface. Formation
is exposed that is more coherent and lacks concentrations
of stress, thus it absorbs the extra energy without failing.
Cavings produced by underbalanced drilling are
typically long, splintery, concave, and delicate (Fig.
52.14a). Cavings produced by stress relief tend to be
more blocky and can vary in size tremendously, depend-
ing on the formation characteristics. Examples are
shown in Fig. 52.14b.
Remember that if the cavings are clays, they may react
with the mud and lose their distinctive morphology. In-
terpretations based on reactive clays should be pursued
with caution. The quantity and nature of cavings should
be regularly reported on the mud log or on a supplemen-
tary data log if pressure evaluation services are being
performed.
Shale Bulk Density. Shale density determination can be
of great value since it provides information on the com-
paction of the shale. Under normal conditions, shale
52-19
FRONT
hQ.
L11
PLAN
‘ACE
Fig. 52.14-Cavings resulting from underbalance and stress
relief.
density should increase with depth. Any deviation from
this consistent trend may indicate that geopressures ex-
ist. The magnitude of the bulk density change will vary
with the type and magnitude of the geopressure. Often,
the bulk density will decrease, but in other cases it may
remain constant or continue to increase but at a lower
rate than the previously established trend. Several
methods are used for measurement of shale bulk density.
Pycnometer Method. By using a container with
repeatable volume, this method involves measuring
change of weight resulting from displacement of fluid by
the sample. The most practical application of this
method at the wellsite is to use a mud balance.
Place enough cuttings in the cup so that the balance in-
dicates 8.34 lbm/gal (i.e., density of fresh water) with
the cap on. Fill the cup with water and weigh again. The
new reading is W2 in the following equation.
8.34
-Ys= 16.68-w2 , . ... .
where ys is the specific gravity of sample and Wz is the
“mud weight” of sample and water, lbmigal.
Mercury Pump Method. The bulk volume of a known
weight of sample is measured. The bulk weight of a
prepared sample is first established using an accurate
chemical balance. The bulk volume of selected cuttings
is then determined using a high-pressure mercury pump
by the Kobe system (Boyle’s law principle) at a pressure
of about 24 psi, which is recorded on the attached
pressure gauge. Mercury is used to compress the air
around the cuttings but does not contact the sample
material.
The high accuracy of the instrument and large amount
of sample used (approximately 25 g = 2,000 individual
shale cuttings) give good consistency of results. Because
of the accuracy and convenience in operation, this
method should be used whenever possible; however,
very careful and consistent sample handling is necessary
for best results.
Buoyancy Method. The sample is weighed in air and in
a liquid of known density. This is an alternative version
of the pycnometer method. Theoretically, it should be a
more accurate method if an accurate laboratory balance
52-20
is used. In practice, it is most inaccurate since the densi-
ty of the liquid will vary with ambient temperature.
Density Comparison Methods. The simplest of these is
the “float-and-sink” method. Shale cuttings are im-
mersed in fluid mixtures of different densities in which
they will either float or sink, depending on relative den-
sities. This method is inexpensive and quick but is
limited in sensitivity because of large difference in the
densities of available fluids (approximately 0.1 to 0.05
g/cm3 and easy contamination of calibrated fluids.
Density Gradient Method. This consists of a fluid col-
umn in which density varies uniformly with depth. This
is prepared by the partial mixing of a light fluid
(neothene) and a heavy fluid (tetrabromoethane) in
which beads of known density are suspended. A calibra-
tion curve of density vs. depth is prepared. Shale cut-
tings immersed in the column will sink to the level at
which their density is the same as the fluid. Depth is
recorded and density read off from the calibration curve.
Both of the heavy liquid methods (density comparison
and density gradients), while being quick and simple,
have the disadvantage of determining the density of in-
dividual cuttings. Special care must be taken to ensure
that cuttings are true bottomhole cuttings, and several
determinations should be made for each interval to avoid
anomalous results. Six or eight cuttings should be chosen
that are representative and free of dust or cracks that may
SHALE DATA
Fig. 52.15-Shale
PETROLEUM ENGINEERING HANDBOOK
trap air and water and result in low apparent densities. In
addition, the fluids used have unpleasant odors and some
of them may be hazardous to health. Toxicity labels
should be checked for specific mixtures but it is a good
general rule to use these fluids in a fume hood or with a
vapor extraction system.
It is commonly observed that shale density may
decrease as much as 0.5 g/cm3 or more. If this reduction
occurs over a significant depth interval, the calculated
overburden gradient may reverse. The low-density zone
also may change in lithologic character. Fissility,
plasticity, carbonate content, color change, and other
differences may not be apparent. Measurements from
cuttings from water-based muds usually are too low,
simply because of the adsorption characteristics of clays.
Likewise, measurements taken from wireline logs can
also give false indications. Specifically, the formation
density log can be affected by a rugose hole and the
shallow depth of investigation may not read beyond the
hydrated zone. The result is erroneously low readings,
causing excessive calculated porosities. The sonic log
will be affected greatly by hydrated clays, resulting in
very high transit times, high porosities, and too low
densities.
Values may be successfully obtained from these logs
when water-based muds are used, but caution should be
exercised as errors may exist, as explained earlier.
PRESSURE LOG
I
data log.
MUD LOGGING
The best densities are those obtained from wells drilled
with less reactive muds, such as oil- or potash-based
fluids. Both actual cutting densities and log densities
should be accurate because the clay remains in its virgin
state.
Increases in density beyond the normal trend because
of decreased porosity or calcification should be noted
carefully since these may constitute caprocks above
geopressures. Precipitation of pyrite or high iron concen-
tration results in abnormally high bulk densities in clays
and shales. It has been proposed that in some wells the
occurrence of pyrite in shales masked the density reduc-
tion caused by porosity increase. Careful microscopic
examination of clays may indicate the occurrence of very
fine pyrite, and high iron concentration is indicated by a
red/brown color cast. Pore pressure interpretations can-
not be accomplished by using shale density if heavy
minerals are present; however, since shale density is
mainly used for qualitative purposes in geopressure
evaluation, the role of the other geopressure indicators
remains unchanged.
Any decrease in density (without change in clay
character) may be recognized as a pressure transition
zone.
Recognition of a normal bulk density trend line may be
difficult because of degree of scatter in the rectangular
coordinate plot. A semilog plot considerably reduces this
scatter, but the normal bulk density range (approximate-
ly 1.6 to 2.7 g/cm3) results in a more distorted trend line
and difficulty in recognizing deviations (Fig. 52.15).
Shale Factor. Ion-exchange reactions take place be-
tween an adsorbent solid and a solution. Ions bound to
the solid surface are released into the solution and other
ions from the solution become fixed at the surface. Ion
exchange can proceed by the exchange of positive ions
(cations) or negative ions (anions) but not both. The
reactivity of a solid compound in ion exchange reactions
is governed by its specific surface (surface area per unit
volume) and by the surface density of ion exchange sites
(points on the surface where ions may be bound). Reac-
tivity is expressed as cation or anion exchange capacity
(CEC or AEC) using units of milliequivalents (of a
suitable ion) per hundred grams (of the compound).
Various clay types have different CEC’s and conse-
quently different adsorption capacities. A smectite-rich
clay will undergo diagenesis to illite with increasing
temperature and ionic exchange. For diagenesis to pro-
ceed, water must be flushed from the clays. If potassium
exchange cations are not available, a montmorillonite
clay will lose its water but will not convert to illite.
Thus, if this type of clay is drilled with a water-based
mud, the clay will immediately rehydrate and cause
severe drilling problems.
Shale factor is a measure of clay CEC. CEC will
decrease as clays convert from montmorillonite-rich to
illite-rich with temperature (and thus with depth). Pure
montmorillonite clays have a CEC of approximately 100
meq/lOO g. Pure illites show no swelling characteristics,
but their CEC is generally between 10 and 40 meqilO0
g. Kaolinites have a CEC of approximately 10 meq/lOO
g. Of the most common clay types, it is only the smectite
group (including montmorillonite) that has an affinity for
water. Thus, any clay zone that contains montmorillonite
52-21
Fig. 52.16-Shale factor response.
will have an affinity for water in an amount proportional
to the montmorillonite content, and this will be shown by
a proportional value of shale factor. Note that the shale
factor as measured at the wellsite will not give values
corresponding to actual chemical CEC. This is because
of impurities in the sample, methodology, experimental
error, and the fact that the methylene blue dye (used in
the titration) is a very large molecule and thus cannot be
adsorbed in interlayer sites.
If the clay is calcareous, and calcimetty is also being
performed, then the shale factor may be corrected for
carbonate content as given by
100
Fstu = xFsha, ...... ..... . ..
100 - Cca*
where
F $ht = true shale factor, meq/lOO g,
F sha = apparent shale factor, meq/lOO g, and
c cart, = carbonate content, %.
For example, a calcareous clay has a carbonate content
of 37 % , and an apparent shale factor of 16:
100
Fsht = -1oo-37(16)=25 meq/lOO g.
Theoretically, shale factor should indicate whether
montmorillonite dehydration or compaction disequilibri-
um was the major mechanism in generating an apparent
geopressure. Geopressures caused by compaction dis-
equilibrium indicate that the pressured zone is immature
with respect to shallower, normally pressured sediments.
This implies that diagenesis has been restricted by the in-
efficiency of the dewarering mechanism, resulting in
clays containing a larger proportion of montmorillonite
within the geopressured zone. Shale factor would thus
decrease to the top of the geopressured zone, increase
within the zone, and then decrease as the pore pressure
gradients decline (Fig. 52.16). Any overall increase in
shale factor within a geopressured zone indicates that
compaction disequilibrium has played a part in its
formation.
52-22
EARTH’S SURFACE
- HEATFLOW LINES --- EQUITEMPERATURE
Fig. 52.17-Distortion of heat flow around
geopressured zone.
If, however, a geopressured zone was caused by mont-
morillonite dehydration, then upon entering the interval
a sharp decrease in montmorillonite content will be
observed. Hence the geopressured zone will contain less
montmorillonite, because it has been converted to illite,
which releases to the pore spaces water that has been
unable to escape fast enough and results in a pore
pressure increase. Shale factor thus will decrease in the
pressured zone (Fig. 52.16).
Shale factor cannot be a geopressure indicator. The
differing responses described are not definitive, and
geopressure has to be indicated from other sources
before an interpretation by use of shale factor can be
achieved. Geoprcssures caused by montmorillonite
dehydration and compaction disequilibrium may cause
no change in shale factor; also, if geopressures were
caused by another process (e.g., aquathermal pressuring
that results when trapped pore fluids are heated but are
unable to expand and is therefore independent of matrix
composition), a change may not be reflected in shale fac-
tor with depth.
In the past, the consensus was that shale factor should
increase in geopressured zones and could thus act as an
indicator. Re-evaluation of the various geopressure
mechanisms show that this is not necessarily the case.
However, shale factor should be capable of delineating
between compaction disequilibrium and montmorillonite
dehydration as the major geopressure mechanism.
Flowline Temperature. The geothermal gradient, the
rate at which subsurface temperature increases with
depth, can be calculated from
‘2-11
gG= D -D (loo), . .. . .....
2 I
where
gG = geothermal gradient, “C/100 m,
T, = temperature, “C (at depth D, , m), and
T2 = temperature, “C (at depth D2, m).
For any given area, the geothermal gradient is usually
assumed constant. While the average gradient across
PETROLEUM ENGINEERING HANDBOOK
normally pressured formations may be constant, geo-
pressured formations exhibit abnormally high geo-
thermal gradients. l3
Since a constant flow of heat occurs radially from the
earth’s core to the surface, the total flow of heat across
any depth increment will be constant. However, the
temperature differential across an increment depends on
the thermal conductivity of the material. Since overall
heat flow from the earth’s surface is generally constant
within any particular area, the heat flux through the
various formations with depth is in equilibrium. The rate
of change of temperature across a formation with a low
thermal conductivity (caused mainly by high porosity)
will be high; conversely, a low geothermal gradient is in-
LlNES
dicative of high thermal conductivity formations-i.e.,
lower porosity. Water and hydrocarbon migration to
an insulating
shallower depths may also affect the geothermal gra-
dient. Pore fluids, as insulators, retain heat so that on
migration these hot fluids modify the temperatures of the
formations that they pass through and ultimately become
trapped. Fowler14 cited examples from the Middle East,
Canada, and U.S. oil fields of geothermal gradient
bulges that indicated possible entrapment of hot fluids
from greater depths. The mechanism also may be related
to montmorillonite dehydration, because the huge
volume of water squeezed from the clay provides the im-
petus for migration. “Dead” basins (i.e., no source
rocks) have been shown to exhibit normal geothermal
gradients, hence on initial exploration wells the geother-
mal gradient may indicate the potential of the whole
area.
An insulating zone produces a distortion in the isother-
mal lines that normally run perpendicular to the lines of
heat flow (Fig. 52.17; Ref. 15).
Because of the high geothermal gradient, these are
more closely spaced in the insulating zone. In the zones
above and below, the isothermal lines are more widely
spaced in compensation and the zones exhibit a reduced
geothermal gradient. The converse occurs in beds of
high thermal conductivity (i.e., sands and some
limestones)
Since water has a thermal conductivity of about one-
third to one-sixth that of most rock matrix materials, it
can be seen that thermal conductivity is directly related
to the degree of compaction of a formation. The higher-
than-normal water content of geopressured shales
reduces the thermal conductivity. Therefore, the top of a
geopressured zone is marked by a sharp increase in
geothermal gradient. The temperature of the mud at the
flowline may reflect the geotemperature, and recording
of flowline temperature is a practical method to deter-
mine temperature gradient, provided variable factors
such as pump rate, lag time, ambient temperature,
lithology, and temperature changes at the surface that are
. . caused by mud mixing and chemical treatments can be
accounted for. In areas where large annual temperature
variations occur, considerable differences may be noted
in flowline temperatures; even diurnal temperature fluc-
tuations may cause a 10°C variation in flowline
temperature while drilling.
Prior to reaching a geopressured zone, a temperature
transition zone will be encountered in which, because of
distortion of the isothermal lines, there will be a reduc-
tion in geothermal gradient. In practice, this effect is
MUD LOGGING
TEMPERATURE
Fig. 52.18-Flowline
reflected in the flowline temperature gradient, even to
the extent of a fall in flowline temperature (i.e., a
negative gradient), followed by an extremely large in-
crease in flowline temperature as the geopressured zone
is penetrated (Fig. 52.18).
A dual temperature probe system with sensors at the
flowline and suction pit is effective in removing surface
effect, if lagged differential temperature is plotted. It is
normally sufficient for the points to be plotted at 30-e in-
tervals unless more frequent temperature variation is
noticed, but points plotted at 104 intervals allow more
accurate data and better resolution for improved inter-
pretation. Circulations, mud additions, water additions,
and other significant events should be noted.
It is found that the resultant temperature curve is
broken when the bit is changed, or during short trips or
other downtime, and a certain time is necessary for the
mud system to re-establish a temperature equilibrium
upon circulation. The rate at which this thermal
equilibrium is re-established may be significant. as a
more rapid re-establishment may indicate an increased
geothermal gradient. Drilling variables that affect the
52-23
DATA LOG I
temperature log.
rate of re-establishment of equilibrium include total mud
volume. The practice of reducing active pit volume to a
minimum, dictated by hole size, aids in reducing the
time required to attain equilibrium after tripping and
reduces the circulation time needed to stabilize flowline
temperature. A discontinuity in the plot also occurs at
each casing depth and corresponds to a change in hole
size. A higher annular velocity in open hole reduces the
amount of heat gained from exposed formations, and a
lower annular velocity in the marine riser increases the
amount of heat lost to the sea. However, these factors
only lead to a change in measured temperature; the rate
of change of temperature should remain unchanged.
Since pressure predictions can be based on temperature
gradient rather than on temperature magnitude, each
depth segment between discontinuities can be analyzed
separately for gradient trends. It is also helpful to replot a
smoothed curve of segments end to end without regard
for absolute temperature values. In certain cases it has
been found that, instead of plotting the individual
segments as an end-to-end smoothed curve, end-to-end
plotting of the individual segment trend lines may be of
52-24 PETROLEUM ENGINEERING HANDBOOK

removing the need to derive empirical matrix strength

constants, but making d-exponent lithology-specific as
in

d=

where
d = drilling exponent (dimensionless),
R = ROP, ft/hr,
N = rotary speed, rev/min,
W = WOB, lbm, and
db = bit diameter, in.

IIFFERENTIAL PRESSURE RATE OF PENETR*T,ON

0°C
,CROSS BOTTOM (PSI) (CONSTANT N.W.0.EC0)
Fig. 52.19~-Response of drilling rate to geopressure.
value. This trend-to-trend smoothed curve is merely a
graphical method of removing irrelevant scatter from the
plot.
The reduction in temperature gradient caused by
distortion of isothermal lines may be noticed before the
geopressured zone is encountered; that is, an advance
warning of geopressure may be given. Thus a fall in
flowline temperature gradient followed by a sharp rise
when the geopressure transition zone is drilled provides a
warning that even closer attention must be paid to other
drilling parameters to achieve confirmation of possible
geopressures. However, like other methods of pressure
evaluation, flowline temperature reflects a varying
physical parameter in an assumed constant rock type;
therefore, changes in lithology must be closely
monitored to avoid false indications.
Drilling Models. Bingham I6 proposed that the relation-
ship between ROP, weight on bit (WOB), rotary speed,
and bit diameter may be expressed in the general form
In a constant lithology, d-exponent will increase as the
depth, compaction, and differential pressure across bot-
tom increase. Upon penetration of a geopressured zone,
compaction and differential pressure will decrease and
be reflected by a decrease in d-exponent (Fig. 52.19).
Differential pressure is dependent on mud density as
well as formation pore pressure. Therefore, any change
in the mud density used promotes an unwanted change in
d-exponent.
Rehm and McClendon” proposed a “mud weight
corrected” drilling exponent of the form
dxc
=
where
d,, = corrected d-exponent (dimensionless),
R = ROP, ftlhr,
N = rotary speed, revimin,
dh = bit diameter, in.,
g+, = normal formation balance gradient, lbm/gal,
Pet = effective circulating density, lbm/gal, and
W = WOB, 1,000 lbm,

R
-= ,....................... (9)
or in the metric form
N

where . . (12)
R = ROP, ft/min,
N = rotary speed, rev/min,
db = bit diameter, ft,
W = WOB, lbm, with R in m/hr, N in rpm, Win tonnes (1,000 kg), db in
Kn = matrix strength constant (dimensionless), cm, and g,p and ,oec in gicm3.
and This correction was empirically derived but has been
d = formation “drillability” exponent applied worldwide with much success. The use of actual
(dimensionless). mud density in place of effective circulating density
(ECD) has been found to be acceptable within normal
limits of accuracy. ECD should, however, be used when
Jorden and Shirley ” solved Eq. 9 ford, inserted con- available.
stants to allow common oilfield units to be used and to Factors not considered by d-exponent in its basic form
produce values of d-exponent in a convenient workable are drilling hydraulics, tooth efficiency, and matrix
range. Most important, however, they let KD be unity, strength.
MUD LOGGING
I J
SEMlLOG SCALE
0°C
Fig. 52.20-Example of formation pore pressure gradients for
d, plot.
Drilling hydraulics become important in large holes
where efficient hole cleaning is impossible and in soft
formation where jetting will make a large contribution to
drilling.
Matrix strength controls both magnitude and rate of
change of d-exponent with depth.
Tooth efficiency can affect d-exponent in two ways:
(1) tooth wear will cause a gradual increase in d-
exponent (i.e., decrease in ROP), and (2) a change of bit
type may produce a change in d-exponent, especially if
the change is a radical one (e.g., from milled-tooth bit to
an insert or diamond bit).
If differential pressure becomes large, the simple ratio
correction to the d-exponent will not eradicate the effect
on ROP.
Furthermore, the relationships among force applied,
Wldb,rotary speed, N, differential pressure, g,,~,/p~(.,
and ROP, R,are more complex than the d-exponent for-
mulation would imply. While working well within cer-
tain normal working ranges, radical changes in any of
these parameters (for example, change in hole size after
setting casing) may result in a shift in d-exponent trend.
When plotted on a logarithmic scale against depth, the
d-exponent will exhibit an approximately linear increas-
ing trend through “normal,” hydrostatically pressured
formations. Where geopressure, abnormally high forma-
tion fluid pressure is encountered, d-exponent values
will fall consistently below the extrapolation of this nor-
mal trend. It has been shown empirically that d-exponent
deviation may be related to formation pore pressure
anomaly by the simple ratio
---
Ppa - dxcn ) . . . .. . .. .(13)
Ppn d.xco
52-25
Fig. 52.21-Logging unit systems.
where
= actual pore pressure at depth of interest,
PPa
psi, or formation balance gradient,
lbmlgal equivalent mud density (EMD),
= normal pore pressure, psi, or formation
PPn
balance gradient, lbmlgal (EMD),
dxc-0
= observed corrected d-exponent at depth of
interest, and
dx-n= expected corrected d-exponent on normal
trend line at depth of interest.
Using this relationship, it is possible to calculate pore
pressure or formation balance gradient (equivalent mud
density to balance pore pressure) from d-exponent.
Alternatively, the relationship may be used to prepare an
overlay allowing direct reading of formation balance gra-
dient from the d-exponent plot (Fig. 52.20).
Drilling exponents may be calculated from driller’s
data using a simple calculator and manual plotting and
trend recognition. However, quality of the data is greatly
improved when a data-acquisition system provides
WOB, rotary speed, and mud density directly to the log-
ging unit and a minicomputer is used to read these sen-
sors automatically, to perform the calculations, and to
print or plot the results. Computer-equipped mud log-
 52-26
Fig. 52.22-Formation
ging units were introduced to provide pressure evalua-
tion services in areas of known geopressured problems
(e.g., offshore U.S. gulf coast) and high-risk, hazardous
exploration areas (e.g., the North Sea). Fig. 52.21
shows the available equipment configurations of a
computerized logging unit. In addition to pore pressure,
this type of unit commonly provides a pressure log in-
cluding supplementary calculations of fracture pressure,
overburden pressure, and kick tolerance (Fig. 52.22).
Petrophysical Measurements
Mud Log Data. As discussed previously, mud log data
are qualitative in nature. It is not possible with conven-
tional mud log measurements to obtain quantitative
values of such parameters as porosity, permeability,
hydrocarbon saturations, etc. However, the mud logging
unit may provide special equipment or services, allowing
more quantitative evaluations.
For example, while a mud log gas analysis cannot be
truly representative of gas production composition, gas
analysis of recovered fluids from a well test can be. Us-
ing conventional gas analyzers and chromatograph, a
quantitative analysis of recovered natural gas may be ob-
tained. For more complex fluids, special chromato-
graphs, pyrolyzers, or analyzers can give complete
analysis of oils or sour gas. The logging unit also may
provide ionic analysis of recovered waters and, by use of
tritium ( 3H) or nitrate (NO3) tracers, provide
discrimination between recovery of mud filtrate and true
formation water. These types of service can be of special
PETROLEUM ENGINEERING HANDBOOK
it :, :::::t::::i::::l::1:i:Xt
pressure log.
value in remote locations where logistics or distance pre-
vent rapid transport of samples to an analytical
laboratory.
Core Analysis. In addition to gas and fluid analysis,
conventional core analyses I9 (porosity, bulk density,
permeability, and saturations) also may be performed in
the logging unit when the drilling operation is remote
from the laboratory. Wellsite core analysis offers the ad-
vantages of rapid evaluation and high-quality samples
from fresh core but is rarely of the high quality to be ex-
pected from the specialized equipment and personnel in a
core laboratory. A new technique, which is suitable to
the logging unit, uses a pulsed nuclear magnetic
resonance analyzer to determine fluid content, total and
free-fluid porosity, and permeability. This device, work-
ing on a principle analogous to the nuclear magnetic log-
ging tool (NML), provides accurate, repeatable data
from minimal quantities of sample and without complex
sample preparation. Samples may be obtained without
causing core or sidewall core destruction and the test
may be performed on cuttings.
Drilling Porosity
The d-exponent (Fig. 52.20) develops a consistent trend
with depth controlled by increasing overburden loading
and compaction. Changes in formation pore pressure
gradient will result in major, consistent deviations from
this trend. The d-exponent data also will exhibit minor,
MUD LOGGING
POROSITY PERMEABILITY ROCK
[MILLIDARCIES] I
Fig. 52.23-Drilling
inconsistent scatter about the prevailing trend, reflecting
continuous variation in rock mineralogy, cohesion, and
porosity.
More sophisticated, second-generation drilling ex-
ponents are able to isolate the major pore pressure and
minor rock character variations. With this type of
analysis it is possible to provide a continuous log of pore
pressure and “drilling porosity.” It is important to
remember that drilling porosity, although scaled in
percentage units, is not a true porosity measurement. It is
primarily a rock strength indicator, reflecting both
porosity and intergrain cohesion. As such, its response is
very similar to that of the sonic log, and the two logs cor-
relate extremely well (Fig. 52.23).
Unlike the d-exponent, the second generation drilling
exponents require complex manipulations and iterations,
limiting their use to logging units equipped with a com-
puter. Also, unlike the d-exponent, they do not involve a
widely published and used single method. Although
based on similar drilling response models, all mud log-
ging contractors offer drilling porosity logs involving
their own unique mathematical methods that are com-
monly held as proprietary secrets. While understandable
from a commercial view, this policy places the user in
the position of being able to judge the value and reliabili-
ty of a particular log only on the bases of his or her own
experience and limited published results. It is hoped that,
with the maturation of this type of service, wider
publication and discussion of methods will begin.
52-27
1~~~
PROPERTIE FORMATION PSEUD( )-SON1
DENSITY
porosity log.
Drilling Engineering Services
The mud logging unit can provide two levels of service
of value to the drilling engineer-data acquisition and
data analysis.
Data Acquisition
An automatic data acquisition system located in the log-
ging unit will monitor sensors installed on equipment,
flowline, mud pits, pumps, etc. Simple calculations are
performed on the data (e.g., calculation of total depth
and ROP, summation of pit volumes, comparison of cur-
rent values with high- and low-alarm setpoints). Results
then are displayed on TV monitors at various locations
around the rig and may be recorded on a printer or
magnetic tape. By use of a dedicated land line or satellite
link, data can be transmitted to a remote location, allow-
ing several rigs to be monitored from a single central
control room.
This type of equipment was introduced by mud log-
ging service companies as a means of obtaining drilling
and mud data more reliably and rapidly than could be ex-
pected from standard rig instrumentation. While these
data were required initially for pressure evaluation
analyses, the data acquisition system provided an impor-
tant secondary function as a rig monitoring service by
supplying the drilling engineer accurate, up-to-date drill-
ing information while away from the rig floor and a com-
plete foot-by-foot record of drilling progress and perfor-
mance on paper or magnetic tape.
52-28
Since that time. several conventional rig instrumenta-
tion manufacturers have upgraded their product lines to
include similar data acquisition systems that operate in
an unmanned, or “stand-alone,” mode. While this of-
fers the operator the advantage of flexibility in selecting
services (i.e., the mud logging service best suited to the
geologist and the data acquisition service best suited to
the engineer), it does have drawbacks.
Reliability of a data acquisition system is primarily
controlled by the operation of its sensors. In the rigorous
environment of the rig this requires regular attention.
The success of a stand-alone data acquisition system is
related entirely to the training and motivation of the rig
crew or the availability of manufacturer’s service
personnel.
The mud logging unit is manned at all times. Trained
personnel are available at all times to calibrate, maintain,
and service the data acquisition system and its sensors.
Since these personnel are already at the wellsite as part
of the mud logging service, this extra margin of reliabili-
ty is achieved without extra cost beyond the similar cost
of the data acquisition hardware.
Data Analysis
Beyond simple data acquisition, the mud logging service
also may supply computers, software, and specialized
wellsite personnel for drilling data analysis. The
desirability of such services depends on the difficulty
and cost of the drilling operation, availability of oil com-
pany expertise at the wellsite, and quality of communica-
tion with the exploration headquarters.
For example, infill drilling in an established domestic
field using a well-developed drilling program, ex-
perienced wellsite supervisors, and close communication
with home office requires data acquisition only as a
means of monitoring optimal and safe adherence to the
drilling program. On the other hand, on an offshore
wildcat, the availability of data analysis and expertise at
the wellsite can be very cost effective. *O An increase in
drilling efficiency or a decrease in downtime sufficient to
save a single day of rig time can, in these circumstances,
produce sufficient savings to pay for data analysis ser-
vices for the whole well.
Data analysis services offered include: (1) bit op-
timization-selection of bit type and operating
parameters to optimize bit ROP and bit life; (2) bit
economics-cost per unit depth and breakeven calcula-
tion between bit types; (3) drilling hydraulics2’ -op-
timization of drillstring, nozzle, and annulus hydraulics;
(4) directional analysis-determination of well path, bot-
tomhole position, and intersection points for deviated
wells; (5) trip monitoring-calculation of string weights,
swab pressures and fillup requirements for tripping,
monitoring of pit level deviations, and overpull (fric-
tional drag in the borehole); (6) casing calcula-
tions-assembly of casing tally, calculation of cement
volumes and mixing requirements, and monitoring of
displacement; (7) pressure control-calculation of mud
weight, volume and pressure requirements for safe well
control lo; and (8) logistics-usage and inventory control
of well expandables, equipment maintenance schedul-
ing, well progress data base, and report generation.
PETROLEUM ENGINEERING HANDBOOK
Selecting a Mud Logging Service
Mud logging contractors commonly offer three levels of
standard service: (1) standard mud logging; (2) mud log-
ging and data acquisition, and (3) mud logging and data
analysis (including pressure evaluation). For the most
basic level of mud logging, a single operator may tje
responsible for 24-hour operation. More sophisticated
services and data acquisition usually require two
geologists working 12-hour tours. Data analysis services
require two people, a geologist and an engineer. on each
tour.
Each of these services may be augmented with extra
equipment such as sensors, special gas detectors,
pyroanalyzers, more powerful computers or peripherals
and specialist personnel at extra day rate as the drilling
program demands. 2,10
At least two mud logging contractors now offer an ad-
ditional, fourth level of service in which mud logging
and data analysis are combined with an MWD service.
Very little of the information gathered by a mud log-
ging unit is not obtainable from some other source. For
example, stand-alone instrumentation can monitor gas,
mud, and drilling parameters; rig crews can catch
samples; porosity is available from wireline logs; and oil
company geologists and engineers may perform
geological evaluation and drilling data analysis. Why
then is mud logging such a widely used service?
The advantage of mud logging service is that all these
data may be derived from a single source, the mud log-
ging unit, located at the wellsite and continuously
manned with dedicated, specially trained personnel.
Therefore the data are obtained more reliably, more
quickly, and usually more economically than from any
other combination of sources.
Reliability and speed therefore are the tests required in
selecting a mud logging contractor. The equipment must
be designed and maintained adequately to provide
reliable and safe operation in the rigorous wellsite en-
vironment. The wellsite crew must be trained to operate,
maintain, and troubleshoot the equipment and to under-
stand its output. The contractor must maintain adequate
service personnel and inventory to allow rapid repair or
changeout in the event of major malfunctions. The log-
ging crew must be trained in geological and engineering
theory, be experienced in practical drilling operations,
and have a thorough knowledge of the geological sec-
tion, drilling program, and operational procedures of the
particular well and operator.
Once a contractor is selected, economy becomes the
prime consideration in choosing a level of service. In
day-rate drilling, time and money may be directly
equated. Any service that speeds well progress, reduces
downtime, or promotes decision-making is potentially a
cost saver. Even on footage drilling, personnel, com-
munications, etc., are cost-generating factors which may
be reduced by improved drilling efficiency. On rank
wildcat exploration wells, the “bird in the hand”
philosophy may be desirable to obtain data at the earliest
possible time as a hedge against the risk of it being
unavailable later. For example, to obtain porosity
measurements from the mud logging unit while drilling
is an investment against later borehole loss or damage
that may prevent later wireline logging.
MUD LOGGING 52-29

Quantification of cost saving is possible by using the For cost effectiveness (i.e., for the additional service
same methods used to calculate drilling cost per foot. In to save its own cost or more), overall well cost must be
its simplest form this is unchanged or reduced. Thus,

Cbe + Crr/
A(cdXD,)=(cd XD,)‘-(cd XD,)Io, . (18)
Cd= D, ) . ... . . (14)
A(CdXD,)= -Acml -[E(c,,), xAt,,l
where
Cd = drilling cost, $/m, +AC,, x[C(t,), -At,,], .... (19)
C, = rig cost, $/D,
Cbp = cost of bits and expendables, $,
11 = time on location, days,
D, = total well depth, m. AC,, I
AC,, + [~(c,,>, +Af,, 1

(20)
[E(t,), -At,,] ’ . ’’’’
For optimization of services and products this can be ex-
panded to the form If this is evaluated as true, that the day rate for the ex-
tra equipment is in fact less than the evaluated expres-
Cd=[(CFI +CF2 +. ~CFn)+(Cdrl +CdR.. .cdrn) sion, then the service is cost effective on the particular
well. In this case, substituting some reasonable figures
X(t,+tt+t,+t,+td)];D, . . . . . . . . .(15) such as:

and Onshore Offshore

ACFbl = $l,ooo ACF~I = $1,000
z(cdr) n = $6,000/D E(c&)n = $19,OlWD
CdxD,=C(CF),,
+C(C,,),
xc(t),,.. I.....
(16) Ar,l = 12 hours=0.5 day Atrj = 12 houn=O.S day
C(AZ[)~ = 30 days E(Afl), = 35 days
where
CF = individual fixed cost items or footage we obtain for onshore:
charges services, $,
Cdr = individual day rate services, rentals, 1,000+(6,000)(0.5)
AC,, I
salaries, etc., $, (30 -0.5)
t, = rotating time, days,
t, = tripping time, days, =$135.59/D.
to = off-bottom time (reaming, conditioning,
well control, etc.), days,
The extra equipment will result in an overall cost sav-
t, = evaluation time (logging, testing, coring,
etc.), days, and ing on the well so long as it does not increase the mud
logging daily rate by more than $135/D.
td = downtime (breakdowns, weather, decision
We obtain for offshore:
making, etc.), days.

Using this formulation, it is possible to calculate the 1,000+(19,000)(0.5)

decrease in one cost category required to offset an in-
crease in any other.
For example, consider the use of drilling optimization.
Let us assume, conservatively, that regional statistics in-
dicate that by upgrading a mud logging unit to include
data acquisition equipment no overall ROP improvement
is obtained but that a well can be completed using one
less bit. Well cost as a result of this is given by
AC,, 5
(35 -0.5)
=$304.35/D.
Using these same figures, let us now assume that, in
addition to saving one bit, an overall decrease of 5% in
drilling time is also achieved. If I, =21 days, saving in
rotating time=21 ~5% = 1.05 days, then for onshore:

Ac I 1,000+[6,000 (0.5+1.05)]
(cd xD,)‘=[C(c~)n -AcFbll
XT
(30-0.5-1.05)
+WC,,), +Ac,,l[W,), --Art, I, . (17) =$362.04/D.
where
For offshore:
ACFbl = cost of one bit saved, dollars,
AC,, = extra cost of mud logging, dollars/D,
1,000+[19,000 (0.5+1.05)]
(f,),? = total time on location, days AC,, =
At,, = time for one trip saved, day, and (35-0.5-1.05)
(Cd xD,)’ = well cost. dollars, =$910.31/D.
52-30 PETROLEUM ENGINEERING HANDBOOK

These cost justifications, or cost savings, refer only to gc = geothermal gradient, “C/100 m
the extra cost of data acquisition above that of standard gq% = normal formation balance gradient,
mud logging and include only those benefits resulting lbm/gal
from drilling optimization. Other cost savings resulting KD = matrix strength constant (dimensionless)
from better rig and mud monitoring and well control may N= rotary-speed, rev/min
also be quantifiable from a study of regional drilling actual pore pressure at depth of interest,
Ppu =
statistics. psi, or formation balance gradient,
A cost benefit analysis of this type is a worthwhile ap-
lbm/gal equivalent mud density
proach to all aspects of drilling cost reduction. Cost sav-
ing resulting from advanced evaluation and monitoring @MD)
commonly is appreciated in expensive offshore explora- P/m = normal pore pressure, psi, or formation
tion. As the above examples show, such techniques may balance gradient, lbm/gal (EMD)
be equally successful in comparatively cheaper onshore 4n = “normal” mud flow rate (m3/s)
development drilling, especially where problems such as qoB = observed mud flow rate (m3/s)
geopressure or crooked holes occur. q/J= pump output, m3/s)
R= ROP, ft/min
Standards For and Status of Services R, = “normal” ROP (m/s)
The terms “mud logging” covers a diverse range of ser- R OS =
observed ROP (m/s)
vices and qualities of service. It is regrettable that, in the td = downtime (breakdowns, weather, deci-
U.S. especially, the whole industry is accorded a status sion making, etc.), days
reflecting its lowest level. Field employees of the higher t, = evaluation time (logging, testing, corm
quality and more reputable contractors commonly ing, etc.), days
eschew the term “mud logger,” preferring the title fl = lag time, seconds
“logging geologist” or “logging engineer,” depending total time on location, days
Ol), =
on their educational background. The wide range of I, = off-bottom time (reaming, conditioning,
equipment and techniques used by such companies com-
well control, etc.), days
monly results in their personnel being the best educated
t, = rotating time, days
and trained service personnel present on any wellsite.
In 1980, the Sot. of Professional Well Log Analysts t, = tripping time, days
(SPWLA) established a Hydrocarbon Well Log Stan- v = annular volume, m 3/m
dards Committee comprising members of both the ser- ;; =
hole capacity, m3/m
vice company and exploration company sides of the VP = pipe capacity and displacement, m3/m
field. The efforts of the committee have done much varl =
annular velocity, m/s
toward establishing standards and status representative w= WOB, Ibm
of the best of the industy. 22,23 I express my gratitude to (CdXD,)’ = well cost, dollars
this committee and its members for these efforts and for AC Fbl = cost of one bit saved, dollars
assistance in the development of this chapter. AC,, = extra cost of mud logging, dollars/D
At,, = time for one trip saved, day
Nomenclature Per = effective circulating density, Ibm/gal
= cost of bits and expendables, dollars
Cbr
References
C carh = carbonate content, %
1. “Field Geologists Training Guide.” Exploration Logging Inc.,
Cd = drilling cost, dollars/m Sacramento, CA (Jan. 1979).
C dr = individual day rate services, rentals, 2. “Mud Logging: Principles and Interpretation,” Exploration Log-
salaries, etc., dollars ging Inc., Sacramento, CA (Aug. 1979).
3. “Formation Evaluation-Part I: Geological Procedures.” Ex-
Cf = individual fixed cost items or footage ploration Logging Inc., Sacramento, CA (Feb. 1981).
charges services, dollars 4. Hopkins, EA.: -“ Factors Affecting Cuttings Removal During
C, = rig cost, dollars/D Rotary Drilling,” .I. Pet. Tech. (June 1967) 807-14; Trans..
AIME, 240.
d = formation “drillability” exponent 5. Sifferman, T.R. et al.: “Drill Cuttmg Transport m Full Scale Ver-
(dimensionless) tical Annuli,” J. Pet. Tech. (Nov. 1974) 1295-1302.
db = bit diameter, ft or in. 6. Low, J.W.: “Examination of Well Cuttings,” Quarterly cjj r/w
Colorado School ofMines (1951) 46, No. 4. l-48.
d, = “normal” bit diameter (m) 7. Maher, J.C.: Guide book V/I/: Lqging Drill Curtings, Oklahoma
d0~ = observed bit diameter (m) Geological Survey, Norman (1959).
d,,. = corrected d-exponent (dimensionless) 8. McNeil, R.P.: “Lithologic Analysis of Sedimentary Rocks.”
Eu[(., AAPG (April 1959) 43, No. 4, 854-79.
d,,.,,= expected corrected d-exponent on nor- 9. Clementr, D.M., Demaison, G.J., and Daly, A.R.: “Wellsite
mal trend line at depth of interest Geochemistry by Programmed Pyrolysis.” paper OTC 3410
d,,, = observed corrected d-exponent at depth presented at the 1979 Offshore Technology &if&-ence. Houston,
April 30-May 3.
of interest 10. “Theory and Evaluation of Formation Pressures: The Pressure
Fh = apparent shale factor, meq/lOO g Log Reference Manual.” Exploration Logging Inc., Sacramento,
F h = true shale factor, meq/lOO g CA (Sept. 1981).
I I. Hottman, C.E. and Johnson, R.K.: “Estimation of Formation
G P” = normalized total gas (%) Pressures from Log-Derived Shale Properties,” .I. Per. Tech.
G poB = observed total gas (R) (June 1965) 717-22: Trans.. AIME. 234.
MUD LOGGING 52-31

12. Goldsmith. R.G.: “Why Gas-Cut Mud is Not Always a Serums 19. Anderson, G.: Corin,q und Core AnaI~~sisHundbook. Petroleum
Problem,” Work! Oil (Oct. 1972) 175, No. 5, 51-54, 101. Publishing Co., Tulsa (1975).
13. Dawdle, W.L. and Cobb, W.M.: “Statrc Formation Temperature 20. Bellottt, P. and Giacca, D.: “Pressure Evaluation Improves Drill-
From Well Logs,” J. Per. Tech. (Nov. 1975) 1326-30. ing Programs,” Oil and Gus J. (Sept. 11, 1978) 76-85.
14. Fowler. P.T.: “Telling Live Basms from Dead Ones by 21. “Drilling Hydraulics Manual,” Exploration Loggmg Inc.,
Temperature,” World Oil (May 1980) 190, No. 6, 107-22. Sacramento, CA (July 1983) 8. l-8; 9, l-10; 10, 1-7: D, l-4.
15. Lewis, C.R. and Rose, S.C.: “A Theory Relating High 22. “SPWLA Standard No. 1: Standard Hydrocarbon Well Log
Temnerature and Ovemressures.” J. Pet. Tech. (Jan. 1970) Form.” SPWLA. Houston (June 1981).
ll-lb. 23. “SPWLA Standard No. 2: Hydrocarbon Well Log Calibration
16. Bineham. M.G.: A New Amroach to lnfemretinn Rock Dnllabiii- Standards,” SPWLA, Houston (June 1981).
ry, Fetroieum Publishing i3b., Tulsa (1965). ”
17. J&en, J.R. and Shirley, O.J.: “Applicatmn of Drillmg Perfor-
mance Data to Overpressure Detection,” J. Per. Tech. (Nov. General Reference
1966) 1387-94.
18. Rehm. B. and McClendon, R.: “Measurement of Formation Jorden, J.R. and Campbell, F.L.: Well Log,& I-Rock Prupenies,
Pressure From Drilling Data,” Dn’llin~, Reprint Series, SPE. Borehole Environmenf, Mud and Temperarure Logging. Monograph
Dallas (1973) 6a, 49-60. Series, SPE, Dallas (1984) 9.