Computers in Human Behavior 55 (2016) 856e866

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Computers in Human Behavior

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Full length article

Mobile phone addition levels and negative emotions among Chinese

young adults: The mediating role of interpersonal problems
Li Chen a, **, Zheng Yan b, Wenjie Tang a, Fuyin Yang a, Xiaodan Xie a, Jincai He a, *
a
Department of Psychology, School of Environmental Science and Public Health, Wenzhou Medical University, Wenzhou, 325035, China
b
Department of Educational and Counseling Psychology, School of Education, State University of New York at Albany, New York, USA

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: This study evaluated the mediating role of interpersonal problems in the link between mobile phone
Received 2 February 2015 addiction levels and negative emotions among mobile phone addicts and possible-mobile phone addicts
Received in revised form respectively. The purpose of this study was to address two gaps in research. First, previous research has
23 September 2015
revealed that a positive association existed between mobile phone addiction levels and negative emo-
Accepted 22 October 2015
Available online xxx
tions, especially among those with interpersonal problems. The present study extended research by
exploring the mechanisms underlying these associations. Second, Mobile phone addicts as a particular
group has received much attention, however, research concerning the possible mobile phone addicts as
Keywords:
Mobile phone addiction
another particular group is limited. A total of 1089 young adults in China were surveyed by using cluster
Possible mobile phone addiction sampling. Results showed that compared with nonaddicts, mobile phone addicts or possible mobile
Interpersonal problems phone addicts spent more money and time on mobile phone use and were more vulnerable to have
Depression negative emotions. The effects of the possible mobile phone addiction on negative emotions were sig-
Anxiety nificant but weaker than those of the mobile phone addiction. Further, interpersonal problem was a
significant mediator between mobile phone addiction levels and negative emotions. Findings and their
implications are discussed.
© 2015 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction amount of information received during a typical class (Campbell,

Mobile phones are ubiquitous today and mobile phone use has
increased dramatically in recent years, especially among youth in
China. For example, the number of mobile phone users in China as
the world's largest mobile phone market has reached 1.27 billion at
the end of 2014 (Statista-China: mobile users by month 2014, 2015),
and young adults (age 18e22) are the one of the largest and fastest-
growing groups owning and using mobile phone in China (Statista-
China: smartphone users in 2012, 2015).
Mobile phone is a double-edged sword for young adults. On the
one hand, utilization of mobile phone facilitates young people to
increase their social communication frequency (Park & Lee, 2012),
improve their relationships and make new friends (Auter, 2007). On
the other hand, improper using mobile phone influences young
people negatively (Bianchi & Phillips, 2005). Specifically, improper
mobile phone use can reduce individuals' concentration and the
* Corresponding author.
** Corresponding author.
E-mail addresses: cl6822184@wmu.edu.cn (L. Chen), hjc@wmu.edu.cn (J. He).
2006; Lepp, Barkley, & Karpinski, 2014), block the face-to-face
communication (Pierce, 2009), and even lead to mental or phys-
ical problems (Beranuy, Oberst, Carbonell, & Chamarro, 2009;
Jenaro, Flores, Go
mez-Vela, Gonza
lez-Gil, & Caballo, 2007;
Thome
e, Ha
€renstam, & Hagberg, 2011). Of all these negative out-
comes, mobile phone addiction could be one of the most direct
negative results of the mobile phone use (Choliz, 2010; Takao,
Takahashi, & Kitamura, 2009).
Indeed, the number of studies investigating mobile phone
addiction has increased in recent years, and previous studies
mainly focused on the nature of mobile phone addiction (Billieux,
2012; Park & Park, 2014), antecedents of mobile phone addiction
(Bianchi & Phillips, 2005; Hong, Chiu, & Huang, 2012; Toda et al.,
2008; Walsh, White, Cox, & Young, 2011), as well as impacts of
mobile phone addiction on individuals' psychological (Çag an,
Ünsal, & Çelik, 2014), academic performance (Lepp et al., 2014),
leisure (Lepp, Li, Barkley, & Salehi-Esfahani, 2015), behavioral
(Kamibeppu & Sugiura, 2005; Wang et al., 2014), and health issues
€nn, Ahlbom, Hall, & Feychting, 2005; Thome
(Lo
e et al., 2011). These
studies have concluded that mobile phone addiction proves to be

http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.chb.2015.10.030
0747-5632/© 2015 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
 L. Chen et al. / Computers in Human Behavior 55 (2016) 856e866
an extremely important research topic and are associated with
various factors.
Among these associations, one phenomenon attracting re-
searchers' attention is that mobile phone addiction level has been
linked to interpersonal problems (Liu & Kuo, 2007; Park, Kim, &
Lee, 2014; Przybylski & Weinstein, 2013) and negative emotions
such as depression (Thome
e et al., 2011; Wang et al., 2014; Yen
et al., 2009) and anxiety (Beranuy et al., 2009; Hong et al., 2012;
Yen et al., 2009). Specifically, mobile phone addicts are more sen-
sitive to interpersonal relationships and experience more negative
emotions than nonaddicts. Furthermore, previous studies also have
found that people with high anxiety or depression are often un-
comfortable with face-to-face communication and face much more
interpersonal difficulties (Epkins & Heckler, 2011; Hames, Hagan, &
Joiner, 2013; Nepon, Flett, Hewitt, & Molnar, 2011). By contrast, low
depression and social anxiety are positively correlated to frequent
peer contact (McCarroll, Lindsey, MacKinnon-Lewis, Chambers, &
Frabutt, 2009). Consequently, it seems that there are certain un-
derlying association among mobile phone addiction, negative
emotions, and interpersonal problems. However, the mechanisms
underlying associations are not clear. In other words, why do some
mobile phone addicts are inclined to be with high level of
depression or anxiety? Does interpersonal relationship play a part
in the link between mobile phone addition level and negative
emotions? What are the mechanisms at work here?
Furthermore, besides mobile phone addicts, there are one po-
tential but growing group, possible mobile phone addicts. While
possible mobile phone addicts will become mobile phone addicts if
their mobile phone uses are out of control, few studies have
explored this potential but growing group. Is it possible for possible
mobile phone addicts to be with high level of negative emotions
and experience much more interpersonal problems? If this asso-
ciation exists, are the mechanisms similar to those of mobile phone
addicts?
In order to answer the above questions and given the large
population of young mobile phone users, the present research
focused on undergraduate students, a typical group of young mo-
bile users, and aimed to (1) estimate the prevalence of mobile
phone addiction among young adults and explore the differences in
mobile phones use among mobile phone addicts (MPAs), possible
mobile phone addicts (possible-MPAs) and nonaddicts (non-
MPAs); (2) compare the effects of mobile phone addiction levels on
negative emotions between MPAs and possible-MPAs; and (3)
evaluate the mediating role of interpersonal problems in the link
between mobile phone addiction levels and negative emotions
among MPAs and possible-MPAs respectively.
2. Literature review and hypotheses
2.1. Mobile phone addiction levels and mobile phone use
Addiction concerns recurring compulsions by an individual to
engage in some specific activities and characterized by repetitive
acts with a total negative sum of consequences (Waal & Mørland,
1999). There are basically two types of addiction: behavioral
addiction and substance addiction (Alavi et al., 2012). Mobile phone
addiction belongs to technology addiction, a typical behavioral
addiction, and is characterized in the repetitive use of mobile
phone to engage in behaviors that are counterproductive to health
(Lopez-Fernandez, Honrubia-Serrano, Freixa-Blanxart, & Gibson,
2014). According to Billieux (2012), mobile phone addiction has
been associated with behaviors that include an inability to regulate
one's use of the mobile phone, resulting in various social, behav-
ioral, and affective problems in daily life.
Besides mobile phone addiction, according to mobile phone
857
addiction levels, there are two other kinds of mobile phone
addictive states, possible mobile phone addiction and non-
addiction. Possible mobile phone addict means that an individual
has a possible tendency towards mobile phone addiction and ex-
periences occasional or frequent problems due to mobile phone
use. Nonaddict refers to an average mobile phone user who may
use mobile phone a bit too long at times, but usage is in the control.
It is estimated that prevalence of mobile phone addicts ranges
from 0% to 38% of mobile phone users across cultures and societies
(Lopez-Fernandez et al., 2014), suggesting at least 62% of mobile
phone users are with possible addiction or even without addition.
However, empirical studies on the possible mobile phone addiction
are still limited.
Previous studies on internet addiction have demonstrated that
there are significant differences in frequency (i.e., how often people
use internet) and amount (i.e., how much time people spend on
internet) of internet use among internet addicts, possible internet
addicts, and nonaddicts (Aktepe, Olgaç-Dündar, Soyo € z, & So
€ nmez,
€
2013; Bakken, Wenzel, GOTESTAM, Johansson, & ØREN, 2009;
Whang, Lee, & Chang, 2003; Yang & Tung, 2007). Similar to
internet addiction, mobile phone addiction could have similar dif-
ferences in mobile phone use. Therefore, this study proposed the
first hypothesis:
H1. Significant differences exist in mobile phone use among
MPAs, possible-MPAs and non-MPAs; and mobile phone use fre-
quency increases with the increase of mobile phone addiction
levels.
2.2. Mobile phone addiction levels and negative emotions
Negative emotion is usually an unpleasant or unhappy emotion
that is evoked in individuals to express a negative affect towards an
event or person, usually including depression, anxiety, loneliness,
and anger (Lazarus, 1991). Empirical evidence of the link between
mobile phone addiction levels and negative emotions has been
rapidly accumulated in recent years. For example, in an early and
influential study, Beranuy et al. (2009) surveyed 365 Spanish un-
dergraduates and found that problematic users (including mobile
phone addicts and internet addicts) showed more loneliness,
anxiety and depression. In the same year, Yen et al. (2009) pub-
lished another important study, surveying 10,191adolescents to
examine the association between mobile phone addiction levels
and depression in adolescents. They found that adolescents who
had significant depression were more likely to have four or more
symptoms of mobile phone addiction. Similar patterns were also
found in Korea (Ha, Chin, Park, Ryu, & Yu, 2008), USA (Chen, 2004),
and Austria (Augner & Hacker, 2012).
These pioneering studies have revealed that negative emotions,
such as social anxiety and depression, not only are significantly
associated with higher levels of mobile phone addiction but also are
key precedents of mobile phone addiction. These studies have
inspired and motivated at least two new research questions.
The first question is whether mobile phone addiction levels
have significant impacts on negative emotions. Based on Bandura's
concept of reciprocal determinism in social cognitive theory
(Bandura, 1986), individual’ behaviors (e.g., mobile phone use) not
only react to their emotions (e.g., depression affects mobile phone
addiction) but their behaviors (e.g., obsessive usage, a key mani-
festation of mobile phone addiction) can also affect their emotions.
This interplay between a person's behaviors and emotions is
reciprocal. However, most of existing studies into technology
addiction and emotion have generally focused on negative emo-
tions as the predicators of addiction behaviors (Bozoglan, Demirer,
& Sahin, 2014; Hong et al., 2012; Odacı & Çelik, 2013; Yen et al.,
858 L. Chen et al. / Computers in Human Behavior 55 (2016) 856e866
2009). In the present study, we focused on the effect of mobile
phone addiction levels on negative emotions.
The second question is whether the possible mobile phone
addiction level has a significant effect on the negative emotions and
whether this effect is weaker or stronger than that of the mobile
phone addiction level. In general, early studies on mobile phone
addiction levels and negative emotions mainly emphasized two
research areas. One was to explore the relationship between gen-
eral mobile phone addiction levels and negative emotions but did
not distinguish among MPAs, possible-MPAs, and non-MPAs
(Beranuy et al., 2009; Hong et al., 2012; Wang et al., 2014). The
other one was to focus on the relationship between the MPA
addiction level and negative emotions (Hong et al., 2012; Leung,
2008). However, studies on the possible-MPA addiction level are
particularly limited, although possible mobile phone addiction is
common among mobile phone users and it is likely for possible
mobile phone addicts to develop true addicts if the mobile phone
use is out of control. Meanwhile, Young and Roger (1998) suggested
that possible internet addicts show less psychopathic symptoms
than internet addicts but much more psychopathic symptoms than
nonaddicts. Therefore, the possible-MPA addiction level might have
the significant impacts on negative emotions, but its impacts could
be weaker than ones of the mobile phone addiction level. Based on
the above analysis, we chose two common negative emotions in
technology addiction, depression and social anxiety, as research
variables and proposed the second hypothesis:
H2. Effects of the possible-MPA addiction level on negative
emotions are weaker than ones of the MPA addiction level, while
both the MPA addiction level and the possible-MPA addiction level
have significant impacts on negative emotions.
2.3. The mediating effects of interpersonal problems
Related to the above discussion on effects of mobile phone
addiction levels on negative emotions, there still is one important
question worth further examination, that is, whether mobile phone
addiction levels could affect negative emotions directly or
indirectly.
On one hand, mobile phone addiction levels could affect nega-
tive emotions directly. Based on the definition and content of
technology addiction, negative emotions, such as social anxiety and
depression, are identified symptoms of technology addiction. A
technology addict always exhibit high levels of anxiety or depres-
sion (Turel, Serenko, & Bontis, 2011). Meanwhile, the results of
research into psychophysical effects of mobile phone use have
indicated that exposure to mobile phones can be a direct source of
psychophysical problems, such as headaches, earaches and fatigue,
which are linked to anxiety, depression and other negative emo-
tions (Al-Khlaiwi & Meo, 2004; Mortazavi, Ahmadi, & Shariati,
2007; Nittby et al., 2008).
On the other hand, mobile phone addiction levels could also
influence negative emotions indirectly by the mediating role of
interpersonal problems. Interpersonal problems refer to difficulties
that people experience in their interpersonal relationships and al-
ways manifest in technology addicts (Horowitz, Rosenberg, Baer,
Uren~ o, & Villasen
~ or, 1988). From the viewpoint of displacement
theory proposed by Kraut et al. (1998), if individuals have a
compulsive need to use devices like phones, computers, or video
games, it may lead to increasing social isolation by a decline of both
their face-to-face social communication and their social circle size,
further leading to much more interpersonal problems. A consid-
erable number of internet addiction studies have identified that
internet addicts are related to interpersonal problems, such as
higher rates of interpersonal sensitivity, criticism, and distrust of
others (Liu & Kuo, 2007; Milani, Osualdella, & Di Blasio, 2009; Park
et al., 2014). Similar to internet addiction, mobile phone addiction
could have the similar effect on interpersonal problems. Further-
more, from the viewpoint of Sullivan's interpersonal theory
(Sullivan, 1953), the interpersonal problems would increase social
anxiety, then worsen the interpersonal security, and finally increase
the risk of depression. Several studies have identified a negative
association between interpersonal relationships and social anxiety
or depression (Epkins & Heckler, 2011; Hames et al., 2013; Nepon
et al., 2011). For example, Liu and Kuo (2007) surveyed 555 col-
lege students and identified frustrating interpersonal relationships
may raise the level of social anxiety. La Greca and Harrison (2005)
investigated 421 adolescent participants showed that adolescents'
positive interactions with friends and the presence of a dating
relationship appear to “protect” adolescents against feelings of
social anxiety and depression. Therefore, the interpersonal problem
is correlated with the level of social anxiety and depression.
According to the above discussion, the increase of mobile phone
addiction levels would increase user's social isolation from a
decrease of face-to-face social interactions, then users would face
much more interpersonal problems; interpersonal problems also
play an important role in generating depression and social anxiety.
It is reasonable to assume that interpersonal problems may be a
psychological mechanism underlying the strong link between
mobile phone addiction levels and negative emotions. Thus, as
shown in Fig. 1, it was hypothesized that interpersonal problems
play a mediating role in the link between mobile phone addiction
levels and negative emotions.
H3. The mobile phone addiction levels influence the negative
emotions through the mediating role of interpersonal problems
among MPAs and possible-MPAs.
3. Method
3.1. Participants and setting
A total of 1124 young adults were surveyed on the base of cluster
sampling and 1087 (96.71%) individuals responded, with mean age
of 20.12 years and SD of 1.29 (see Table 1 for details). All of the
respondents owned and used mobile phones. Among them, 44
(4.05%) participants were classified by theirs cores of Mobile Phone
Addiction Scale (MPAS) as MPAs, M ¼ 4.03, SD ¼ 0.50; 634 (58.33%)
was categorized as possible-MPAs, M ¼ 2.55, SD ¼ 0.38; and 409
(37.62%) was categorized as non-MPAs, M ¼ 1.53, SD ¼ 0.29.
All the participants were recruited in three large public uni-
versities located in Wenzhou, Zhejiang Province, China. Wenzhou is
one of the most economically developed cities in China and has a
population of 9.19 million.
Fig. 1. The mediation model of mobile phone addiction levels and negative emotions
among MPAs and possible-MPAs.
 L. Chen et al. / Computers in Human Behavior 55 (2016) 856e866 859

Table 1 that discriminant validity of measurement items is good (Fornell &

Socio-demographics of the total sample and subsample of MPAs, possible-MPAs and Larcker, 1981).
non-MPAs.

Total MPAs Possible- Non-MPAs 3.2.2. Mobile phone use

MPAs
Four questions were used to examine mobile phone use: “Do
N % n % n % n % you own a mobile phone?”, “How much time do you spend on your
Total 1087 100.0 44 4.0 634 58.3 409 37.6 mobile phone per day on average?”, “How many messages do you
Grade Freshman 310 28.5 13 1.2 164 15.1 133 12.2 send each month on average?” and “How much do you spend
Sophomore 291 26.8 12 1.1 183 16.8 96 8.8 monthly on your mobile phone?”.
Junior 292 26.9 10 0.9 178 16.4 104 9.6
Senior 194 17.8 9 0.8 109 10.0 76 7.0
Gender Male 477 43.9 15 1.4 270 24.8 192 17.7 3.2.3. Negative emotions
Female 610 56.1 29 2.7 364 33.5 217 20.0 3.2.3.1. Depression. We used the 20-item Mandarin-Chinese
Location Urban area 494 45.9 24 2.2 280 26.0 190 17.6 version (Chien & Cheng, 1985) of the Center for Epidemiologic
Rural area 583 54.1 20 1.9 348 32.3 215 20.0
Missing 10 0.9
Studies Depression Scale (CES-D) (Radloff, 1977) to measure the
severity of depression. Each of 20 items on the CES-D is rated on a
four-point scale ranging from ‘‘rarely or none of the time’’
(value ¼ 0) to ‘‘most or all of the time’’ (value ¼ 3). The sum of the
3.2. Measures response scores can range from 0 to 60. Higher scores indicate a
higher degree of depressive symptoms.
3.2.1. Mobile phone addiction levels The CES-D has been shown to be a reliable measure for assessing
Mobile phone addiction levels were measured by Mobile Phone the number, types, and duration of depressive symptoms across
Addiction Scale (MPAS) for College Students (Xiong, Zhou, Chen, racial, gender, and age categories (Knight, Williams, McGee, &
You, & Zhai, 2012). This scale was developed based on Young's Olaman, 1997; Radloff, 1977; Roberts, Vernon, & Rhoades, 1989).
(1998) internet addiction scale and contained 16 items to assess Previous research demonstrates the CES-D has high internal con-
four factors of mobile phone addiction: (1) withdrawal symptoms sistency (Cronbach's alpha coefficients ranging from 0.85 to 0.90)
(6 items, such as “I feel lost when I do not have my mobile phone and good testeretest reliability (r ¼ 0.90) (Radloff, 1977). The CES-D
with me”); (2) salience (4 items, such as “ I am obsessed with my has been found to discriminate effectively between depressed and
mobile phone”); (3) social comfort (3 items, such as “ I prefer to nondepressed individuals (Radloff, 1977). It also exhibits conver-
communicate by phone rather than by face-to-face talk”); (4) mood gent validity with other measures of depression (Radloff, 1977). In
changes (3 items, such as “I feel anxious if I have not checked for the current sample, CES-D scores show moderate internal consis-
messages or switched on my mobile phone for some time ”). Each of tency (Cronbach's alpha ¼ 0.81).
these 16 items is rated on a five-point Liker scale (1 ¼ ‘‘not at all’’ to
5 ¼ ‘‘extremely’’). The total score could range from 16 to 80. Higher 3.2.3.2. Social anxiety. The six-item social anxiety subscale of the
scores indicate a higher level of mobile phone addiction. According Self-Consciousness Scale (Fenigstein, Scheier, & Buss, 1975) was
to the classification criteria reported by Young (1998), scores of used to assess social anxiety. In this scale, participants are asked to
16e31 indicate “nonaddiction”, scores of 32e56 represent respond on a five-point Liker scale (from 1 ¼ “not at all’’ to
“possible mobile phone addiction”, and scores above 57 are clas- 5 ¼ ‘‘extremely’’). Higher scores indicate greater levels of social
sified as “mobile phone addiction”. anxiety. Previous research demonstrates the social anxiety subscale
Both exploratory and confirmatory factor analyses supported has good internal consistency (Coefficient Alpha ¼ 0.75) and good
the construct validity of the four subscales (Xiong et al., 2012). In testeretest reliability (r ¼ 0.77) (Fenigstein et al., 1975). This scale
addition, The Cronbach's alphas for the subscales range from 0.55 to has been found to discriminate effectively between high-social-
0.80, the Cronbach's alphas for the whole scale was 0.83 and the 3- anxiety and low-social-anxiety undergraduate students (e.g.,Ar-
week test-retest reliability coefficient of the MPAS was 0.91 (Xiong kin, Appelman, & Burger, 1980; Hope, Heimberg, & Klein, 1990).
et al., 2012). Several other studies have demonstrated similar psy- In this study, the Cronbach's alpha for the scale is 0.90.
chometric properties (e.g. Ge & Zhu, 2014; Xie & Wang, 2014). In
the present study, The Cronbach's alphas for the subscales range 3.2.4. Interpersonal problems
from 0.64 to 0.80 and the whole scale was 0.91. Meanwhile, the Interpersonal problems were measured by Inventory of Inter-
average variance extracted (AVE) of each factor, ranging from 0.52 personal Problems-32 (IIP-32, Pilkonis, Kim, Proietti, & Barkham,
to 0.71, is greater than 0.50, indicating that convergent validity of 1996). The IIP-32 is a shortened version of the 127-item IIP
measurement items is good (Fornell & Larcker, 1981); We also devised by Horowitz et al. (1988). The IIP-32 is a 32-item self-report
calculated the square root of each factor's AVE and its correlation instrument on which respondents rate the severity of a wide range
coefficients with other factors, and summarize the results in of interpersonal difficulties using a 5-point scale ranging from 1
Table 2. The square root of each factor's AVE is larger than its cor- (not at all) to 5 (extremely). Higher scores indicate greater inter-
responding correlation coefficients with other factors, indicating personal difficulties.

Table 2
Discriminant validity of Mobile Phone Addiction Scale.

Withdrawal symptoms Salience Social comfort Mood changes

Withdrawal symptoms 0.72

Salience 0.64** 0.75
Social comfort 0.63** 0.51** 0.84
Mood changes 0.66** 0.62* 0.55** 0.77

Note: The diagonal elements in bold (the square root of the average extracted) should exceed the inter-construct correlation below and across them for adequate discriminant
validity.
860 L. Chen et al. / Computers in Human Behavior 55 (2016) 856e866

Previous research demonstrates the Chinese version of IIP-32 Table 3

has strong internal consistency (Coefficient Alpha ¼ 0.90) and Differences in mobile phone use among MPAs, possible-MPAs and non-MPAs.

good testeretest reliability (r ¼ 0.94) (Sun, Jiang & Zhang, 2012). MPAs Possible-MPAs Non-MPAs c2
The IIP-32 has proven to be a valid measure of interpersonal diffi- n ¼ 44 n ¼ 634 n ¼ 409
culties with adults and adolescents (Seo, Kang & Yom 2009; Sun, a
Duration of daily mobile phone use (hour) (f (%))
Jiang & Zhang, 2012). Likewise, the scale performed well with
A. Less than 2 h 1(2.3) 60(9.5) 69(16.9) 17.04***
this study's adults (Coefficient Alpha ¼ 0.84). B. 2e6 h 18(40.9) 398(62.8) 281(68.7) 14.54**
C. More than 6 h 25(56.8) 176(27.7) 79(19.4) 32.40***
The average mobile phone monthly bill (f (%))
3.3. Data collection A. Less than ¥20b 1(2.3) 36(5.7) 32(7.8) 3.20
B. ¥20e¥50 25(56.8) 399(62.9) 258(63.1) 0.69
The data collection was conducted from September to C. ¥50e¥100 14(31.8) 182(28.7) 110(26.9) 0.71
November, 2014. Participants were recruited in the mental health D. ¥100þ 4(9.1) 17(2.7) 9(2.2) 7.06*
The average number of text messages sent per month (f (%))
education classes at three universities and completed a 20-min
A. Less than 200 27(59.3) 402(63.4) 300(73.3) 11.80**
questionnaire packet. The questionnaires were anonymous and all B. 200e300 12(27.3) 198(31.1) 86(21.1) 13.06**
participants took part in the study voluntarily. The study was C. More than 300 5(11.4) 35(5.5) 23(5.6) 2.61
reviewed and approved by the Ethics Committee of Wenzhou *
p < 0.05 **p < 0.01 ***p < 0.001.
Medical University. a
Note: Frequency (f) and percentage (%) of young adults' responses are pre-
sented. Letters such as A or C represents different choices in a multiple-choice
question.
3.4. Data analysis b
¥ ¼ RMB Yuan, ¥1 ¼ $0.16.

While standard statistical methods were used to test the hy-

and the percentage of MPAs was the lowest, only 2.3%. On the
potheses in the study, particularly, three approaches were used to
contrary, up to 56.8% of MPAs spent more than 6 h a day on mobile
exam the mediating effect of interpersonal problems on the rela-
phone use, followed by 27.7% of possible-MPAs and the percentage
tionship between mobile phone addiction levels and negative
of non-MPAs was the lowest, 19.4%. It indicates that the higher the
emotions among MPAs and possible-MPAs separately.
mobile phone addiction level was, the longer individual used mo-
The first main approach is causal steps. As shown in Fig. 2, Part A
bile phones. Secondly, significant differences were found in one
shows the direct effect of X on Y via path c and Part B shows both
level of average mobile phone bill (¥100þ) among MPAs, possible-
the direct effect of X on Y via path c’ and the indirect effect of X on Y
MPAs and non-MPAs (9.1%, 2.7% and 2.2% respectively), c2 (2,
via M. According to Baron and Kenny (1986), the following four
N ¼ 30) ¼ 7.06, p < 0.05, suggesting a possible trend that the higher
steps should be present to establish mediation by carrying series of
mobile phone addiction level was, the larger mobile phone bill
Pearson correlations and regression analyses: (1) Show that the
users had. Thirdly, 73.3% of non-MPAs sent less than 200 text
independent variable (X) is significantly related to the dependent
messages per month, compared with 63.4% of possible-MPAs and
variable (Y), (2) Show that the independent variable (X) is signifi-
59.32% of MPAs. The number of sending text messages increased
cantly related to the mediator (M), (3) Show that the mediator (M)
along with the levels of mobile phone addiction. These findings
is significantly related to dependent variable (X), and (4) To
support our first hypothesis that the higher mobile phone addiction
establish that M completely mediates the XeY relationship, the
levels are, the higher mobile phone use frequency, the more text
effect of X on Y controlling for M (path c') should be zero. Here, Step
messages, and the larger mobile phone use bills are.
1 is shown in Fig. 2, Part A; and the later three steps are shown in
Fig. 2, Part B. If all four of these steps are met, then variable
M completely mediates the XeY relationship; and if the first 4.2. Mobile phone addiction levels and negative emotions
three steps are met but Step 4 is not, then partial mediation is
indicated. The second and third approach, the Sobel test As shown in Table 4, MPAs had significantly more negative
qffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi emotions than possible-MPAs and non-MPAs, while possible-MPAs
ðZ ¼ ab= b2 S2a þ a2 S2b Þ and bootstrap resampling procedure, were had significantly more negative emotions than non-MPAs. These
also used to test the mediation effect. results provide support for the second hypothesis, that it, signifi-
cant differences exist in depression and social anxiety among MPAs,
4. Results possible-MPAs and non-MPAs.

4.1. Mobile phone addiction levels and mobile phone use 4.3. The mediating effects of interpersonal problems

Firstly, as shown in Table 3, up to 16.9% of non-MPAs spent less 4.3.1. The mediating effects of interpersonal problems among MPAs
than 2 h a day on mobile phone, followed by 9.5% of possible-MPAs, A bivariate correlation analysis was performed to reveal the

Fig. 2. Part A: Illustration of a direct effect. Part B: Illustration of a mediation design.

 L. Chen et al. / Computers in Human Behavior 55 (2016) 856e866 861

Table 4
Differences in negative emotions among MPAs, possible-MPAs and non-MPAs.

Variables M(SD) F Mean difference between MPAs and Mean difference between MPAs Mean difference between possible-
possible-MPAs and non-MPAs MPAs and non-MPAs
MPAs Possible- Non-
(n ¼ 44) MPAs MPAs
(n ¼ 634) (n ¼ 409)

Depression 2.23(0.59) 1.83(0.38) 1.61(0.37) 69.20*** 0.40*** 0.62*** 0.21***

Social 3.60(0.87) 3.10(0.64) 2.68(0.75) 64.20*** 0.50*** 0.92*** 0.42***
Anxiety

Note:*p < 0.05 **

p < 0.01 ***
p < 0.001.

relationship among the mobile phone addiction level, interpersonal

problems, and negative emotions among MPAs. The mobile phone
addiction level was significantly and positively correlated with
interpersonal problems, r ¼ 0.53, p < 0.001, and negative emotions
(for depression, r ¼ 0.53, p < 0.001; for social anxiety, r ¼ 0.49,
p < 0.001). The interpersonal problem also was significantly and
positively correlated with depression, r ¼ 0.66, p < 0.001, and social
anxiety, r ¼ 0.59, p < 0.001. The results clearly satisfied the first and
second conditions of the mediation test.
According to Baron and Kenny (1986), two mediation analyses
were conducted by performing hierarchical regression to assess
whether the interpersonal problem serves as a mediator between
the mobile phone addiction level and negative emotions among
MPAs. In these two mediation models, the independent variable
was the mobile phone addiction level (X), the mediating variable Fig. 3. The mediation model of depression among MPAs. Note: Dotted line denotes the
effect of the MPA addiction level on depression when the interpersonal problem is not
was the interpersonal problems (M), the dependent variable was
included as a mediator.
depression (Y1) and anxiety (Y2) separately and the control vari-
ables were age and gender.
In the depression model, as shown in Table 5, the first regression test, Sobel's Z ¼ 2.73, p < 0.01, and the results of bootstrap
analysis reveal that 45% of the variance in depression is accounted resampling procedures using 5000 samples, Standardized indirect
for by the MPA addiction level and the model has a good fit, F effect ¼ 0.28, SE ¼ 0.09, p < 0.001, 95% bias-corrected bootstrap CI
(1,40) ¼ 7.26, p < 0.001, and the MPA addiction level was a signif- [0.135, 0.494], confirmed that the interpersonal problem is a total
icant predictor of depression, b ¼ 0.43, t ¼ 3.15, p < 0.01. The second mediator of the association between the MPA addiction level and
regression analysis reveal that 33% of the variance in interpersonal depression. These findings support the third hypothesis.
problems could be accounted for by the MPA addiction level and In the social anxiety model (as shown in Table 6), the first
the model has a good fit, F (1, 40) ¼ 4.45, p < 0.01, and the MPA aggression analysis revealed that the MPA addiction level was a
addiction level significantly predicted interpersonal problems, significant predictor of social anxiety, b ¼ 0.50, t ¼ 3.27, p < 0.01.
b ¼ 0.49, t ¼ 3.30, p < 0.01. There are two steps in the third analysis. The second regression analysis revealed that the MPA addiction
In the first step, interpersonal problems significantly predicted level predicted significantly interpersonal problems, which is same
depression, b ¼ 0.57, t ¼ 4.87, p < 0.001. In the second step, when with the result in depression model. Step one in the third analysis
controlling for the effects of the interpersonal problems on the found that the interpersonal problems significantly predicted social
depression, the MPA addiction level had no significant effect on anxiety, b ¼ 0.48, t ¼ 4.49, p < 0.001; in the second step, with
depression, b ¼ 0.19, t ¼ 1.45, p > 0.05. interpersonal problems controlled for, the MPA addiction level had
As shown in Fig. 3, the effect of the MPA addiction level on no significant effect on social anxiety, b ¼ 0.24, t ¼ 1.54, p > 0.05.
depression, the MPA addiction level on interpersonal problems, As shown in Fig. 4, the effect of the MPA addiction level on social
interpersonal problems on depression and the MPA addiction level anxiety, the MPA addiction level on interpersonal problems, inter-
on depression controlling for interpersonal problems is 0.43, 0.49, personal problems on social anxiety and the MPA addiction level on
0.56 and 0.19 respectively. Furthermore, the results of the Sobel social anxiety controlling for interpersonal problems is 0.50, 0.49,

Table 5
Results of hierarchical regression analysis of the depression model among MPAs (N ¼ 44).

Depression

B(SE) ba R2 Adjust R2 F DR 2 DF
** ***
Analysis one: 0.50(0.16) 0.43 0.45 0.39 7.26 0.15 9.94***
The MPA addiction level / Depression (path c)
Analysis two: 0.79(0.24) 0.49** 0.33 0.26 4.45** 0.20 10.91***
The MPA addiction level / interpersonal problems (path a)
Analysis three: 0.41(0.08) 0.56*** 0.57 0.53 12.10*** 0.28 23.59***
Step 1: Interpersonal problems / Depression (path b)
Step2: The MPA addiction level / Depression (path c’) 0.23(0.15) 0.19 0.59 0.54 10.39*** 0.02 2.09
* ** ***
Note: p < 0.05 p < 0.01 p < 0.001.
a
standardized regression coefficients at each step.
862 L. Chen et al. / Computers in Human Behavior 55 (2016) 856e866
Table 6
Results of hierarchical regression analysis of the social anxiety model among MPAs (N ¼ 44).
Social anxiety
B(SE)
Analysis One: 0.85(0.26)
The MPA addiction level/Anxiety (path c)
Analysis Two: 0.79(0.24)
The MPA addiction level/interpersonal problems (path a)
Analysis Three: 0.63(0.14)
Step 1: Interpersonal problems/Anxiety (path b)
Step2: The MPA addiction level/Anxiety (path c’) 0.42(0.27)
* ** ***
Note: p < 0.05 p < 0.01 p < 0.001.
a
standardized regression coefficients at each step.
Fig. 4. The mediation model of social anxiety among MPAs. Note: Dotted line denotes
the effect of the MPA addiction level on social anxiety when the interpersonal problem
is not included as a mediator.
0.59 and 0.24 respectively. Furthermore, the results of the Sobel
test, Sobel's Z ¼ 2.67, p < 0.01, and the results of bootstrap resam-
pling procedures using 5000 samples, Standardized indirect
effect ¼ 0.29, SE ¼ 0.09, p < 0.001, 95% bias-corrected bootstrap CI
[0.098, 0.463] also confirmed the interpersonal problem is a full
mediator of the link between the MPA addiction level and social
anxiety. These findings support the third hypothesis.
4.3.2. The mediating effects of interpersonal problems among
possible-MPAs
A bivariate correlation analysis was performed to reveal the
relationship among the mobile phone addiction level, interpersonal
problems and negative emotions among possible-MPAs. The mo-
bile phone addiction level was significantly and positively corre-
lated with interpersonal problems, r ¼ 0.29, p < 0.01, and negative
emotions (for depression, r ¼ 0.21, p < 0.001; for social anxiety,
r ¼ 0.16, p < 0.01). The interpersonal problem also was significantly
and positively correlated with depression, r ¼ 0.57, p < 0.01, and
social anxiety, r ¼ 0.41, p < 0.01. The results clearly satisfied the first
and second conditions of mediation test.
To assess whether the interpersonal problem serves as a
mediator of the association between the mobile phone addiction
level and negative emotions among possible-MPAs, two mediation
analyses were conducted in depression model and social anxiety
model separately.
In the depression model, as shown in Table 7, the first and
second regression analysis revealed that the possible-MPA addic-
tion level was a significant predictor of depression, b ¼ 0.20,
t ¼ 5.09, p < 0.001, and interpersonal problems, b ¼ 0.28, t ¼ 7.21,
p < 0.001. Step one in the third analysis found that the interpersonal
problems significantly predicted depression, b ¼ 0.57, t ¼ 16.21,
p < 0.001; In the second step, with interpersonal problems
ba R2 Adjust R2 F DR2 DF
*** **
0.50 0.24 0.18 3.96 0.21 10.68***
0.49** 0.33 0.26 4.45** 0.20 10.91***
0.59*** 0.36 0.31 7.20*** 0.34 20.17***
0.24 0.40 0.34 6.19*** 0.04 2.37
controlled for, the possible-MPA addiction level had no significant
effect on depression, b ¼ 0.05, t ¼ 1.31, p > 0.05, with the beta
weights dropped from 0.20 to 0.05.
As shown in Fig. 5, the effect of the possible-MPA addiction level
on depression, the possible-MPA addiction level on interpersonal
problems, interpersonal problems on depression and the possible-
MPA addiction level on depression controlling for interpersonal
problems is 0.20, 0.28, 0.57 and 0.05 respectively. Furthermore, the
results of the Sobel test, Sobel's Z ¼ 6.67, p < 0.001, and the results
of bootstrap resampling procedures using 5000 samples, Stan-
dardized indirect effect ¼ 0.16, SE ¼ 0.02, p < 0.001, 95% bias-
corrected bootstrap CI [0.117, 0.207], confirmed that the interper-
sonal problem is a total mediator of the association between the
possible-MPA addiction level and depression. These findings sup-
port the third hypothesis.
In the social anxiety model, as shown in Table 8, the first and
second regression analysis revealed that the possible-MPA addic-
tion level was a significant predictor of social anxiety, b ¼ 0.16,
t ¼ 3.97, p < 0.001, and interpersonal problems, b ¼ 0.28, t ¼ 7.20,
p < 0.001. In the third analysis, when the interpersonal problem
was added into the model, the possible-MPA addiction level was no
longer a significant predictor of depression, b ¼ 0.05, t ¼ 1.21,
p > 0.05, with the beta weights dropped from 0.16 to 0.05.
As shown in Fig. 6, the effect of the possible-MPA addiction level
on social anxiety, the possible-MPA addiction level on interpersonal
problems, interpersonal problems on social anxiety and the
possible-MPA addiction level on social anxiety controlling for
interpersonal problems is 0.16, 0.28, 0.41 and 0.05 respectively.
Furthermore, the results of the Sobel test, Z ¼ 6.06, p < 0.001, and
the results of bootstrap resampling procedures using 5000 samples,
Standardized indirect effect ¼ 0.12, SE ¼ 0.02, p < 0.001, 95% bias-
corrected bootstrap CI [0.081, 0.152] also confirmed the interper-
sonal problem is a full mediator of the link between the possible-
MPA addiction level and social anxiety. These findings support
the third hypothesis.
5. Discussion
This study estimated the prevalence of mobile phone addiction
in a large sample of typical Chinese young adults, evaluated dif-
ferences in mobile phones use and negative emotions among MPAs,
possible-MPAs and non-MPAs, compared effects of the MPA
addiction level and the possible-MPA addiction level on negative
emotions, and examined the mediating role of interpersonal
problems in the link between the mobile phone addiction level and
negative emotions among MPAs and possible-MPAs respectively.
5.1. Mobile phone addiction levels and mobile phone use
The first finding of the study is that 4% of young adults were
 L. Chen et al. / Computers in Human Behavior 55 (2016) 856e866 863

Table 7
Results of hierarchical regression analysis of the depression model among possible-MPAs (N ¼ 634).

Depression

B(SE) ba R2 Adjust R2 F DR2 DF

*** ***
Analysis One: 0.21(0.04) 0.20 0.05 0.04 9.21 0.04 25.92***
The possible-MPA addiction level/Depression (path c)
Analysis two: 0.32(0.05) 0.28*** 0.08 0.07 17.63*** 0.08 51.99***
The possible-MPA addiction level/interpersonal problems (path a)
Analysis three: 0.51(0.03) 0.57*** 0.33 0.32 99.80*** 0.32 296.95***
Step 1: Interpersonal problems/Depression (path b)
Step2: The possible-MPA addiction level/Depression (path c’) 0.05(0.04) 0.05 0.33 0.32 75.36*** 0.01 1.72
* ** ***
Note: p < 0.05 p < 0.01 p < 0.001.
a
standardized regression coefficients at each step.

classified as MPAs, compared with more than 58% as possible-

Fig. 5. The mediation model of depression among possible-MPAs. Note: Dotted line
denotes the effect of the possible-MPA addiction level on depression when the inter-
personal problem is not included as a mediator.
MPAs, and 37% as non-MPAs. The incidence rate of MPAs in this
study is within the estimated range of mobile phone addicts but is
much lower than the findings of other Asian studies (Jenaro et al.,
2007; Wang et al., 2014). For example, Wang et al. (2014) rated
10.54% of their subjects as MPAs among 5059 adolescents. This
discrepancy could be related to various assessment scales used,
different samples selected, different data analyses performed in
these studies. In addition, more than a half of mobile phone users
are found to belong to possible-MPAs. The present study, along
with prior studies (Aktepe et al., 2013; Ghassemzadeh, Shahraray, &
Moradi, 2008; Whang et al., 2003), indicates that possible-MPAs
experience various problems and will become mobile phone ad-
dicts if their mobile phone uses are out of control. Thus, more
attention should be paid for this popular but neglected group in the
future studies.

Table 8
Results of hierarchical regression analysis of the social anxiety model among possible-MPAs (N ¼ 634).

Social anxiety

B(SE) ba R2 Adjust R2 F DR2 DF

*** ***
Analysis one: 0.27(0.07) 0.16 0.03 0.02 5.32 0.03 15.74***
The possible-MPA addiction level / Social Anxiety (path c)
Analysis two: 0.32(0.05) 0.28*** 0.08 0.07 17.64*** 0.08 51.98***
The possible-MPA addiction level / Interpersonal problems (path a)
Analysis three: 0.61(0.05) 0.41*** 0.17 0.16 42.04*** 0.17 125.88***
Step1: Interpersonal problems / Social Anxiety (path b)
Step2: The possible-MPA addiction level / Social Anxiety (path c’) 0.08(0.07) 0.05 0.33 0.17 31.92*** 0.01 1.46
* ** ***
Note: p < 0.05 p < 0.01 p < 0.001.
a
standardized regression coefficients at each step.

Meanwhile, significant differences exist in the mobile phone

use, including duration of daily mobile phone use, average mobile
phone monthly bill and average number of sending text messages,
among MPAs, possible MPAs and non-MPAs. It is found that the
higher mobile phone addiction levels are, the higher mobile phone
use frequency and the large mobile phone use bill are, confirming
the first hypothesis of the study and supporting the views of
technology addiction theory that nature of technology addiction is
the excessive engagement with a user's technology. It also could be
speculated that compared with non-MPAs, people with the high
mobile phone addiction level would prefer to make more calls and
send more text messages to interaction than face-to-face contact,
which could lead them to feel more comfortable (Kamibeppu &
Sugiura, 2005).

Fig. 6. The mediation model of social anxiety among possible-MPAs. Note: Dotted line
5.2. Mobile phone addiction levels and negative emotions
denotes the effect of the possible-MPA addiction level on social anxiety when the
interpersonal problem is not included as a mediator. The second important finding of the study is that mobile phone
864 L. Chen et al. / Computers in Human Behavior 55 (2016) 856e866
addiction levels had significant impacts on negative emotion
(depression and social anxiety) among MPAs and possible-MPAs.
These findings are in line with the second hypothesis but is
different from most of previous studies which always explored the
effects of psychological problems on pathological technology use
(Haagsma, Caplan, Peters, & Pieterse, 2013; Hong et al., 2012).
Based on cognitiveebehavioral theory, individuals' cognitions and
emotions not only affect their behaviors but also could be affected
by their behaviors. Thus, the mobile phone addiction, a maladap-
tive behavior, could also influence one's emotions and cognitions.
As it was found in this study, the mobile phone addiction level is a
positive significant predictor of negative emotions. As such, our
study provides new evidence for the cognitive behavioral theory in
the mobile phone addiction research.
Furthermore, effects of the MPA addiction level on negative
emotions are much stronger than those of the possible-MPA
addiction level. Specifically, on depression, the total, indirect, and
direct effect of the MPA addiction level is 0.43, 0.28, and 0.19
respectively, and the total, indirect, and direct effect of the possible-
MPA addiction level is 0.20, 0.16, and 0.05 respectively. On social
anxiety, the total, indirect, and direct effect of the MPA addiction
level is 0.50, 0.29, and 0.24 respectively, and the total, indirect and
direct effect of the possible-MPA addiction level is 0.16, 0.12, and
0.05 respectively. The above results support the second hypothesis.
On the one hand, results that the MPA addiction level and the
possible-MPA addiction level could both significantly impact on
negative emotions indicate that the high level of technology
addiction always is associated with mental symptoms. On the other
hand, careful comparison of effects of the MPA addiction level and
the possible-MPA addiction level on negative emotions suggests
the influence mechanism of possible mobile phone addiction.
Although effects of the possible-MPA addiction level on negative
emotions are weaker than those of the MPA addiction level,
possible-MPAs also tend to become more vulnerable to be with
negative emotions than average users. Therefore, possible-MPAs
should also be called attention and gain more effective interven-
tion programs at the individual, family, school, and community
levels.
5.3. Mediating effects of interpersonal problems
The third important finding of the study is that interpersonal
problems mediate the association between the mobile phone
addiction level and negative emotions among MPAs and possible-
MPAs. It supports the third hypothesis and is consistent with re-
sults of previous technology addiction studies (Chiu, 2014;
Pourrazavi, Allahverdipour, Jafarabadi, & Matlabi, 2014). Since
mobile phone allows users to share similar functions as computer
and internet, mobile phone addiction outcomes may parallel those
of internet addiction regarding negative interpersonal relationship
and negative emotion outcomes. Meanwhile, based on the inter-
personal theory, we theorized that if an individual with mobile
phone addiction would neglect the social networking in the real
world, then could create conflict within the relationship. The
frustrated personal companionship would, indeed, lead to the high
feelings of negative emotions (i.e., depression, social anxiety and
loneliness) among mobile phone addicts.
More interestingly, the mediate affect size of interpersonal
problems in the link between negative emotions and the mobile
phone addiction level among MPAs and possible-MPAs is great
ranged from 0.58 to 0.79. Specifically, the interpersonal problems
meditation proportion was 61.63% in the depression model of
MPAs, 58.20% in the social anxiety model of MPAs, 79.57% in the
depression model of possible-MPAs and 73.16% in the social anxiety
model of possible-MPAs respectively. In the existing studies, there
are two major types of mediators between technology addiction
and negative emotions. One type is the physical mediator (such as
sleep quality, headache, etc.); the other is the psychological medi-
ator (such as interpersonal relationship, well-being, self-esteem,
etc.). Compared with the effect of physical mediators, the effect of
psychological mediator is relatively strong, especially the mediator
of interpersonal relationship. Therefore, the result of this study
further supports the views of interpersonal theory and also
confirmed that interpersonal relationship seems to be a primary
contributor for mobile phone addicts to become more depression
or social anxiety.
Furthermore, the interpersonal problem is a full mediator not
partial mediator of the link between the mobile phone addiction
level and negative emotions among MPAs and possible-MPAs. This
result indicates the direct effect of mobile phone addiction level on
negative emotion is weak, and the mobile phone addiction level
influences the negative emotions mostly through the mediation
role of interpersonal problems. There are several speculations to
explain or interpret it. First, in a few existing research into the
function of mediators, the direct effect of technology addiction on
negation motion is weak. For example, Yao and Zhong (2014) sur-
veyed 361 college students and found that the direct effect of
mobile phone addiction on loneliness is 0.18 although it is signifi-
cant. Second, nature of mobile phone is a kind of contact tool
indicating that mobile phone use influences mainly and directly not
emotion but communication or relationship. Third, the mobile
phone addiction is a kind of technology addiction not a chemical
addiction such as a drug addiction, so there is the little possibility
that mobile phone addiction make a direct impact on individual's
physical or mental problems without mediating of other variables.
6. Implication and conclusions
The present study is the first attempts to compare the effect on
negative emotions between MPAs and possible-MPAs, and to
examine the mediating role of interpersonal problems in the link
between the mobile phone addiction level and negative emotions
among MPAs and possible-MPAs respectively.
The major empirical findings discussed above are important
because these findings indicate three implications. First, from the
perspective of policy makers, since mobile phone is ubiquitous
today and has both profound positive and negative social conse-
quences for young adults, it is crucial for policy makers to make
effective and appropriate policies to maximize positive impacts of
mobile phone and at the same time minimize negative impacts. In
particular, the future policy should not only focus on the existing
mobile phone addicts but more important to target to the possible
mobile phone addicts as the largest group related to the mobile
phone addiction.
Second, from the perspective of teachers and parents, based on
the findings of the study that interpersonal problem was a signif-
icant mediator between mobile phone addiction levels and nega-
tive emotions among young adults, teachers and parents should
strengthen successful interpersonal relationship-building tech-
niques, social interaction skills and collaboration skill, especially
mobile phone addicts or possible mobile phone addicts, who
demonstrate these negative characteristics, and provide a guide for
them to appropriate use of mobile phone use by using a wide va-
riety of evidence-based and carefully-balanced strategies.
Third, from the perspective of students, for mobile phone ad-
dicts, the results suggest that mobile phone addiction level could
significantly impact on negative emotions and interpersonal
problems. This implies that mobile phone addicts need to accept
interpersonal skills training or emotional management training
from trained therapists to manage their interpersonal relationship
 L. Chen et al. / Computers in Human Behavior 55 (2016) 856e866
stresses and control their negative emotions. For possible mobile
phone addicts or nonaddicts, the results suggest that possible
mobile phone addicts or nonaddicts will become mobile phone
addicts if their mobile phone uses are out of control, and the mobile
phone addiction level increases with the increase of mobile phone
use frequency. Therefore, these young adults should prevent
themselves from forming maladaptive patterns of mobile phone
use by keeping the duration and frequency of daily mobile phone
use under control. Meanwhile, it may be best to receive the inter-
vention at an earlier stage where mobile phone addiction has not
reached a higher, more maladaptive level.
In conclusion, this study provides empirical evidence for the
existence of MPAs and possible-MPAs in young adults. MPAs or
possible-MPAs spend more money and time on mobile phone use
and have more negative emotions than non-MPAs. The effects of
the possible-MPA addiction level on negative emotions are signif-
icant but weaker than those of the MPA addiction level. Further, by
examining MPAs and possible-MPAs separately, the level of mobile
phone addiction influences negative emotions by a mediating role
of interpersonal problems.
7. Limitations and future research
Several limitations in this study should be underlined, providing
new directions for future investigations. First, although this study
built upon the theoretical foundation as well as previous research,
causal relationships among the variables cannot be fully estab-
lished because of the cross-sectional nature of the data. Therefore,
the results of this study only provide an indication of association.
Future studies can adopt a longitudinal research design to provide
evidence for the causal assumptions that are made in this study.
Second, the analyses of this study are based on the self-reported
data, which in involves the risk of recall bias, social desirability
bias or other types of bias (Fischer & Fick, 1993). Therefore, we
recommend that future studies collect data from multiple in-
formants (e.g., parents, teachers and peers) and/or multiple
methods (e.g., observational and experimental measures) to pro-
vide a more comprehensive picture of the nature of mobile phone
addition use among young adults. Third, the participant sample of
this study was only derived from three large public universities in
Wenzhou, China, and so undergraduate students do not represent
all young adults and there may be cultural and social factors that
are unique to these participants that may account for the findings.
Furthermore, as adolescents also are the one of the largest and
fastest-growing groups owning and using mobile phone in China
and are considered to be especially vulnerable to mobile phone
addiction, this is an important group to investigate. Therefore,
future studies may benefit from sampling the wider population,
perhaps one from a different culture. Finally, although this study
has advanced previous research by highlighting the moderator ef-
fects of interpersonal problems in the link between the mobile
phone addiction levels and negative emotions in young adult
samples, the influence of some other factors, such as age, gender,
personality, family income and environment, might be overlooked.
Future research is needed to develop more sophisticated theoret-
ical models and more fully explore the connections between these
issues.
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