3.

ITRODUCTIO TO MARIE GEOTECHOLOGY

1. Ocean Environment

About 71 percent of earth’s surface is covered by oceans and 29 percent by land. In

contrast to the wealth of information on engineering behaviour available about terrestrial soils,
very little is known about the engineering properties of submarine sediments. Because of
the unique influence of marine environment, engineering properties of submarine sediments
differ considerably from those of terrestrial deposits. With increasing activity in the offshore
areas in the form of construction of foundation for oil drilling platforms, oil storage
reservoirs, radar towers etc. considerable attention is now focused on understanding the
engineering properties of submarine sediments. With increasing activity in the offshore area of
India for oil production and associated works, the need to understand the engineering
properties of sediments in the Indian continental shelf is imperative. Two environmental
factors, which are of primary significance in determining the type and distribution of soil on the
seabed, are water depth and the distance from coastline.

2. Submarine Soils

Soils encountered in the marine environment can be classified into two categories
namely marine soils and submarine soils. Deposits, which have been removed from marine
environment by uplift or by other means are considered as marine while those continue to be
submerged, are considered as submarine. Submarine soils can be divided into two categories,
one bear similarity to on-land soils whereas others are distinctly a product of ocean environment.
The former is known as terrigenic soils - these are formed on-land and then transported to
sea, the latter are called pelagic soils and these are formed of material, which settle down through
water column in the sea. A more detailed classification is depicted in Fig. 1. and Fig. 2 show
the relative abundance of terrigenic and various types of pelagic soils on the ocean floor. Of the
pelagic soils, calcareous ooze is the most abundant and is found extensively in the Atlantic and
19
 the Indian oceans. Brown clay and siliceous ooze are more abundant in the Pacific Ocean on
account of its greater water depths. The characteristics of terrigenic deposits are primarily
controlled by the nature of soil in the coastal area adjacent to the deposit.
Since submarine soils have different origins, there is a wide range in their rate of
accumulation on the sea floor. This is highlighted in Table 1 which shows the soils of
terrigenic origin are deposited rapidly, whereas pelagic soils are deposited at a much slower
rate. A particle or brown clay may as such stay within the top 1 cm of the ocean floor as long as
20,000 years.

Submarine soils

Terrigenic Deposits Pelagic Deposits

Terrigenous Slump Turbidities Glacial Brown Clay Biogenous Authogenic Volcanic

Mud deposits Deposits Deposits Deposits Deposits

Calcareous ooze Siliceous ooze

Foraminifera Diatom

Globigerina Radiolarin

Figure:1-Classification of marine soils

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 Submarine soils
[100](71)

Terrigenic Deposits [26](18) Pelagic Deposits [74](53)

Continental Deep Sea Brown Clay [28](20) Biogenous

Margin [8](5) [18](15) Deposits [46](33)

Siliceous ooze [11](8) Calcareous

ooze[35](25)

Diatom[9](6.5)

Radiolarin[2](1.5)

[ ]-Indicates area occupied by a % of the total ocean floor area

( )- Indicators area occupied by a % of the total earth surface

Figure: 2-Relative abundance of various submarine soils

21
 Table 1: Rate of accumulation of sediments on the ocean floor

Accumulation rate Residue within 1 cm of

Sediment type
Mm/1000 years ocean floor in years
Terrigenic deposit 1000 10
Volcanic deposit 100 100
Calcareous ooze 20 500
Siliceous ooze 5 2000
Atmospheric dust
0.5 20000
(component of brown clay)

3. Sedimentary Environments and Sedimentological Process

The double layer theory can be used for explaining some of the observed
interaction in clay water system that control flocculation. It is well known that if the net effect of
inter particle electrical forces between two clay particle is attractive, they tend to move
towards each other and hence flocculate. If the net influence of electrical force is repulsive,
particle tends to disperse.

The attractive forces between clay particles is essentially independent of the

characteristics of the pore fluid whereas the repulsive force between adjacent particles is
directly related to the pore fluid through its influence on the thickness of diffused double layer,
any change in the characteristics of the clay water system that reduce the thickness of
double layer reduces the repulsive force. e.g. increased ion concentration, higher valence
increase in temperature etc. This in turn enables the particles of particles thus become flocs.
The presence of dissolved salt in submarine environment tends to depress the double layer
surrounding the particles of the sediment and particle in turn tend to flocculate. As flocs attain a
certain size, they will begin to settle through water column. Once flocs reach ocean floor they
constitute relatively stable aggregation of particles with an open framework. This is similar to
the honeycomb structure proposed by Terzaghi (1925).

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3.1. Cementation Bonding

A slow rate of deposition followed by a spontaneous development of bonds is

necessary for retention of the open fabric after burial. For sediment to retain an open fabric
under the high stresses of deep burial, stronger bonds are required which are perhaps achieved by
cementation caused by action of chemical precipitates. The cementation bonds may be due to
precipitation at particles contacts of inorganic materials such as carbonates, oxides of M, C, Fe,
and Al etc. The existence of natural cementation in marine soils has often been postulated
e.g. Calcium carbonate precipitating from super saturated solution (Mitchell and Houstan (1969),
Townsend (1965) ) and Aluminium and hydro iron hydroxide precipitates (Quigley, 1968),
The mechanical significance of the existence of natural cementation has been discussed by
several authors including Bjerrum and Wu (1960), Kenney et al (1967), Loiselle (1971) Nacci
et al (1977), Moore et al (1977) Yong et al (1979) and Ladd and Mckown (1981) and these are
summarized in Table 2.

4. Engineering Behaviour of Submarine Sediments

Prior to 1950 engineering properties of submarine sediments received little attention.

Early studies were conducted by marine Geologists. Only after 1970 more intensive studies
have been conducted to determine their strength and stress-strain behaviour. Typical
physical and engineering properties of deep-sea sediments and continental margin sediments are
given in Tables 3 and 4 respectively.

From the study of the engineering behaviour of deep sea sediments presented above
one may conclude the following.

i) Mass physical properties of sediments are substantially influenced by the depositance

environment.
ii) Due to presence of intra particle voids in carbonate particles, water content in calcareous
deposits tends to be relatively high.

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iii) Because of the low rate of deposition and due to presence of cementing material some
bonding appears to exist in these carbonate deposits which manifests itself by impart apparent
overconsolidation behaviour

An analysis of the reported engineering behaviour of continental margin sediments reveals that:

1. The natural water content is often found to be higher than liquid limit in these deposits.
2. Unlike deep-sea deposits these deposits are under consolidated, normally
consolidated, or over-consolidated states. The over-consolidation may result from

(a) Stress history, which has been attributed to erosion or glaciation or fluctuation in water
level.
(b) Manner of computation of effective stress
(c) Secondary or delayed consolidation
(d) Slow rate of deposition and
(e) Cementation caused by various materials such as carbonates, organic matters etc.

Apparent overconsolidation due to cementation seems to be present in carbonate

deposits.

5. Carbonate Sediments

Carbonate soils or carbonate sediments are those containing calcium carbonate or its
derivatives. Carbonate materials are deposited in the marine environment in variety of forms,
ranging from microscopic oozes to large intricate coral formations. Carbonate soils are
encountered on over 35 percent of the ocean floor on the continental margin they exist in
abundance in the low latitude areas lying between Lat 30 N and Lat 30 S (warm water zones)
which includes the east and west coast of India. In deep sea, they occur extensively in the
Indian and Atlantic oceans and to a lesser extent in the Pacific Ocean. The form in which the
carbonate soils exist is very much influenced by the ocean environment.

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5.1. Origin

Calcareous soils are mostly formed from the accumulation of skeletal remains of
organisms secreting calcium carbonate, like forminifera, echinoderms etc and plants like
banthenic calcareous algae, planktonic calcareous algae etc. In addition to these skeleton
deposits, non-skeletal deposits formed by precipitation also exist. It has been observed by
numerous investigators that the presence of carbonate material in submarine soils affects their
engineering behaviour significantly. The variation in the engineering properties of such
soils have usually been correlated with quantity of carbonate material present in the soil, without
focusing attention on the nature of carbonate material present in these soils. In the recent past
attention has been focused to study the nature of carbonate material in carbonate soil.

5.2. Carbonate material in sand size Range

In Sands carbonate materials exists in various shapes and forms, as thin walled shell
fragments e.g. Toft (1967), as skeletal grains with large intra particle voids e.g. Valent (1974),
Datta et al (1979) and as round solid non skeletal grains with smooth surfaces or cemented lumps
of non-skeletal grains e.g. Taft (1967).

5.3. Carbonate Material in clay and Silt Size

According to Robertson (1967), carbonate sediments of the Bhama Banks contain 40

percent clay size, 15 percent silt size and 45 percent fine sand size particles. The sediment
consists predominantly of non-skeletal needles of aroganite. From the scanning electron
micrographs (SEM) of the needles it is noted that the needles are not characterised by
interparticle voids. Nacci et al (1975) studied the nature of a deep sea calcareous sediment
obtained from the North Atlantic Ocean using SEM and identified that the carbonate
material existed in the form of nannofossil tests (of size 2 to 10 microns) and for a
miniferal tests consolidation and stress-strain behaviour indicated that the soil was cemented.

25
5.4. Carbonate as cementing material

Carbonate soils have been often been reported to exist in a cemented state e.g. from Australia
by Angemeer et al (1973 and 1975), from Abu Dhabi by Wees and Chamberlins (1971) and
from India by Katti et al 1978. However these investigations have not identified the form of
existence of cementing carbonate material. Bathrust (1971) had discussed the process of
concentration from a geological point of view from which one can conclude that cementation
occurs by physio-chemical or biochemical precipitation of carbonate material in the form of (a)
micritic void filler, (b) a coating which envelopes the particles or (c) as over glow on the surface
of particles. Recently Datta et al (1981) from an investigation conducted to study the nature and
distribution of carbonate material in two carbonate soils obtained from the west coast of India
have shown that the part of carbonate material is present in this soil as a cementing material
either in the form of coating or in the form of needle like overgrowths.

From the above discussion it is evident that carbonate material can exist either as inert particles
of various shapes and sizes, with or without intra particle voids or as a cementing material in the
form of filler or as a coating, or as overgrowths.

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 Table 2: Reported Investigation on Naturally Cemented Soil

No Soils Soil condition Cementing material Method of Remarks

determination
1. Swedish Lills edet Cemented - - Contained considerable amount of
marine clay Bjarrum micro fossils and organic matter
and Wu (1960)
2 Labrador, Canada Cemented Iron compounds leaching -
marine clay Kenner with EDTA solution
et al (1987)
3 Outardes river Cemented Amorphous silica and Leaching with -
region , Canada alumina, ferrous oxides EDTA solution
marine clay Loiselis and calcium carbonates
yet al (1971)
4 North Atlantic
Cemented Calcium carbonate Chemical Observed open flocculated
ocean Deep ea behaviour when analysis and structures in low carbonate soils and
sediments NACCI calcium carbonate scanning nanofossils in dispersed structures
et al (1975) is less than 40% electron along with small flocs of clay
and granular soil microscopic material in high carbonate soils
behaviour when study
calcium carbonate
is greater than 40 %
5 Chedabu8cts Bay Cemented Organic compounds Leaching with -
nova Bootyia, acetic acide and
Canada submarine sodium
soil Moore et al hydroxide
(1977) solution
6 Gatineau and Cemented Aluminium oxide, Iron Chemical When large quantity of amorphous
St.Alban marine behaviour when oxide and silica oxide in analysis material is present then it some what
clay Yong et al amorphous material amorphous form thickens particles by ceme-act as a
(1978) is present in small cementing material
quantities
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 Table 3 physical an engineering properties of deep sea sediments

S. Location and Soil type Natura Index Carbonat Undrained remarks

ln researcher l prop[erties (%) e content shear Compressi
o Water (%) strength , Su on index Cc
conten (kg/cm2)
t (%)
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 9
8
1 North – atlantic
(a) Buchan et al Reddish 66 -87 wL=55-68 20-80 0.03-0.08 - Exhibits over consolidation behaviour
(1967) brown silty wP=30-44 as carbonate content increases
clay IP=14-37 sensitivity decreases
IL=1.25-2.33
(b)Keller Clacaroeus 30-175 - - 0.04-0.11 - -
(1969) sand, silt ,
calcareous
ooze and red
clay
(c) Kelly et al Silty clay to 90-200 IP=20-40 20-60 Su √Po= 0.5- - Depicts apparent over consolidation
(1974) (South clayey silt 3.1 behaviour as carbonate content
Labrodor sea ) icreases, Su / Po and Pc / Po increases.
(d) Calcareous 87-125 wL=66-70 56-75 0.04-0.1 0.8 Calcareous ooze is more
ooze wp=42-57 compressible than a clay type soil
having the same liquid limit
(e) Nacci et al Silty clkay to 30-125 IP=20-65 10-40 - 0.30-1.25 Depicts apparent over consolidation
(1975) clayeye silt behaviour

Clayey sit to 70-118 IP=10-43 40-90 - 0.10-0.90 Depicts granular type behaviour
silt

28
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

2 North Pacific Hemipelagic - wL=68-149 0-48 Su √Po=0.03- - Observed little decrease of porosity
Guadalupe site wP=30-77 0.34 with depth. Depicts apparent over
consolidation behaviour
(a) Hamilton Calcareous 151- wL=68-149 - 3.39-0.76 -
(1964) ooze 148 IP= 10-82
(b) Moore Clayey silt to - - - - -
(1964) silty clay
(Guadalupe
site)
(c) KellerCalcareous 52-375 - - 0.04-0.18 - Exhibits higher strength coastal areas
(1969) sand and silt, or those calcareous ooze
red clay and
some siliceous
ooze
(d) Calcareous 84-116 wL=43-56 - 0.11-0.14 0.57-0.91 Depicts apparent over consolidation
Noorany(1971) sediments behaviour
(e)Richards et Siliceous 135- wL=104-275 - 0.01-0.22 - -
al(1976) pelagic ooze 476 wp=58-183
fine grained IP=46-92
IL=1.5-2.0
3. Gulf of Mexico
(a)Delflanche Silty clay Porosit - About 4 - Samples -
and y-472 from top
Bryant(1970) 5m show 2
values,0.87
-
4.13.Below
5m depth

29
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
(b)Bryant and Silt and clay 49-179 - - 0.02-0.12 0.49-1.17 -
Dlflache(1971)

4 Arabian Sea Clay to silt 25-100 wL=30-65 3-23 0.005-0.45 - Exhibit higher shear strength due to
Keller(1967)(G also range(less wp=20-55 carbonate cementation
ulf of Oman) than 30%
sand)

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 Table 3 physical an engineering properties of deep sea sediments

Sl.n Location and Soil type Natural Index Properties Carbon Undrained Compre Remarks
o Researcher water (%) ate shear strength, ssion
content content Su (kg/cm2) index Cc
(%) (%)
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
1 Gulf of Mexico
(a) Mc Clelland Clay 28-81 wL = 32-98 - 0.06-2.18 0.2-1.09 Sediments exist in under
(1967) wP = 18-36 consolidated to over
IP = 9-72 consolidated state
IL = 0.30-1.11
(b) Kolb and Clay 40-55 wL = 65-85 - 0.05-1.22 - Some layers are under
Kaufman (1967) wP = 25-30 consolidated
IL = 0.3-0.4 (for
normally
consolidated
clay) IL = 0.704
(for under
consolidated
clay)
(c) Bryant et al Silty lutities 50-150 - About 0.01 -0.41 0.55-1.0 Depicts apparent over
(1965) 10 consolidation in slope
sediments
2 North Atlantic
(a) Richards and Fine Porosity - - 0.02-.09 0.36-1.4 Depicts apparent over
Hamilten (1967) grained soil 58-82 Su √Po=0.4-2.0 consolidation behaviour
(b) Robertson (1967) Clay to sand 40 - - - - Aragenite needles appeared
range to get crushed under
pressure above 100 kg/cm2
3 Mediterranean

31
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
Almagor (1967) Near shore 40-85 wL = 54-82 - 0.01-.0.1 0.15- Normally consolidated state
(palmekhim coast ) coarse wP = 17-35 Su √Po= 0.50 0.61
materials IP = 37-49
Shelf and 80-143 wL = 79-85 - 0.003-0.050 0.70- Under consolidated state
upper slope wP = 25 Su √Po= 0.03- 0.82 high rate of accumulation
silty clay IP = 55-60 0.15
Deeper silty 111-156 wL = 87-113 - 0.005-0.09 1.09- Normally consolidated state
wP = 27-29 IP = Su √Po= 0.35- 1.28
63-85 0.9

4 Red Sea and Gulf of Clayey silt 90-180 wL = 70-105 47-60 0.01-0.05 - Exhibit higher shear
Aden to silty clay wP = 35-60 strength due to high
IP = 35-60 carbonate content
5 Nile delta Silty (sand 60-140 wL = 60-110 10-55 0.01-0.05 - Exhibit higher shear
Einsele (1967) silt clay) wP = 25-45 IP = strength due to high
30-70 carbonate content

6 North Sea Clay 19 wL = 44 - - 4 Depicts over consolidation

Bjerrum (1973) wP = 19 due to glaciations
(Ekofisk) IP = 25
7 Gulf Maine
Silva and Hellister Silt 50-120 wL =45-90 - 0-0.25 0.41- Exists in normally
(1973) wP = 25-45 0.92 consolidated state water
IL = 1.2-2.0 content and Cc decrease
with depth.
8 Gulf of Maine and Clay 98-152 wL =100-140 0.7 - 0.99- Exhibits apparent over
Hudson submarine wP = 40-60 1.92 consolidation behaviour.
Canyen Brumund IP = 60-80 Explained by the use of
and Callender (1975) IL = 1-1.7 Skempton’s stress theory

32
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
9 British, Gerorgia Silty clay 138-236 wL =130 Carbon 0.02-0.05 2.3 Exhibits apparent over
british Colombia Fin wP = 74 aceous consolidation behaviour
and Byrne(1971) IP = 56 matter
4
10 Southern California Clay 52-143 - - From direct 0.011- Shell sediment have higher
Continental shear test at 1.04 grained size, shear strength
Borderland Wilson et normal stress = and unit weight and lower
al(1970) 0.05 kg/cm2 water content , void ratio
0.05-0.08 and compressibility than
the slopes, basin and fan
sediments.

11 Nova Scotia, Canada

(a) Brown and Clayey silt 42-68 wL =40-65 - 0.05-0.09 0.27- Depicts apparent over
Rashid (1975) and clay wP =15-32 0.63 consolidation
(Canso street) IP = 1-1.4

(b) Moore et al Brownish 38 wL =29 - 0.02-0.18 0.17-0.2 Depicts apparent over

(1977) (Chedabusto grey clayey wP =22 Su √Po= 2.5 consolidation behaviour
Bay) silt IP = 7
IL = 2.4
12 Gulf of Paria, W.I. Very soft 50-130 wL =115-150 - 0.02-0.22 - Appears to be un
Gershowitz and Liao grey clay IP = 50-100 consolidated
(1972)

Stiff grey 30-80 wL =80-90 - 0.49-1.12 - Exist in over consolidated

clay IP = 50 state

33
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
13 New Jersey coast Plastic clay 50-70 wL =50-100 - 0.5-0.89 - Depicts apparent over
Koutsoftas and wP =25-50 consolidation behaviour
Fischer (1976) IP = 25-55

Silty clay 30-50 wL =25-50 - 0.27-0.64 - Depicts apparent over

wP =15-25 consolidation behaviour
IP = 10-30

14 Bombay High Extremely 80-105 - - 0-0.2 - Presence of carbonate

soft clay increases strength
(a) Aggarwal et al Stiff grey 35-50 wL =55-75 22-84 0.73-1.71 - Increase strength of clays
(1977) clay wP =15-40

Calcareous 10-25 - 39-96 - - For soils containing higher

sity fine carbonate content stress
sand strain behaviour show the
effect of cementation
(b) Katti et al (1978) Soft grey - - - 0.002-0.04 0.6-1.0 -
marine clay

Medium to - - - 0.99 0.4-0.57 Exists in normally

stiff grey consolidated state
marine clay

Calcareous - - - 0.24 0.25 Evidence of appreciable

fine dense cementation by calcareous
sand or silt material
with clay
lenses

34
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
(c) Bhavani-Shankar Clay 93-120 wL =86-92 - 0.03-0.06 0.63-1.0 Depicts apparent over
Rao and Pranesh IP = 40-48 consolidation behaviour
(1978)
15 Off West Coast of Clayey silt - wL =94 51 Su √Po= 0.25 - Exist in normally
India Datta et al wP =50 consolidated state
(1981) IP = 44

16 Arabian Gulf Alluvial - IP = 25-35 - 0.2-0.66 Depicts apparent over

(marine clay) marine clay Su √Po= 0.3- consolidation behaviour
Hanzawa and 2.00
Kishida (1981)
Hanzawa et al (1980)
17 North east Nebraka Pierre shale 23-28 wL =50-140 0.6-64 - - Exhibit apparent over
(marine clay) Ladd wP =15-50 consolidation behaviour
and Mckown IP = 30-100

35