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Basics of MINING METHOD AND EXTRACTION EQUIPMENT PRODUCTIVITY
Basics of MINING METHOD AND EXTRACTION EQUIPMENT PRODUCTIVITY
Basics of
MINING METHOD AND
EXTRACTION EQUIPMENT PRODUCTIVITY
Notes:
- Pictures of the equipment are from the Mining Magazine [7, 17, and 25].
- Equipment :( explanations, equations and diagrams) ]7,14,17and25[.
-Drilling and Blasting, (definitions, equations and Diagrams [5, 19].
1-Surface mine:
It is a complex of excavations, constructions and equipment at the surface of the
earth to exploit a given deposit or a part of it.
2- Bench:
It is the part of an ore body, or the overburdens, in the surface mine, having a
working zone, in the form of a step and worked by the same complex of mine
machinery.
3- Semi-bench:
It is the part of the bench separated and loaded by a certain complex of machinery,
but transported in combination with other parts.
4- Slope:
It is the inclined plane determining the bench in the direction of extraction, or removal
works.
5- Edge:
It is the edge of the bench, the intersection of the slope plane with the horizontal
platforms, both upper and lower.
6- Safety berms:
It is a platform with a small width, at the idle side of the surface mine, to strengthen
its side and to prevent the falling of rock or ore.
7- Working zone:
It is the group of working benches in the mine, working at the same time.
8-Working side:
It is the side a long which mining works are carried out.
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II-Stages of Surface Mining and Development Order
1- The fertile soil layer is removed separately from the rock and utilized for
reclamation.
5- Open cast mining is organized in a way, which preserves the conditions of surface
water run-off (rivers, streams).
2- Drainage of the rock massif and reinforcement of the flank portions of the massif.
4- The final stage associated with depletion of mineral reserves, and the necessity to
change to underground mining if it profitable is called the stage of extinction of
mining work; it may sometimes continue for a few years.
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III- Methods of Mining
Power shovel
or loader
Single bucket loaders are designed to perform as extraction, loading, and extraction-
haulage or as auxiliary equipment. They are usually operated in set with truck
transportation. The buckets of loaders have a solid lip or teeth to excavate solid
blasted rocks. Loaders can be fitted with up to 30 change attachments such as
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buckets of various capacities, a shovel or back-hoe, a grader, a bucket to haul
stones, a dozer blade. The shape and performance schematics for loaders are
illustrated in Figure 4.1.
1- Figure 4.1 (a): Turning the rubber tyred loader through 30-40 degrees and
approaching a dump truck. Most widely applied in longitudinal faces and
when wide cuts are carried out in end faces to ensure a minimum loader
travel.
2- Figure 4.1 (b): The same as above, but the material is dumped into two
dump trucks. This permits a wider operating plate form at any face and
width of the cut at end faces. Where the loader travels longer distances.
3- Figure 4.1 (c): Carrying out narrow cuts in an end faces and both in a
longitudinal and on end faces (crawler mounted and front-end dumping
loader) also with running of the dump trucks on a longitudinal bench.
4- Figure 4.1 (d): Shuttle type 5-10 m. motion of a rear-end dumping loader.
Dump trucks are placed at a distance of 8-13 m. from the face.
5- Figure 4.1 (e): Two turns of the loader and travel through a longer
distance, for end faces only in wider cuts.
6- Figure 4.1 (f): Side dumping wheeled loader or with a crawler mounted
loader turning through 90 degrees due to the shifting of its tracks in
opposite directions. The loader is backed up from the face through a
distance of 2-3 m.
Various methods of rock extraction with loaders are distinguished into the following
[14, 27, 28]
:
1- Selective:
To extract low-density loose rocks from a muck pile in three successive operations
(Figure 4.2, a) 1, 2 and 3 respectively, where the bucket is introduced along the toe
of the face into the rock till the rear wall of the bucket comes to the bear against the
rock (Figure 4.2-a1), then the bucket is turned through the entire tipping angle
(Figure 4.2-a2), then lifting the filled bucket (Figure 4.2-a3).
2- Combined:
The crowding force of the loader introduces the bucket into the rock at the face toe to
a depth of (0.2-0.5) Ib, where the (Ib) is the length of the bucket, the simultaneously,
the boom is lifted and the bucket is turned with the loader in a continuous transitional
motion (Figure 4.2-b). Rocks of the lower excavation ability (i.e. of higher strength)
are extracted introducing the bucket into the ground to depth of 0.3 I b and lifted
simultaneously (Figure 4.2-c). The case of Figure 4.2-d. is for coherent rocks
blasted to medium lump size, where the bucket is introduced into the material
stopping it and lifting the front part of the loader .
3- In slices:
For thin horizontal or inclined extraction slices, the bucket is gradually filled during
the continuous motion of the loader. The method is shown in Figure 4.2-e.
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Quarrying loader
41
Figure 4.2: The various methods of rock extraction with loaders.
3600 x E x K
QTF ------------(4.1)
Tef
The loader loads the ore from the face, and transfers the ore to the crushing unit,
then returns back to the face to repeat the cycle.
But in the case of annual production is 500,000, and 250,000 m 3, the needed
numbers of loaders with capacity 32 m3/hr are four and two respectively.
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Hydraulic jackhammers, due to increasing power and reliability coupled with strict
environmental conditions of noise and dusts have been playing a more prominent
role in the mining and quarry operations. Before hydraulic hammers were almost
always employed for secondary breaking-typically for clearing blockages in tips and
primary crushers. It is now common to find hydraulic hammers in use for primary rock
bearing which was previously reserved for blasting or drill and blast techniques.
Hydraulic breakers are becoming increasingly popular in the quarrying sector, for
primary mining as they offer a number of operating advantages over the more
conventional methods of drilling and blasting. The shape of hydraulic jackhammer is
shown in Figure 4.3. and the mechanism of working is illustrated in Figure 4.4.
The hydraulic hammers are classified according to the power as the following:
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Figure 4.4: The mechanism of working.
1- Selective quarrying:
Most rock deposits contain a variety of different rock grades. During blasting these
various grades are mixed together and can no longer be separated. The quality of
the mining operation is diminished. Selective mining can be achieved in this case
using hydraulic hammers, which means that the available deposit can be exploited
more successfully.
3- Continuous mining:
Blasting necessitates frequent interruptions to quarrying operations. Hydraulic
hammers, on the other hand, can be used continuously; the only interruptions being
for necessary maintenance work.
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system. The advantage to the quarry operator in the truck haulage is no longer
necessary.
2- Hydraulic hammers are for breaking and for ripping. Any attempt to rip may cause
the breakage of the working tool. When it comes to ripping, a tractor fitted with a
ripping tool is to be used.
6- Working tools may be sharpened from time to time. No other treatment is allowed.
10- Productivity is from 100 to 600 tons / hr; in sandstone quarry it is about 200
tons / hr.
Where:
T = time of inserting hammer and lifting it up, assume 5 sec.
C = distance between horizontal line of breaking, assume one meter.
He = depth of inserting the hammer, assume 25 cm.
Ku = coefficient of the hydraulic hammer, assume 0.2.
L = length of working face, assume 3 m.
VM = velocity of breaking, assume 2 m/sec.
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P = 83 m3/hr
P ≈ 200 tons / hr
1000000 m 3
2.52 3 Jack hammers
83m 3 per hour x 8 hrs per shift x 2 shifts per day x 300 days per year
The height of the face in soft rocks must not exceed the maximum digging height of
the powershovel, to prevent the formation of over hanging rocks. The minimum face
height ensuring filling of the bucket per single bucket digging should not be less than
2/3 of the height of the crowding shaft of the powershovel. The position of the power
shovel with respect to the face and width of the cut is determined by the excavation
ability of the rock and kind of haulage equipment. The shape of power shovel is
shown in Figure 4.5. The mechanism of power shovel working is shown in Figure
4.6.
Where,
Hdg max is the maximum digging height of the powershovel.
For coherent-loose fine broken and free running rock of average lump size are
extracted from faces of height:
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Power shovel mechanism
For coherent rocks and rocks of large lump size H F less than or equal Hdg max,
according to Mine safety regulation (M.S.R.).
[17]
Figure 4.5: The shape of power shovel .
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Bc = bucket capacity , assume 2.2 m3.
NC = number of excavation cycles.
KF = coefficient of filling of the bucket, assume, 0.9.
KS = coefficient of swelling = 1.1 to 1.3.
NC = (3600)/TC -------------------------------(4.6)
Where,
TC = is the time per one cycle; second
TC =(T1 + T2 + T3 + T4 + T5 + T6 + T7)/ Bc
T1 = time of filling, assume15 Sec.
T2 = time to raise the bucket to the unloading level, assume 10 sec.
T3 = swing time, assume 15 sec.
T4 = time to open the bucket and unload, assume 15 sec.
T5 = swing time back to the excavation face, assume 10 sec.
T6 = time to lower the bucket to the initial level of excavation, assume 10 sec.
T7 = stopping during the cycle, assume 30 sec.
I = interference between the above intervals of the cycle time = 1.15-1.3
Sec.
Tc = 105 sec/m3
Nc = 34.29 ≈ 35
P = 53.3 ≈ 54 m3/hr.
Four power shovels with a capacity of 54 m3/hr for a million m3 annual production
assuming 8 hours per shift, 2 shifts per day and 300 days per year are needed.
1000000 m 3
3.86 4 shovels
54 m 3 per hour x 8 hrs per shift x 2 shifts per day x 300 days per year
Quarrying trucks could be used when the distance between the face and crushing
and screening unit is more than 2000 meters, the loader can not be economic in this
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case due to its low speed and small bucket capacity. Figure 4.7 shows the quarrying
truck.
Cycle Time:
TC = time per cycle of truck = T1 + T2 + T3 + T4
V1 = velocity of loaded truck inside the mine = 15 km/hr= 4.67 m/sec.
V2 = velocity of empty truck inside the mine= 20 km/hr= 5.56 m/sec.
T1 = time of a truck for going and return = L1 /V1 + L1 / V2
= 428 + 360 = 788 sec
T2 = time of loading =266 sec
T3 = time of unloading = 30 sec.
T4 = time of maneuvering = 30 sec.
L1 = distance of transportation inside the mine = 2000 m
TC = 788 + 266 + 30 + 30 = 1114 sec.
Productivity of trucks Qa
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Figure 4.7: The shape quarrying truck.
Two trucks with a capacity of 20 m3/hr for a million m3 annual production assuming 8
hours per shift, 2 shifts per day and 300 days per year are needed.
1000000 m 3
1.7 2 Trucks
124 m 3 per hour x 8 hrs per shift x 2 shifts per day x 300 days per year
The number of trucks needed for maintenance and other uses to produce 1000,000.
500,000, and 250,000 m3/year are three, two and two respectively.
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Figure 4.8: The shape of dozer.
The dozer can be used to extract rock from a plate form, longitudinal and end-slope
of a bench or from a muck pile. It is expedient to excavate from inclined faces, cutting
off and moving the rock. The operating cycle of dozer consists in cutting off a
horizontal or inclined slice from the ground, forming a dragging prism, moving the
prism, dumping and returning back to excavate. Approximate value of resistance to
rock cutting kg/cm2 (kfc) and density kg /cm3 (Yc), assumed in the design of the
bulldozer traction forces, are shown in Table 4.2.
3600 V k1
PB m3 / hr--------------(4.8)
Tc k p
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Assuming the values in this equation as follows:
H2 L
V -----------(4.9)
2 tan
1.8 2 x 4.75
V = 13.3 m3
2 tan 30
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A- Introduction
Explosives are chemical compounds or mechanical mixtures, which can explode
from some internal impulse, such as, heating, spark or jolt or detonator. This means
that rapidly change of explosive into other chemical compounds, liberating heat and
forming gases, which can do mechanical work. The extremely rapid liberation of
energy in this chemical transformation of explosives, accompanied by liberation of
heat and formation of hot, expanding compressed gas, is known as an explosion. It
does mechanical work and transmits explosion waves to the surrounding materials.
The nitrogen is an integral component of high explosives composition, which is
suitable in air as a gas, but in the contrary when it is combined with other elements it
becomes very active. Also, oxygen is present in all explosives as nitrates (NO 3), and
perchlorate (ClO4). In addition hydrogen and carbon are also present [5].
B-I- Strength
B-II- Density
The density is stated in gm/cm3, or kg/dm3. It is known as a weight of explosive, but in
practice; the loading density is more effective, which is the weight of explosive per
unit length of the borehole. The explosive density varies from 0.5 to 1.7 kg/dm 3.
Explosives with high density elaborate high energy; therefore the borehole must be
highly compacted.
B-IV- Sensitivity
The explosive is sensitive, if it is blasted by shock, therefore it is dangerous in
handling. Dynamites are more sensitive than ANFO.
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B-VII- Pressure of the Wave Top
The pressure at the top of the detonation wave is proportional with the velocity of
detonation and square of density. The pressure varies from 500-1500 Pascal,
(Pascal=N/m2).
C-II-ANFO
It is non-waterproof. It contains ammonium nitrate and small amount of fuel oil. It
costs ¼ of nitroglycerin-based explosive. Its undesirable characteristics are:
C-III-Powder
These are ammonium nitrate dynamite that is intended to replace the more costly
gelatin dynamite used in quarrying. Table 4.2 shows the characteristics of Egyptian
Dynamites used, as the dynamites are expensive then powder 16/250 can be used.
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T= Stemming
D-I-1 Diameter (D) The diameter can be selected according to the equipment
available and bench height (K) as it is given in Table 4.3.
Table 4.3: Hole diameter (D) vs. (k) and equipment. ]19[.
Heavy drill machine can be selected here with diameter of 89 mm and the bench
height of 10 m. Rotary percussive drill is highly recommended.
In massive hard rocks holes having diameter (88-127 mm) and spacing (2.4 - 4.6 m),
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result in better fragmentation than holes diameter (177-228 mm) and spacing (5-7
m ) at the same ratio In massive hard rocks holes having diameter (88-127 mm) and
spacing (2.4 - 4.6 m), result in better fragmentation than holes diameter (177-228
mm)and spacing (5-7 m ) at the same ratio of explosives to rock tonnage. The hole
inclination is adjusted according to the hole diameter as follows:
Once the diameter D is determined the maximum and practical burden can be
determined.
D-I-2 Burden
Burden may be classified to maximum burden and practical burden.
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(E1) may be determined as follows:
E1 = B / N.S.C.
E1 = 100/25 = 4 m.
Where,
B = bench width, where there are multi rows blasting holes = 100 m
N.S.C. = Number of spacing complete. = B/E1 = 100/4 = 25
(g) = (NH)/V1KB
Where,:
K = bench height.
U = sub drilling = 0.3 V max. = 0.3 x 4 = 1.2 m
H = hole depth. = ( K + U ) = 10 + 1.2= 11.2 m
N = number of holes / row = N.S.C. + 1. = 25 + 1 = 26 holes / row
D-I-5 Charge Q
The charge per hole consists of bottom charge Qb and column charge Qc.
Bottom Charge
Bottom charge has a height hb and concentration, Ib.
D 2 PS
Ib = = 0.785 D2 P S
4
Where,
D = hole diameter, m.
P = charge concentration, kg/dm3.
S = weight strength relative Dinamex (DM).
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Ib for ANFO at compacting degree 15 % = 7.85 x0.89 2 x 0.65 x 0.76 x
1.15 = 3.5 kg/m
Column charge
Column charge has height hp and concentration Ip.
Where,
hp= column charge height, m.
Ip = charge concentration. Kg/m.
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Total charge (Q)
Q can be determined as follows:
Q = Qb + Qp = 18 + 2.1 = 20.1 kg
Where,
N = number of holes/ row.
Q = total charge/hole. kg.
V1 = practical burden, m.
K = bench height, m.
B = bench width, m.
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