Slides PSBook2006 Revised July2007 PDF

First Course on
POWER SYSTEMS
Ned Mohan
Oscar A. Schott Professor of Power Electronics and Systems
Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering
University of Minnesota
Minneapolis, MN 55455
USA
© Copyright Ned Mohan 2006 1

A 345-kV Example System
Bus-1 Bus-3
200km
P + jQ
Pm1 Pe1 150km
150km
Bus-2
Pe 2
Pm 2

TOPICS IN POWER SYSTEMS
Week Book Chapters Laboratory
1 Chapter 1: Overview Lab 1: Visit to a local substation; otherwise a

Chapter 2: Fundamentals virtual substation
2 Chapter 3: Energy Sources Lab 2: Introduction to PSCAD/EMTDC; 3-

phase circuits, vars, power-factor correction
3 Chapter 4: Transmission Lines Lab 3: Transmission Lines using PSCAD-
EMTDC
4 Chapter 5: Power Flow Lab 4: Power Flow using MATLAB and
PowerWorld
5 Chapter 6: Transformers Lab 5: Including Transformers in Power Flow
using PowerWorld and MATLAB
6 Chapter 7: HVDC, FACTS Lab 6: Power Converters and HVDC using
PSCAD-EMTDC, HVDC in PowerWorld
7 Chapter 8: Distribution Systems Lab 7: Power Quality using PSCAD-EMTDC
8 Chapter 9: Synchronous Lab 8: Synchronous Generators and AVR

Generators using PSCAD-EMTDC.
9 Chapter 10: Voltage Stability Lab 9: Voltage Regulation using PowerWorld
10 Chapter 11: Transient Stability Lab 10: Transient Stability using MATLAB
11 Chapter 12: Interconnected Lab 11: AGC using Simulink, and Economic
Systems, Economic Dispatch Dispatch using PowerWorld
12 Chapter 13: Short-Circuit Lab 12: Transmission Line Faults using
Faults, Relays, Circuit Breakers PowerWorld and MATLAB
13 Chapter 14: Transient Over- Lab 13: Over-voltages and Surge Arrestors
Voltages, Surge Arrestors, using PSCAD-EMTDC
Insulation Coordination

Chapter 1
POWER SYSTEMS: A CHANGING

LANDSCAPE

NATURE OF POWER SYSTEMS
Fig. 1-1 Interconnected North American Power Grid [2].

Control Areas
Fig. 1-2 NERC Interconnections [3]. Source: NERC.

One-line Diagram
Step up
Transformer
Generator
Transmission 13.8 kV
line
Feeder
Load
Fig. 1-3 One-line diagram as an example.

CHANGING LANDSCAPE OF POWER SYSTEMS AND UTILITY
DEREGULATION
(a) ( b)
Fig. 1-4 Changing landscape [4]. Source: ABB.

CHAPTER 2
REVIEW OF BASIC
ELECTRIC CIRCUITS AND
ELECTROMAGNETIC
CONCEPTS

Symbols and
Conventions
vab
a + − b
+ i +
va vb
− −
Fig. 2-1 Convention for voltages and currents.

Phasors
Imaginary
positive
angles
V = V ∠0 Real
−φ
I = I∠ − φ
Fig. 2-2 Phasor diagram.

Phasor Analysis
i( t ) I
Im jX L
jω L = j X L − jX c
+ L +
v( t )
V = V ∠0
= 2V cos( ω t ) − R
− R Z
⎛ 1 ⎞
− j⎜ ⎟ = − j XC R Re
C ⎝ω C ⎠ 0
(a ) (b) (c)
Fig. 2-3 A circuit (a) in time-domain and (b) in phasor-domain; (c) impedance triangle.

Example of Impedance
Calculation
j 0.1 Ω
− j5 Ω 2Ω
Fig. 2-4 Impedance network of Example 2-1.

Example of Impedance
Calculation
0.3Ω j 0.5 Ω j 0.2 Ω
+
I1
V1 7.0Ω
j15 Ω
Im I2
−
Fig. 2-5 Circuit of Example 2-2.

Power Flow
+
Subcircuit 1 v (t ) Subcircuit 2
−
p (t ) = v (t ) i (t )
Figure 2-6 A generic circuit divided into two sub-circuits.

Real and Reactive
Power
p (t ) average φ /ω
power v(t ) p (t ) average
power
0 t 0
t
v (t )
i (t ) i (t )
(a ) ( b)
Figure 2-7 Instantaneous power with sinusoidal currents and voltages.

P, Q and VA by Phasors
I
+
Subcircuit 1 V Subcircuit 2
−
S = P + jQ
(a)
Im
Im S
V = V ∠φv Q
φ Re
φ
I = I ∠φi P Re
(b) (c)
Fig. 2-8 (a) Circuit in phasor-domain; (b) phasor diagram; (c) power triangle.

Example of Power Factor
Correction
P = PL
+
V1 − jQC
PL + jQL
− j13.963 Ω
−
Fig. 2-9 Power factor correction in Example 2-5.

One-line Diagram
Step up
Transformer
Generator
Transmission 13.8 kV
line
Feeder
Load
Fig. 2-10 One-line diagram of a three-phase transmission and distribution system.

Three-Phase Voltages
van (t ) vbn (t ) vcn (t ) a −b−c
Vcn
positive
sequence
0 120°
ωt 120° Van
120°
Vbn ( b)
2π 2π
3 3
(a )
Fig. 2-11 Three-phase voltages in time and phasor domain.

Balanced Three-Phase
Circuit Analysis
Ia a Ia
a
+
V an − ZL +
V an
ZL
− In
V cn − n − V bn N V cn − n − V bn N
+ + + +
c
Ib b c Ib b
Ic Ic
(a) (b)
Fig. 2-12 Balanced wye-connected, three-phase circuit.

Per-Phase Analysis
Ia V cn
a a Ic
+
V an
V an φ
− Ib
n Ia
(Hypothetical) N
V bn
(a) (b)
Fig. 2-13 Per-phase circuit and the corresponding phasor diagram.

Balanced Mutual
Coupling
Ia Z self
a Z aA
A a A
Z mutual
Ib Z self Z mutual
b B
Z mutual
Ic Z self (Hypothetical)
c C
(a) ( b)
Fig. 2-14 Balanced three-phase network with mutual couplings.

Line-Line Voltages
Vcn
−Vb
Vca Vab
30 o
Van
Vbn
Vbc
Fig. 2-15 Line-to-line voltages in a three-phase circuit.

Wye-Delta
Transformation
Ia
Ia a a
ZΥ
ZΔ I ab Z Δ
I ca
Ibc ZΥ ZΥ
c b c
ZΔ b
(a) (b)
Fig. 2-16 Delta-wye transformation.

Power Flow in AC
Systems
I
Vs
jX
+ + jXI
δ
Vs VR φ VR
I
− −
( b)
(a )
Fig. 2-17 Power transfer between two ac systems.

Power-Angle Diagram
P / Pmax
1.0
0.5
0 0 0
δ
90 180
Fig. 2-18 Power as a function of δ .

Per Unit Quantities
Vbase
Rbase , Xbase , Zbase = (in Ω) (2-48)
Ibase
Ibase
Gbase , Bbase ,Ybase = (in ) (2-49)
Vbase
Pbase ,Qbase ,(VA)base =Vbase Ibase (in Watt, VAR, or VA) (2-50)
In terms of these base quantities, the per-unit quantities can be specified as
actual value
Per-UnitValue = (2-51)
base value

Energy Efficiency of
Apparatus
Pin Power Po
System
Apparatus
Ploss
Fig. 2-19 Energy Efficiency η = Po / Pin .

Electro-Magnetic
Concepts:
Ampere’s Law
dl
H
i3
i1
i2
(a) (b) (c)

Fig. 2-20 Ampere’s Law.

Example of a Toroid
rm
ID ID
OD OD
(a) (b)
Fig. 2-21 Example 2-9.

B-H Curves in
Ferromagnetic Materials
Bm Bm
μo
Bsat
μm
μo
Hm Hm
(a) (b)
Fig. 2-22 B-H characteristic of ferromagnetic materials.

Flux and Flux-Density
Am
φm
Fig. 2-23 Toroid with flux φm .

Inductance
Am
i φm ⎛N⎞
× ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟
×(μm) ×(Am) ×(N)
i ⎝ Am ⎠ Hm Bm φm λm
N
N2
Lm =
Am
μmAm
μm
(a) (b)
Fig. 2-24 Coil inductance.

Example of a Toroid
r
w
Fig. 2-25 Rectangular toroid.

Faraday’s Law
φ (t )
i (t )
+
e (t ) N
−
Fig. 2-26 Voltage polarity and direction of flux and current.

Plot of time-varying Flux
and Voltage
e(t ) φ (t )
0 t
Fig. 2-27 Example 2-11.

Leakage Flux
φm
i
+ i
e +
e φl
−
−
(a) (b)
Fig. 2-28 Including leakage flux.

Representation of Leakage
Flux by Leakage
Inductance
φm
di
i (t ) Ll
+ dt − i (t )
R Ll
+ Ll + + + +
v(t ) e(t ) em (t )
e(t ) em (t ) Lm − − −
− −
(a) (b)
Fig. 2-29 Analysis including the leakage flux.

CHAPTER 3
ELECTRIC ENERGY AND

THE ENVIRONMENT

Energy Consumption and
Production in the U.S.
(a) (b)
Fig. 3-1 Production and consumption of energy in the United States in 2004 [1].

Power Generation by
Various Fuel Types in the
U.S.
Fig. 3-2 Electric power generation by various fuel types in the U.S. in 2005 [1].

Hydro Power Generation
Water
H Penstock
Generator
Turbine
Fig. 3-3 Hydro power (Source: www.bpa.gov).

Rankine Thermodynamic
Cycle in Coal Plants
Steam at High pressure
Heat in
Boiler Turbine Gen
Pump Condenser Heat out
Fig. 3-4 Rankine thermodynamic cycle in coal-fired power plants.
Visit the following website for Power Plant Animations:

http://www.cf.missouri.edu/energy/?fun=1&flash=ppmap

Brayton Cycle in Gas
Turbines
Fuel in
Combustion
Compressor Chamber
Turbine
Air in Exhaust
Fig. 3-5 Brayton thermodynamic cycle in natural-gas power plants.

Nuclear Power Plant
Types
(a ) ( b)
Fig. 3-6 (a) BWR and (b) PWR reactors [5].
Visit the following websites for Nuclear Power Plant Animations:

PWR: http://www.nrc.gov/reading-rm/basic-ref/students/animated-pwr.html
BWR: http://www.nrc.gov/reading-rm/basic-ref/students/animated-bwr.html

Wind Resources in the
U.S.
Fig. 3-7 Wind-resource map of the United States [6].

Coefficient of
Performance
Fig. 3-8 c p as a function of λ [7]; these would vary based on the turbine design.

Wind Generation using an
Induction Generator
Connected Directly to the
AC Grid
Induction
Generator
Wind Utility
Turbine
Fig. 3-9 Induction generator directly connected to the grid [8].

Wind Generation using a Doubly-Fed
Induction Generator
Wound rotor
Induction Generator
AC DC
Wind
Turbine DC AC
Generator-side Grid-side
Converter Converter
Fig. 3-10 Doubly-fed, wound-rotor induction generator [9].

Wind Generation using an AC
Generator Connected through Power
Electronics
Power Electronics Interface
Gen Conv1 Conv 2
Utility
Fig. 3-11 Power Electronics connected generator [10].

Photovoltaics
Fig. 3-12 PV cell characteristics [11].

Interfacing PV with AC
Grid
Isolated
PWM
DC-DC
Converter
Converter
Utility
Max. Power- 1φ
point Tracker
Fig. 3-13 Photovoltaic systems.

Fuel Cells
Maximum Theoretical Voltage
Open 1.4 -
Circuit - Δgƒ - 1200
Voltage E=
2F
1.2 -
Activation - 1000
Cell Power ( PC in mW )
Losses
Cell Voltage ( VC in Volts )
1-
- 800
Ohmic
0.8 - Losses
- 600
0.6 -
Cell Power
PC= VC x i Mass - 400
0.4 - Transport
Losses
- 200
0.2 -
0 -| | | | | -0
0 500 1000 1500 2000
Current Density ( i in mA/cm2 )
Fig. 3-14 Fuel cell v-i relationship and cell power [12].

Greenhouse Effect
Fig. 3-15 Greenhouse effect [13].

Resource mix
XcelEnergy
6
1
5
2
3
4 1
4
3 5
6
2
Fig. 3-16 Resource mix at XcelEnergy [14].

Fuel Costs in the U.S. in
2005
Fig. 3-17 Electric power industry fuel costs in the U.S. in 2005 [1].

CHAPTER 4
AC TRANSMISSION LINES
AND UNDERGROUND
CABLES

Transmission Tower,
Conductor and Bundling
(b)
© Copyright Ned Mohan 2006 (a ) (c) 59

Fig. 4-1 500-kV transmission line (Source: University of Minnesota EMTP course).
Transposition
a
D2
D1 b
D3
c
1 cycle
(a ) (b)
Fig. 4-2 Transposition of transmission lines.

Distributed Parameters
line
line R L
C
neutral (zeroimpedance)
Fig. 4-3 Distributed parameter representation on a per-phase basis.

Calculation of
Transmission Line
Resistance: Skin Effect
J
T
D
surface towards center
(a ) ( b)
Fig. 4-4 (a) Cross-section of ACSR conductors, (b) skin-effect in a solid conductor.

Calculation of
Transmission Line
Inductance
c c c
ic
a b a b b
r D
ia r ib ia x
dx a x
ib
D D dx
(a ) (b) (c)
Fig. 4-5 Flux linkage with conductor-a.

Electric Field Due to
Transmission Line Voltage
x
x1 1 2
q
x2
Fig. 4-6 Electric field due to a charge.

Calculation of Transmission Line
Capacitance
c c
qc
C hypothetical
neutral
qa qb C n C
a b
a b
D
(a ) ( b)
Fig. 4-7 Shunt capacitances.

Typical Parameters for various
Voltage Transmission Lines
Table 4-1
Transmission Line Parameters with Bundled Conductors (except at 230 kV)
at 60 Hz [2, 6]
Nominal Voltage R (Ω / km ) ω L (Ω / km ) ωC ( μ / km )
230 kV 0.055 0.489 3.373
345 kV 0.037 0.376 4.518
500 kV 0.029 0.326 5.220
765 kV 0.013 0.339 4.988

Calculating Transmission
Line Parameters using
EMTDC
Fig. 4-8 A 345-kV, single-conductor per phase, transmission system.

Distributed-Parameter
Representation
I x ( s)
I S ( s) R sL I R (s)
+ + +
1
VS ( s ) Vx ( s ) VR ( s )
sC
− − −
x 0
Fig. 4-9 Distributed per-phase transmission line ( G not shown).

Voltage Profile under
SIL
IS jω L
IR
+ + VS VR
1
VS −j Zc V R = V R ∠0
ωC
− −
x
(a ) ( b) 0
Fig. 4-10 Per-phase transmission line terminated with a resistance equal to Z c .

Typical Surge Impedances and SIL
for various Voltage Transmission
Lines
Table 4-2
Surge Impedance and Three-Phase Surge Impedance Loading [2, 6]
Nominal Voltage Z c (Ω) SIL ( MW )
230 kV 375 140 MW
345 kV 280 425 MW
500 kV 250 1000 MW
765 kV 255 2300 MW

Loadability of
Transmission Lines
Table 4-3
Loadability of Transmission Lines [6]
Line Length (km) Limiting Factor Multiple of SIL
0 - 80 Thermal >3
80 - 240 5% Voltage Drop 1.5 - 3
240 - 480 Stability 1.0 – 1.5

Long-Line
Representation
I S ( s) Z series I R (s)
+ +
VS ( s ) Yshunt Yshunt
VR ( s )
2 2
− −
Fig. 4-11 Long line representation.

Transmission Line
Representations
IS Z series IS Rline jω Lline IS Rline jω Lline
IR IR IR
+ + + 2 + + +
−j
VS Yshunt Yshunt VR VS
ωCline
2 VR VS VR
2 2 −j
− − − ωCline − − −
(a ) ( b) (c )
Fig. 4-12 Per-phase transmission line representation based on length.

Underground Cables
Fig. 4-13 Underground cable.

CHAPTER 5
POWER FLOW IN
POWER SYSTEM
NETWORKS

Three-Bus Example Power
System
Bus 1 Bus 3
200km
150km 150km P + jQ
Slack Bus PQ Bus
PV Bus
Bus 2
Fig. 5-1 A three-bus 345-kV example system.

Transmission Lines in
Example Power System
Table 5-1 Per-Unit Values in the Example System
Line Series Impedance Z in Ω (pu) Total Susceptance B in μ (pu)
1-2 Z12 = (5.55 + j56.4) Ω = (0.0047 + j 0.0474) pu BTotal = 675μ = (0.8034) pu
1-3 Z13 = (7.40 + j 75.2) Ω = (0.0062 + j 0.0632) pu BTotal = 900μ = (1.0712) pu
2-3 Z 23 = (5.55 + j56.4) Ω = (0.0047 + j 0.0474) pu BTotal = 675μ = (0.8034) pu

Calculating Y-Bus in the
Bus 1 Bus 3
Z13
V1 V3
Z12 Z 23
I1 I3
Bus 2 V2
I2
Fig. 5-2 Example system of Fig. 5-1 for assembling Y-bus matrix.

Newton-Raphson
Procedure
4 − x2
4
2
x (2) x (1)
x (0)
0
0.5 1.0 1.5 2 3.0 3.5 4.0 x
−2
−4
−6
−8
−10
−12
Fig. 5-3 Plot of 4 − x 2 as a function of x .

Power Flow Results in the
V1 = 1∠00 pu V3 = 0.978∠-8.79 0 pu
( 2.39 + j 0.29 ) pu
( 0.69 - j1.11) pu
P1 + jQ1 = (3.08 - j 0.82) pu ( 5.0 + j1.0 ) pu
( 2.68 + j1.48) pu
V2 = 1.05∠-2.07 0 pu
P2 + jQ2 = ( 2.0 + j 2.67) pu
Fig. 5-4 Power-Flow results of Example 5-4.

CHAPTER 6
TRANSFORMERS IN POWER
SYSTEMS

Transformer Principle:
Generation of Flux
φm
+ + im
e1
N1
− Lm
e1
(a) (b)
Fig. 6-1 Principle of transformers, beginning with just one coil.

Core in Transformers
Bm Bm
μo
Bsat
μm
μo
Hm Hm
(a) (b)
Fig. 6-2 B-H characteristics of ferromagnetic materials.

Flux Coupling
φm
+ + im +
e1
N1
− e1
Lm e2
N2
−
−
N1 N2
+
e2 Ideal
− Transformer
(a) (b)
Fig. 6-3 Transformer with the open-circuited second coil.

Transformer with Load
Connected to the
Secondary
φm i1 (t ) i2′ (t ) i2 (t )
i1 (t )
+
e1 + im +
N1
−
Lm e2
N2 e1
i2 (t ) −
−
+ N1 N2
e2 −
Ideal
Transformer
(a) (b)
Fig. 6-4 Transformer with load connected to the secondary winding.

Transformer Model
I1 R1 jX l1 I 2' jX l 2 R2 I2
+ im
+ + +
Rhe jX m
V1 E1 E2 V2
− − − −
N1 N2
Ideal Transformer
Real Transformer
Fig. 6-5 Transformer equivalent circuit including leakage impedances and core losses.

Eddy Current and
Hysteresis Losses
φm
circulating
circulating currents
currents
i
φm
(a) (b)
Fig. 6-6 Eddy currents in the transformer core.

Transformer Simplified
Model
Ip Is
Zp 1: n
Zs
+ + +
Vp Vs′ n p ns Vs
− − −
Fig. 6-7 Simplified transformer model.

Transferring Leakage
Impedances from One Side
to Another
Ip Is
Z ps 1: n
+ +
Vp np ns Vs
− −
(a)
Ip Is
1: n Z sp
+ +
Vp np ns Vs
− −
( b)
Fig. 6-8 Transferring leakage impedances across the ideal transformer of the model.
Transformer Equivalent
Circuit in Per Unit
I (pu) I (pu)
Z tr (pu)
+ +
V p (pu) Vs (pu)
− −
Fig. 6-9 Transformer equivalent circuit in per unit (pu).

Connection of Transformer
Windings
(a ) (b)
Fig. 6-10 Winding connections in a three-phase system.

Including Nominal Turns-
Ratio Transformer in
Power Flow Studies
Bus 1 Bus 3
500 kV
345 / 500 kV 500 / 345kV
Fig. 6-11 Including nominal-voltage transformers in per-unit.

Auto-Transformer
I2
n2
+
I1 I2 +
+ +
V2
( I1 + I 2 ) −
V1 V2 + (V1 + V2 )
− I1
− n2
V1
n1
− n1 −
(a)
( b)
Fig. 6-12 Auto-transformer.

Phase-Shift Due to Wye-
Delta Transformers
n1 j 300
e : n2
3
a
Va + +
VA
A
n2 VA Va
B
n1
− −
C c b
(a ) (b) (c)
Fig. 6-13 Phase-shift in Δ -Y connected transformers.

Phase-Shift Control by
Transformers
a′
Va
Vab Va ′b′
a φ
Va′
Va
Vc′a′
c′ Vc′
Vca Vc
c b Vb′
Vb
Vbc ( c ) Vb′c′
(a ) b′ (b)
Fig. 6-14 Transformer for phase-angle control.

Three-Winding Auto-
Transformers
Z L (Ω)
a a′
A Z H (Ω)
H a′ a n2 L
L T B H n1
A
C n3 Z T (Ω) T
c b
(a ) C
( b)
Fig. 6-15 Three-winding auto-transformer.

General Representation of
Auto- and Phase-Shift
Transformers
I1 I2
+ + +
YA = 1/ Z A
V2
V1 V2
t
− − −
1: t
Fig. 6-16 General representation of an auto-transformer and a phase-shifter.

PU Representation of Off-
Nominal Turns-Ratio
Transformers
I1 Y = 1/ Z I2 I1 YA / t I2
A A
+ + + +
⎛ 1⎞
⎜ 1 − ⎟ YA
⎝ t⎠ V2
V1 V2 V1 ⎛ 1 1⎞
⎜ 2 − ⎟ YA
− − − ⎝t t⎠ −
1: t
(a ) (b)
Fig. 6-17 Transformer with an off-nominal turns-ratio or taps in per unit; t is real.

Example of Off-Nominal Turns-Ratio
Transformers
I1 j 0.1 pu I2
I1 Z s = j 0.11 pu I2
+ + +
+
Y1 = − j 0.909 pu
V1 V2 V2
V1
− − Y2 = j 0.826 pu
− −
1: t
(a ) (b)
Fig. 6-18 Transformer of Example 6-3.

CHAPTER 7
HIGH VOLTAGE DC (HVDC)

TRANSMISSION SYSTEMS

Symbols and Capabilities
of Power Semiconductor
Devices
108
Thyristor
Power (VA)
IGCT
106
IGBT
104
Thyristor IGCT IGBT MOSFET 102 MOSFET

(a)
101 102 103 104
Switching Frequency (Hz)
(b)
Fig. 7-1 Power semiconductor devices.

Power Semiconductor
Devices and Applications
104
Device current [A]

HVDC
Traction
103 FACTS
Power Motor
Supply Drive
102
Auto-
101 motive
Lighting
100
101 102 103 104
Device blocking voltage [V]
(a ) ( b)
Figure 7-2 Power semiconductor devices: (a) ratings (source: Siemens), (b) various
applications (source: ABB).

HVDC System
HVDC Line
AC1 AC2
Fig. 7-3 HVDC system – one-line diagram.

HVDC Systems: Voltage-
Link and Current-Link
−
AC1 AC2 AC1 AC2
(a ) (b)
Fig. 7-4 HVDC systems: (a) Current-Link, and (b) Voltage-Link.

HVDC Projects in North
America
2250MW
320MW
2000MW
150MW 350MW
1620MW 2138MW
312MW
370MW 200MW 690MW
500MW 1000MW
2000MW
200MW 1000MW
330MW
200MW
3100MW
100MW
200MW
1920MW
210MW
200MW 200MW
200MW 600MW
36MW
Fig. 7-5 HVDC projects, mostly current-link systems, in North America [source: ABB]

Current-Link HVDC
System
Fig. 7-6 Block diagram of a current-link HVDC system.

Thyristors
A
A P pn1
N pn2
(a) (b) G
G P
pn3
K N
Fig. 7-7 Thyristors.

Primitive Thyristor
Circuits
is
+ Ls
+
(a ) vs vd R
−
−
vd
Vd
0
ωt
α is α
vs
( b)
0
iG ωt
0
ωt = 0 ωt
Fig. 7-8 Thyristor circuit with a resistive load and a series inductance.

Three-Phase Thyristor
Converter
id
+ van ia
ia − + 1
van 1 3 5
− + 3 P
Ls 5
vbn +
n − +
vd n Id vd
4 −
vcn
− + 6
+
2 N
4 6 2
−
−
(a) (b)
Fig. 7-9 Three-phase Full-Bridge thyristor converter.

Three-Phase Diode
Rectifier Waveforms
va vb vc ia
120 o
vP 0 60 o
0 t ωt
ib
vN
0
(a) ωt
vd 2VLL ic
Vdo 0
0 t ωt
(b) (c)
Fig. 7-10 Waveforms in a three-phase rectifier with Ls = 0 and α = 0 .

Three-Phase Thyristor
Converter Waveforms with
zero AC-Side Inductance
van v Pn vbn vcn
Aα
0 ωt
α
v Nn
ia
1 1
0 ωt
4 4
ib
3
0 ωt
6 6
ic
5 5
0 ωt
2
© Copyright Ned Mohan 2006 Fig. 7-11 Waveforms with Ls = 0 . 111

Three-Phase Inverter
Waveforms
v Nn
van vbn vcn
0 ωt
α
vPn
ia 1
1
0 ωt
4 4
ib 3
3
0 ωt
6
ic
5
0 ωt
2
2
© Copyright Ned Mohan 2006Fig. 7-12 Waveforms in the inverter mode. 112
DC-Side Voltage as a
Function of Delay Angle
Vd Vd Rectifier
P = Vd I d = +
1800
0 0
90 0 0 α Id
160
Inverter
P = Vd I d = −
(a ) ( b)
Fig. 7-13 Average dc-side voltage as a function of α .

Thyristor Converter
Waveforms in the
Presence of AC-Side
Inductance
van v Pn vbn vcn
Au
0 ωt
u v Nn
ia
1 1
0 ωt
4 4
Fig. 7-14 Waveforms with Ls .

Power Factor Angle in
Rectifier and Inverter
Modes
Va Va
−φ1
I a1 −φ1
I a1
(a ) (b)
Fig. 7-15 Power-factor angle.

CU One-line Diagram

12-Pulse Waveforms
ia (Y − Y )
ia (Y − Δ )
(a ) ( b)
Fig. 7-17 Six-pulse and 12-pulse current and voltage waveforms [2].

HVDC System
Representation for Control
id
+ Rd Ld −
AC 1 vd 1 vd 2 AC 2
− +
Fig. 7-18 A pole of an HVDC system.

Control of HVDC
Converters
Inverter characteristic
Vd 1 with γ = γ min
Rectifier characteristic
in a current-control mode
0
I d , ref Id
Fig. 7-19 Control of an HVDC system [3].

A Voltage-Link HVDC
System in Northeastern
U.S.
Fig.Mohan
© Copyright Ned 7-20 Voltage-link
2006 HVDC transmission system [source: ABB]. 120
Voltage-Link HVDC
System Block Diagram
+
−
AC1 AC2
P1 , Q1 P2 , Q2
Fig. 7-21 Block diagram of voltage-link HVDC system.

Phasor Diagram on the Ac-
Side of the Voltage-Link
Converter
IL IL
Vconv
iL
+ + jX L I L −
+ vconv vbus + jX L I L
Vd Vconv Vbus
− L − − Vbus
IL
(a ) ( b) (c)
Fig. 7-22 Block diagram of a voltage-link converter and the phasor diagram.

Representation of Voltage-
Link Converter with Ideal
Transformers
a ida
+ b
c
ia
Vd
Vd +
− vaN
−
1: d a 1: d b 1: d c 1: d a
(a ) ( b)
Fig. 7-23 Synthesis of sinusoidal voltages.

Synthesis of “Average”
Sinusoidal Voltages
da
1
dˆa
0.5
0 ωt
vaN
Vd
Vˆa
0.5Vd
0 ωt
Fig. 7-24 Sinusoidal variation of turns-ratio d a .

Converter Output Voltages
and Voltages across the
Load
a
Vd
b vaN vbN vcN
c va
va vb vc 0.5Vd
ac-side
Vd Vd Vd
2 2 2
0 ωt
N
(a ) (a )
Fig. 7-25 Three-phase synthesis.

Switching Power-Pole of
Voltage-Link Converters
Buck Boost
+
ida ia
+
ia Vd
Vd
a +
+ vaN
vaN
− − − −
N
qa
qa qa−
(a) (b)
Fig. 7-26 Realization of the ideal transformer functionality.

Switching in Sinusoidal
“Average” Voltage
Waveform
vaN Vd
0 vaN
vaN
0 vaN ωt
0
Ts
(a )
Vh
f1 fs 2 fs 3 fs
( b)
Fig. 7-27 PWM to synthesize sinusoidal waveform.
CHAPTER 8
Distribution System, Loads

and Power Quality

Residential Distribution
System
±120V
House1
13.8kV ±120V
House2
Transformer
±120V
House 3
Fig. 8-1 Residential distribution system.

Daily Load and Load-
Duration Curves
peak
kW Load
(MW)
12 6 12 6 12
AM NOON PM percentage of the time
Time 0 100%
(a) (b)
Fig. 8-2 System load.

Utility Load Distribution
Lighting 19%
29%
Industrial
IT
36% 14%
35% Residential
Commercial
HVAC 16% Motors 51%
(a ) ( b)
Fig. 8-3 Utility loads.

Power Factor and Voltage
Sensitivity of Power
Systems Load
Table 8-1 Power Factor and Voltage Sensitivity of Power Systems Load
Type of Load Power Factor a = ∂P / ∂V b = ∂Q / ∂V

Electric Heating 1.0 2.0 0
Incandescent Lighting 1.0 1.5 0
Fluorescent Lighting 0.9 1.0 1.0
Motor Loads 0.8 – 0.9 0.05 – 0.5 1.0 – 3.0
Modern Power- 1.0 0 0
Electronics based
Loads

Voltage-Link System used
in Power Electronics
Based Loads
+
Load
Vd
Utility −
Fig. 8-4 Voltage-link-system for modern and future power-electronics based loads.

Induction Motor Per-Phase
Diagram
Ia I ra '
Rs
jω Lls + jω Llr '
+
I ma ω syn
Va Ema Rr '
(at ω ) ω slip
− jω Lm
−
Fig. 8-5 Per-phase, steady state equivalent circuit of a three-phase induction motor.

Torque-Speed
Characteristics
Tem
f5 f4 f3 f2 f1
Load
Torque
0 ωm
ωslip ωsyn
3 3
ωslip ωsyn
1 1
Fig. 8-6 Torque-speed characteristic of induction motor at various applied frequencies.

Switch-Mode DC Power
Supplies
input dc to HF ac
rectifier +
60Hz Vin Output
ac Vo
− HF transformer
topology to convert Feedback

dc to dc with isolation controller Vo*
Fig. 8-7 Switch-mode dc power supply.

Uninterruptible Power
Supplies (UPS)
Critical
Rectifier Inverter Filter
Load
Energy
Storage
Fig. 8-8 Uninterruptible power supply.

Static Power-Transfer
Switch
Feeder 1
Load
Feeder 2
Fig. 8-9 Alternate feeder.

CBEMA Curve Showing
Acceptable Voltage-Time
Region
Fig. 8-10 CBEMA curve.

Dynamic Voltage
Restorers (DVR)
− vinj +
+
vs Power Electronic Load
Interface
−
Fig. 8-11 Dynamic Voltage Restorer (DVR).

Voltage Regulating
Transformers
Fig. 8-12 Three-Phase Voltage Regulator (Courtesy of Siemens) [5].

STATCOM
jX
Utility
STATCOM
Fig. 8-13 STATCOM [4].

Linear Load
is
+ Vs
vs φ
−
Is
(b)
(a)
Figure 8-14 Voltage and current phasors in simple R-L circuit.

Waveforms Associated
with Power Electronics-
Based Load
vs
is1 idistortion (= is − is1 )
is
0 t 0 t
φ1 / ω
( b)
T1
(a )
Figure 8-15 Current drawn by power electronics equipment without PFC.

Example of Distorted
Current
is
I
(a) t
0
−I
T1
is1 4I / π
(b) 0 t
idistortion
I
(c) t
0
−I
© Copyright Ned Mohan 2006 Figure 5-4 Example
Figure 8-16 5-1.
Example 8-1. 145
Influence of Distortion on
Power Factor
1
0.9
0.8
0.7
PF
DPF 0.6
0.5
0.4
0 50 100 150 200 250 300

%THD
Fig. 8-17 Relation between PF/DPF and THD.

IEEE Harmonic Limits
TableTable
8-1 Harmonic
5-1 Harmoniccurrent distortion
current distortion (Ih/I(1I)h / I 1 )
Odd Harmonic Order h (in %)

Total
I sc / I1 h < 11 11 ≤ h < 17 17 ≤ h < 23 23 ≤ h < 35 35 ≤ h Harmonic
Distortion(%)
< 20 4.0 2.0 15

. 0.6 0.3 5.0
20 − 50 7.0 3.5 2.5 10
. 0.5 8.0
50 − 100 10.0 4.5 4.0 15
. 0.7 12.0
100 − 1000 12.0 5.5 5.0 2.0 10
. 15.0
> 1000 15.0 7.0 6.0 2.5 14
. 20.0

Short-Circuit Current
Zs Zs I sc
+ +
Vs Vs
− −
(a) (b)
Figure 8-185-6
Figure (a)(a)Utility
UtilitySupply, (b)short
supply; (b) Short-Circuit Current.
circuit current.

Retail Price of Electricity in
the U.S.
Fig. 8-19 Average retail price of electricity to ultimate customers [4].

CHAPTER 9
SYNCHRONOUS
GENERATORS

Application of
Synchronous Generators
Steam at High pressure
Heat in Water
Boiler Turbine Gen
H Penstock
Generator
Turbine
Pump Condenser Heat out
(a ) (b)
Fig. 9-1 Synchronous generators driven by (a) steam turbines, and (b) hydraulic turbines.

Cross-section of
Synchronous Generators
Stator
Air gap
(a) (b)
Fig. 9-2 Machine cross-section.

Synchronous Generator
Structure
S
N
N S N N S S
(a) (b) (c)
Fig. 9-3 Machine structure.

Sinusoidally-Distributed
Windings
b − axis
ib
3' 4' 5'

2π / 3
2π / 3 2' 6' ia
θ
a − axis
2π / 3 ia 1' 7'
7 1 ia
ic
6 2
c − axis 5 3
4
(a) (b)
Fig. 9-4 Three phase windings on the stator.

Three-Phase Winding
Connection in a Wye
b − axis
∠120 o b
ib
b' b
ib
θ
a − axis
a ∠0 o ia
a ' ia a
c'
ic
c ic
c
c − axis (a) (b)
∠240 o
Fig. 9-5 Connection of three phase windings.

Rotor Field
θ
N
ωsyn
a-axis
Fig. 9-6 Field winding on the rotor that is supplied by a dc current I f .

Voltage induced in the
Stator Phase due to
Rotating Rotor Field
+
θ
N
a-axis
ea
ωsyn
S
−
Fig. 9-7 Current direction and voltage polarities; the rotor position shown induces
maximum ea .

Representation of Induced
Stator Voltage due to
Rotor Field
+ G Im
B f (at t = 0)
θ
N
ωsyn
eaf N
a-axis
ωsyn
S
Re
a-axis Eaf
−
S
(a ) ( b) (c)
Fig. 9-8 Induced emf eaf due to rotating rotor field with the rotor.

Armature Reaction Due to
Three Stator Currents
2π
j
3
e
b − axis
Im
ib
2π / 3
e j0
2π / 3
a − axis Re a-axis
2π / 3
ia
900 θ θ
ic G
Ea , AR
Ia B AR (at t = 0)
c − axis
4π
j
e 3
(a ) (b ) (c)
Fig. 9-9 Armature reaction due to phase currents.

Superposition of the two
Induced Voltages and Per-
Phase Representation
− Ea , AR + Ia
Im
Eaf
+ − + X As +
Re + jX m I a Rs
Ea , AR
jX m I a Eaf Ea Va
Ea
−
− −
Ia
(a) (b )
Fig. 9-10 Phasor diagram and per-phase equivalent circuit.

Power Out as a function of
rotor Angle
P
steady state
Ia stability limit
generator
+ mode
jX T +
V∞ =V∞ ∠0 o −90 o
Eaf = Eaf ∠δ 0 90 o
δ
− −
(a )
motoring
mode steady state
stability limit
(b)
Fig. 9-11 Power output and synchronism.

Steady State Stability
Limit
Pe Pe
Pe,max
Pe2 Pm2
Pe1 Pm1
0 δ1 δ 2 90 o δ 0 90 o δ
(a ) (b)
Fig. 9-12 Steady state stability limit.

Reactive Power Control by
Field Excitation
Eaf Eaf Eaf
jX s I a
jX s I a jX s I a
90 o
δ δ Va I aq { δ Ia
⎧
Ia Va ⎪ Va
I aq ⎨ Ia
⎪⎩
90 o
(a ) ( b) (c)
Fig. 9-13 Excitation control to supply reactive power.

Synchronous
Condenser
Synchronous
Condenser
Fig. 9-14 Synchronous Condenser.

Automatic Voltage
Regulation (AVR)
phase-controlled
rectifier
field winding
ac input output
Generator
slip rings
ac regulator
Fig. 9-15 Field exciter for automatic voltage regulation (AVR).

Armature Reaction Flux in
Steady State Leading to
Synchronous Reactance
Fig. 9-16 Armature reaction flux in steady state.

Simulation of a Short-
Circuit Assuming a
Constant-Flux Model
(a ) ( b)
Fig. 9-17 Armature (a) and field current (b), after a sudden short circuit [source: 4].

Representation for Steady State,
Transient Stability and Fault
Analysis
Eaf Ia
Eaf' jX s I a
− +
Im + jX s I a
+
Eaf'' jX s' I a
jX s' I a Eaf jX s'' I a
Eaf' Ea
jX s'' I a
Re Eaf''
Ea −
−
(a ) Ia
(b)
Fig. 9-18 Synchronous generator modeling for transient and sub-transient conditions.

CHAPTER 10
VOLTAGE REGULATION
AND STABILITY IN
POWER SYSTEMS

A Radial System
VS PS + jQS PR + jQR VR PS + jQS jX L PR + jQR
jX L + I +
VS VR
Load − −
(a) (b)
Fig. 10-1 A radial system.

Voltages and Current
Phasors with Both-Side
Voltages at 1 PU
VS PS + jQS jX L I
jX L I
+ + PR QR
δ VS VR
I
δ /2 − −
(a) VR (b)
Fig. 10-2 Phasor diagram and the equivalent circuit with VS = VR = 1pu .

Voltage Profile for Three
Values of SIL
PR < SIL
+ + + VS VR
(1pu) (1pu)
VS Vx VR PR > SIL
− − −
x Vx
(a) (b)
Fig. 10-3 Voltage profile along the transmission line.

“Nose” Curves at Three
Power Factors as a
function of Loading
1.4
VR
1.2
VS
VS VR 1
jX L PF = 1
0.8
PF = 0.9
0.6
(lagging) PF = 0.9
(leading)
PR + jQR 0.4
(a )
0.2
0
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5
PR / SIL
( b)
Fig. 10-4 Voltage collapse in a radial system (example of 345-kV line, 200 km long).

Reactive Power Supply
Capability
Q
0
P
Fig. 10-5 Reactive power supply capability of synchronous generators.

Effect of Current Power
Factor on Bus Voltage
I
jX Th I
+ − I
jX Th +
+ VTh jX Th I
VTh Vbus
Vbus
− Vbus jX Th I
−
VTh
(a)
(b)
Fig. 10-6 Effect of leading and lagging currents due to the shunt compensating device.

Static Var
Compensators (SVC)
Vbus
Vbus
1 IC
jωC
IC 0
(a ) ( b)
Fig. 10-7 V-I characteristic of SVC.

Thyristor Controlled
Reactors (TCR)
Vbus
Vbus
vbus
IL iL
iL
α ≤ 900
α > 900
0 IL
(a ) ( b) (c )
Fig. 10-8 Thyristor-Controlled Reactor (TCR).

Voltage Control by SVC
and TCR Combination
Vbus C Vbus
Vbus
I A V2′
B V2
V1
Linear
Range V1′
1 IL
IC
jωC
capacitive 0 inductive capacitive 0 inductive

I I
(a ) ( b) (c)
Fig. 10-9 Parallel combination of SVC and TCR.

STATCOM
I conv
I conv + + jXI conv −

Vconv
+ +
Vd
Vbus + jXI conv− − Vbus Vconv
− −
(a ) ( b)
Fig. 10-10 STATCOM.

STATCOM V-I
Characteristic
Vbus
Linear
Range
capacitive 0 inductive I
conv
Fig. 10-11 STATCOM VI characteristic.

Thyristor-Controlled
Series Capacitor (TCSC)
(a ) (b) (c)
Fig. 10-12 Thyristor-Controlled Series Capacitors (TCSC) [source: Siemens Corp.].

CHAPTER 11
TRANSIENT AND
DYNAMIC STABILITY OF
POWER SYSTEMS

One-Machine Infinite-Bus
System
j ( X d' + X tr ) I jX L / 2
V1 XL VB = VB ∠0
+ + +
E ′∠δ V1 VB ∠0
XL − − −
Pm Pe
(a ) ( b)
Fig. 11-1 Simple one-generator system connected to an infinite bus.

Power-Angle
Characteristic in One-
Machine Infinite-Bus
System
Pe Pre-fault Bus 1 VB = VB ∠0
post-fault XL
Pm
during-fault
XL
δ Pm Pe
0 δ 0 δ1 π
(a ) (b)
Fig. 11-2 Power-angle characteristics.

Rotor-Angle Swing
Following a Fault and a
Line Taken Out
5 5
5 0
4 5
4 0
3 5
3 0
2 5
2 0
0 0 .2 0 .4 0 .6 0 .8 1 1 .2 1 .4
Fig. 11-3 Rotor-angle swing in Example 11-1.

Power-Angle
Characteristics
Pe
Pre-fault
Bus 1 VB = VB ∠0
XL post-fault
B
Pe = Pm
A
XL during fault
Pm Pe
0 δ cA π
δ0 δm δ max δ
(a ) (b)
Fig. 11-4 Fault on one of the transmission lines.

Rotor Oscillations After
the Fault is Cleared
Pe
Pre-fault
post-fault
C
Pe = Pm
D
0 δm π
δ2
δ1 δ
Fig. 11-5 Rotor oscillations after the fault is cleared.

Critical Clearing Angle
using Equal-Area Criterion
Pe
Pre-fault
post-fault
B
Pe = Pm
A
0 δ 0 δ1 δ crit δ max π δ
Fig. 11-6 Critical clearing angle.

Example using Equal-Area
Criterion
Pe ( pu ) 40
35 Pre-fault
30
25
20 B post-fault
Pe = Pm 15
10 A
during fault
5
0
0 20 40 60
δ 0 = 22.470 δ cA =80750 100
δ m 120 1400
= 115.28 160 180
Fig. 11-7 Power angle curves and equal-area criterion in Example 11-2.

Transient Stability
Calculations in Large
Networks
Initial Power Flow
Calculate Pe and E ' ∠δ
for each generator
for k = 1,2,3....
Pm , k = Pe, k
ωk and δ k
Pm , k and Ek' held constant Phasor Calculations
Electro-dynamic Pe , k using Ek' ∠δ k
differential (load may be assumed
Equations as a constant impedance)
Fig. 11-8 Block diagram of transient stability program for an n-generator case.

Example Power System for
Transient Stability
Analysis
Bus-1 Bus-3
Pm1 Pe1
Bus-2
Pe 2
Pm 2
Fig. 11-9 A 345-kV test example system.

Rotor Angle Swings in the
Following a Fault
8 0 0
7 0 0
6 0 0
5 0 0
4 0 0
3 0 0
δ1
2 0 0
1 0 0 δ2
0
0 0 .2 0 .4 0 .6 0 . 8 1 1 .2 1 .4 1 .6
Fig. 11-10 Rotor-angle swings of δ1 and δ 2 in Example 11-3.

Importance of Dynamic
Stability
Fig. 11-11 Growing Power Oscillations: Western USA/Canada system, Aug 10, 1996 [4].

CHAPTER 12
CONTROL OF
INTERCONNECTED
POWER SYSTEM AND
ECONOMIC DISPATCH

Automatic Voltage
Regulation (AVR)
phase-controlled
rectifier
field winding
ac input output
Generator
slip rings
ac regulator
Fig. 12-1 Field exciter for automatic voltage regulation (AVR).

Control Areas (Balancing
Authorities)
(a ) ( b)
Fig. 12-2 (a) The Interconnections in North America, (b) Control Areas [Source: 2]

Load-Frequency Control
and Regulation
Frequency
f G
1
Regulator a
R f0
- Δf b
Turbine Steam-Valve
Supplementary Governor
Control Position slope = − R
Turbine G
Pm
Pm Pe PLoad
0 ΔPm Pm
(a ) (b)
Fig. 12-3 Load-Frequency Control (ignore the supplementary control at present).

Load Sharing
unit 2 f
G′ unit 2
G1 unit1 1
G2
a e b
Pm 2 Pe 2 f0
Δf c d
unit 1 ( ΔPm1 + ΔPm 2 ) G1 G1′ G2
Pm 2
Pm1
0 Pm
Pm1 Pe1 PLoad ΔPm1 ΔPm 2
(a ) (b)
Fig. 12-4 Response of two generators to load-frequency control.

Synchronizing Torque
between Two Control
Areas
P12 P21
Area 1 jX 12 Area 2
Fig. 12-5 Two control areas.

Automatic Generation
Control (AGC) and Area
Control Error (ACE)
Δf (frequency deviation)
1
B
R
Supplementary
Controller
+ −
k − Change in Steam Valve Position
Governor
s
+ ACE
(Area Control Error)
ΔP (tie-line flow deviation)
Fig. 12-6 Area Control Error (ACE) for Automatic Generation Control (AGC).

Two Control Areas in the
Bus-1 P1−3 Bus-3
M
Area 1 Area 2
Pm1 Pe1 Load
P1− 2 M
Bus-2
Pe 2
Pm 2
Fig. 12-7 Two control areas in the example power system with 3 buses.

Power Flow on Tie-Lines
between Two Control
Areas Following a Load
Change

Electrical Equivalent of
Two Areas
+ jX 1 jX 12 jX 2 +
E1∠δ1 E2 ∠δ 2
− −
Fig. 12-9 Electrical equivalent of two area interconnection.

Modeling of Two Control
Areas with AGC
1/ ωsyn
1
B1 ΔPLoad 1
R1
+ − −
K1 1 − 1 1 + ωsyn sΔδ1
ACE1 s Ts1s + 1 ΔPs1 TG1s + 1 ΔPv1 TS 1s + 1 M 1s + D1
+ Regulator Governor Steam Turbine
ΔPm1 − Area 1 1
s
Δδ1 +
ΔP12 = T12 ( Δδ1 − Δδ 2 ) ( Δδ 1 − Δ δ 2 )
T12
Δδ 2 −
1
− + s
K2 1 ΔPs 2 1 ΔPv 2 1 ΔPm 2 ωsyn
ACE 2 s Ts 2 s + 1 − TG 2 s + 1 TS 2 s + 1 + − M 2 s + D2 s Δδ 2
+ −
Regulator Governor Steam Turbine Area 2
1
B2 ΔPLoad 2
R2
1/ ωsyn
Fig. 12-10 Two-area system with AGC. Source: adapted from [6].
Results of Simulink
Modeling Following a Step
Load Change in Control
Area 1
1.5
ΔPm1
ΔPm 2
0.5
-0.5
ΔP12
-1
0 1000 2000 3000 4000 5000 6000 7000 8000 9000 10000
Fig. 12-11 Simulink results of the two-area system with AGC in Example 12-3.

Economic Dispatch: Heat
Rate of a Power Plant
Heat Rate
11.0 At this point, to produce 40 MW
Fuel Consumption = 400 MBTU-per-Hour
MBTU-per-Hour
10.0
MW
9.0
0 20 40 60 80 100 P [ MW ]
Fig. 12-12 Heat Rate at various generated power levels.

Cost Curve and Marginal
Cost of a Power Plant
Ci ( Pi ) ∂Ci ( Pi )
[$ / hour ] ∂Pi
[$ / MWh ]
ΔCi
ΔPi
0 0
(a ) Pi [ MW ] Pi [ MW ]
( b)
Fig. 12-13 (a) Fuel cost and (b) Marginal cost, as functions of the power output.

Load Sharing between
Three Power Plants
∂C1 ( P ) ∂C2 ( P ) ∂C3 ( P )
∂P ∂P ∂P
λ
0 0 0
P1 P P2 P P3 P
Fig. 12-14 Marginal costs for the three generators.

CHAPTER 13
TRANSMISSION LINE
FAULTS, RELAYING AND
CIRCUIT BREAKERS

Fault (Symmetric or
Unsymmetric) on a
Balanced Network
f f
a a
b b
ia Ia
c c
ib Ib
ic Ic
g g
(a ) ( b)
Fig. 13-1 Fault in power system.

Symmetrical
Components
Ia
I c0 I
Ic I c1 b0
I a1 Ia2 Ia0
I b2
Ib
Ic2
I b1
Fig. 13-2 Sequence components.

Sequence Networks: Per-
Phase Representation of a
Balanced Three-phase
representation
Z1 Z2 Z0
+ + I a1 + Ia2 + Ia0
Ea1 Va1 Va 2 Va 0
− − − −
Fig. 13-3 Sequence networks.

Three-Phase Symmetrical
Fault (ground may or may
no be involved)
f
a Z1 I a1
b +
Ia +
c Ea 1 Va1 = 0
Ib − −
Ic
(b)
g
(a )
Fig. 13-4 Three-phase symmetrical fault.

Single-Line to Ground
(SLF) Fault through a Fault
Impedance
I a1
Z1 +
+
f Ea1 Va1
− −
a
Ia2
b 3Z f
Ia Z2 +
c Va 2
−
Zf Ia0
g Z0 +
Va 0
(a )
−
( b)
Fig. 13-5 Single line to ground fault.

Double-Line to Ground
Fault
f
a I a1 Ia2 Ia0
b + Z1 + Z2 + Z0 +
c Ea1
Ib Va1 Va 2 Va 0
Ic − − − −
g
(a ) ( b)
Fig. 13-6 Double line to ground fault.

Double-Line Fault (ground
not involved)
f + Z f I a1 −
a
I a1 Ia2
b
c
Ib + Z1 + Z2 +
Ea1 Va1 Va 2
Ic − − −
g
(a ) (b)
Fig. 13-7 Double line fault (ground not involved).

Path for Zero-Sequence
Currents
(a) ( b) (c)
Fig. 13-8 Path for zero-sequence currents in transformers.

Neutral Grounded through
an Neutral Impedance)
Ia0
Z0 +
Zn 3Z n Va 0
−
(a ) ( b)
Fig. 13-9 Neutral grounded through an impedance.

One-Line Diagram of a
Simple System)
V1 = 1.0∠0 pu Bus-2 V3 = 0.98∠ − 11.790 pu
X Line1 = 0.10 pu
′′ 1 = 0.12 pu
X gen Bus-1 X Line 2 = 0.10 pu PLoad = 1 pu
Bus-3
X gen 2 = 0.12 pu X tr1 = 0.10 pu X Line 0 = 0.20 pu QLoad = 0
X gen 0 = 0.06 pu X tr 2 = 0.10 pu
X tr 0 = 0.10 pu
Fig. 13-10 (a) One-line diagram of a simple power system and bus voltages.

Thee-phase Fault on Bus-2
in the Simple System
j 0.12 pu + j 0.10 pu j 0.10 pu
I Load
+ I fault
V1 = 1.0∠0 pu RLoad = 0.9604 pu
E ′′
−
−
Fig. 13-11 Positive-sequence circuit for calculating a 3-phase fault on bus-2.

Single-Line to Ground
(SLG) Fault in the Simple
System I a / 3 ( = I fault / 3)
I a1 +
+ j 0.12 pu + j 0.10 pu + j 0.10 pu
V1 = 1.0∠0 pu RLoad = 0.9604 pu
E ′′ Va1
− − −
Ia2
j 0.12 pu j 0.10 pu + j 0.10 pu
Va 2 Va = 0
RLoad = 0.9604 pu
−
Ia0
j 0.06 pu j 0.10 pu + j 0.20 pu
Va 0
RLoad = 0.9604 pu
−
−
Fig. 13-12 Sequence networks for calculating fault current due to SLG fault on bus-2.

An SLG Fault in the
Example 3-Bus System
Bus-1
Bus-3
Pm1 Pe1
Bus-2
Pe 2
Pm 2
Fig. 13-13 A SLG fault in the example 3-bus power system.

Protection in Power
System
CT
CB
PT R
Fig. 13-14 Protection equipment.

Current Transformers
(CT)
CT
Burden
(b)
(a)
Fig. 13-15 Current Transformer (CT) [5].

Capacitor-Coupled Voltage
Transformers (CCVT)
(a) (b)
Fig. 13-16 Capacitor-Coupled Voltage Transformer (CCVT) [5].

Differential Relays
CT
CT
CT
Relay
Fig. 13-17 Differential relay.

Directional Over-Current
Relays
CT
CB
PT R
Fig. 13-18 Directional over-current Relay.

Ground Directional Over-
Current Relays for Ground
Faults
Time
instantaneous
Fig. 13-19 Ground directional over-current Relay.

Impedance (Distance)
Relays
X
Fig. 13-20 Impedance (distance) relay.

Microwave Terminal for
Pilot Relays
Fig. 13-21 Microwave terminal [5].

Zones of Protection
Zone 3: 1-1.5 sec
Time Zone 2: 20-25 cycles
Zone 1: instantaneous
A B C
Fig. 13-22 Zones of protection.

Protection of Generator
and its Step-up
Transformer
Transformer CT F1 CT F2 CT
Gen
Relay Relay Relay
Fig. 13-23 Protection of generator and the step-up transformer.

Relaying in the 3-Bus
Zone 2
Zone1
B
A
Zone 2
P + jQ
Fig. 13-24 Relying in the example 3-bus power system.

Circuit Breakers
Fig. 13-25 SF6 circuit breaker [5].

Illustration of Current
Offset in R-L Circuits
2
asymmetric
R L 1 .5 symmetric offset
+
1
+ i (t ) 0 .5
vs ( t ) v (t ) 00
− - 0 .5
−
-1
0 0 .05 0.1 0 .15 0 .2
(a ) (b)
Fig. 13-26 Current in an RL circuit.

CHAPTER 14
TRANSIENT OVER-VOLTAGES,
SURGE PROTECTION AND
INSULATION COORDINATION

Lightning Current
Impulse
i I peak
0.5I peak
t[ μ s ]
t1 t2
Fig. 14-1 Lightening current impulse.

Lightening Strike to Shield
Wire and Backflash
(a ) (b)
Fig. 14-2 Lightening strike to the shield wire.

Switching Surges
va L
A
vb
B
L
500 kV Line
100 miles (open)
vc L
C
(a )
( b)
Fig. 14-3 Over-voltages due to switching of transmission lines.

Frequency Dependence of
Transmission Line
Parameters
Fig. 14-4 Frequency dependence of the transmission line parameters [Source: 2].

Calculation of Switching
Over-Voltages on Line 1-3
in the Example 3-Bus
Power System
Bus-1 Bus-3
Fig. 14-5 Calculation of switching over-voltages on a transmission line.

Standard Voltage Impulse
to Define Basic Insulation
Level (BIL)
i V pea k
0.5 V pe ak
0 1 .2 μ s 40 μ s t
Fig. 14-6 Standard Voltage Impulse Wave to define BIL.

Transformer Insulation
Protected by a ZnO
Arrester
1500 chopped
wave Transformer Insulation
1300 Withstand Capability Curve
BIL
Line-to-ground 1175kV
(Peak kV) 1100
BSL
900 Arrester Voltage, subjected to a
8 × 20 μ s Lightning Current Impulse
with a peak of 20 kA
700
1 10 100 1000 10000
time in μ s
Fig. 14-7 A 345-kV transformer voltage insulation levels.

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First Course on

© Copyright Ned Mohan 2006 1

© Copyright Ned Mohan 2006 2

1 Chapter 1: Overview Lab 1: Visit to a local substation; otherwise a

2 Chapter 3: Energy Sources Lab 2: Introduction to PSCAD/EMTDC; 3-

8 Chapter 9: Synchronous Lab 8: Synchronous Generators and AVR

© Copyright Ned Mohan 2006 3

POWER SYSTEMS: A CHANGING

© Copyright Ned Mohan 2006 4

Fig. 1-1 Interconnected North American Power Grid [2].

Fig. 1-2 NERC Interconnections [3]. Source: NERC.

© Copyright Ned Mohan 2006 6

Fig. 1-3 One-line diagram as an example.

© Copyright Ned Mohan 2006 7

Fig. 1-4 Changing landscape [4]. Source: ABB.

© Copyright Ned Mohan 2006 9

Fig. 2-1 Convention for voltages and currents.

© Copyright Ned Mohan 2006 10

Fig. 2-2 Phasor diagram.

© Copyright Ned Mohan 2006 11

© Copyright Ned Mohan 2006 12

Fig. 2-4 Impedance network of Example 2-1.

© Copyright Ned Mohan 2006 13

Fig. 2-5 Circuit of Example 2-2.

© Copyright Ned Mohan 2006 14

Figure 2-6 A generic circuit divided into two sub-circuits.

© Copyright Ned Mohan 2006 15

Figure 2-7 Instantaneous power with sinusoidal currents and voltages.

© Copyright Ned Mohan 2006 16

© Copyright Ned Mohan 2006 17

Fig. 2-9 Power factor correction in Example 2-5.

© Copyright Ned Mohan 2006 18

Fig. 2-10 One-line diagram of a three-phase transmission and distribution system.

© Copyright Ned Mohan 2006 19

© Copyright Ned Mohan 2006 20

© Copyright Ned Mohan 2006 21

© Copyright Ned Mohan 2006 22

Fig. 2-14 Balanced three-phase network with mutual couplings.

© Copyright Ned Mohan 2006 23

Fig. 2-15 Line-to-line voltages in a three-phase circuit.

© Copyright Ned Mohan 2006 24

© Copyright Ned Mohan 2006 25

© Copyright Ned Mohan 2006 26

© Copyright Ned Mohan 2006 27

In terms of these base quantities, the per-unit quantities can be specified as

© Copyright Ned Mohan 2006 28

© Copyright Ned Mohan 2006 29

(a) (b) (c)

© Copyright Ned Mohan 2006 30

© Copyright Ned Mohan 2006 31

Fig. 2-22 B-H characteristic of ferromagnetic materials.

© Copyright Ned Mohan 2006 32

Fig. 2-23 Toroid with flux φm .

© Copyright Ned Mohan 2006 33

© Copyright Ned Mohan 2006 34

Fig. 2-25 Rectangular toroid.

© Copyright Ned Mohan 2006 35

Fig. 2-26 Voltage polarity and direction of flux and current.

© Copyright Ned Mohan 2006 36

Fig. 2-27 Example 2-11.

© Copyright Ned Mohan 2006 37

© Copyright Ned Mohan 2006 38

© Copyright Ned Mohan 2006 39