Professional Documents
Culture Documents
The importance of
caregiver-child interactions
for the survival and
healthy development
of young children
A REVIEW
DEPARTMENT OF CHILD
AND ADOLESCENT HEALTH
CAH
AND DEVELOPMENT
WORLD HEALTH ORGANIZATION
CHILD AND ADOLESCENT HEALTH AND DEVELOPMENT ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■
The importance of
caregiver–child interactions
for the survival and
healthy development
of young children
A REVIEW
DEPARTMENT OF CHILD
AND ADOLESCENT HEALTH
AND DEVELOPMENT
CAH
Photo credits iv
Acknowledgements v
Foreword vii
Executive summary 1
Chapter 2. Historical background: The importance of stable, loving care for young children 8
WHO and the work of John Bowlby 8
The effects of separation from a familiar caregiver on the health and development
of children 9
iii
THE IMPORTANCE OF CAREGIVER–CHILD INTERACTIONS FOR THE SURVIVAL AND HEALTHY DEVELOPMENT OF YOUNG CHILDREN
Glossary 53
Bibliography 57
Photo credits
Cover WHO Department of Child and Adolescent Health and Development
Page 7 Linda Richter from the Birth to Twenty Study in Barbarin, O. A. & Richter, L. M. Mandela’s Chil-
dren: Growing Up in Post-Apartheid South Africa (2001). New York: Rutledge, p. 105.
Page 11 Linda Richter
Page 15 Lynne Murray and Peter Cooper in Murray, L. and Andrews, L. (2000). The Social Baby. Rich-
mond, Surrey: The Children’s Project, p. 53.
Page 17 A.N. Meltzoff & M.K. Moore (1977). Imitation of facial and manual gestures by human neonates.
Science, 198, 75-78.
Page 18 Jacqueline Cidérac
Page 20 Anthony De Casper
Page 20 WHO Department of Child and Adolescent Health and Development
Page 21 WHO Department of Child and Adolescent Health and Development
Page 23 Linda Richter
Page 29 Eleanor Gibson (Cornell University)
Page 30 UNICEF/HQ91-0173/Betty Press
Page 32 WHO/S. Sprague
Page 34 Linda Richter
Page 38 Jane Lucas
Page 41 WHO/Armando Waak
Page 41 Jane Lucas
Page 44 WHO/L. Taylor
Page 48 Bob Daemmrich (The Image Works)
Page 49 WHO/D. Whitney
iv
Acknowledgements
T he author of this review was Dr Linda Richter, who is the Executive Director of Child, Youth and
Family Development at the Human Sciences Research Council and Professor, School of Psychology,
University of Natal (South Africa).
Dr Richter was assisted by Dr R. Dev Griesel, Research Professor in the School of Psychology at the
University of Natal, and Ms Julie Manegold, an Intern at the Human Sciences Research Council.
Valuable comments and suggestions were provided by the following persons: Dr Kathy Bartlett (The
Consultative Group on Early Childhood Care and Development and the Aga Khan Foundation, Geneva,
Switzerland), Dr Maureen Black (University of Maryland, Baltimore, USA), Dr Meena Cabral de Mello
(WHO Department of Child and Adolescent Health and Development, Geneva, Switzerland), Dr Patrice
Engle (UNICEF New York, USA), Dr Ilgi Ertem (Ankara University Medical School, Ankara, Turkey), and
Ms Zeynep Türmen (Intern, WHO Department of Child and Adolescent Health and Development).
We gratefully acknowledge the contributions of Dr Jane Lucas (Nicosia, Cyprus), who reviewed and
edited the document, and Dr Jose Martines (WHO Department of Child and Adolescent Health and Devel-
opment), the project coordinator. We thank Ms Sue Hobbs for the document’s design and Ms Jacqueline
Cidérac for her efforts to obtain permission to use the photographs in the document.
The WHO Department of Child and Adolescent Health and Development supported this review as the
second in a series to guide interventions to improve the health, growth and psychosocial development of
children, particularly those living in resource-poor settings. The first in the series is A Critical Link: Inter-
ventions for physical growth and psychological development (1999, WHO/CHS/CAH/99.3), available in Eng-
lish, French, and Russian. For these documents and further information, please contact:
v
Foreword
vii
THE IMPORTANCE OF CAREGIVER–CHILD INTERACTIONS FOR THE SURVIVAL AND HEALTHY DEVELOPMENT OF YOUNG CHILDREN
implications for the training of physicians, nurses, organizational and financial support to promote
child care workers, and others who assist families effective caregiver-child interactions as a funda-
in caring for their children. mental condition for ensuring that children
Focusing on the quality of caregiver-child survive and thrive. It is our wish that all will draw
interactions as a critical aspect of the care of young upon this rich evidence to rethink the meaning
children is a new direction for the World Health of our shared responsibility for the survival of
Organization, UNICEF, and their international and children and a strategic investment in their
local partners. We need to marshal adequate future.
LEE Jong-wook
Director-General
World Health Organization
viii
Executive Summary
1
THE IMPORTANCE OF CAREGIVER–CHILD INTERACTIONS FOR THE SURVIVAL AND HEALTHY DEVELOPMENT OF YOUNG CHILDREN
They must compensate for the immaturity or ■ Infants and caregivers are prepared, by
limits of the child’s abilities. For example, sick evolutionary adaptation, for caring interactions
infants and young children need additional fluids through which the child’s potential human
and food even though they lack appetite. It takes capacities are realized. The evolving biological
a caring and skilled caregiver to encourage a child and social capacities of the newborn and young
to eat and drink under these circumstances. child set out an agenda of requirements for
Beyond survival, interactions between caregiver support from caregivers to meet the child’s full
and child that are sensitive to the child’s cognitive potential for health, growth and development. The
functioning, and complement and extend the infant’s brain is prepared to anticipate and depend
child’s capacity to identify and act on objects in on nurturant human care. Babies, for example,
the world, are essential to the child’s psychosocial are born with neurophysiological and sensory
development, including the acquisition of filtering mechanisms, which enable them to focus
language and cultural meaning. A stable and close on human contact and communication. From the
emotional relationship, long before the infant first moments of life, they preferentially attend to
learns to speak, enables the caregiver to describe the face, gestures and voice of other humans. The
and mediate the child’s experiences, and lays the capacity of newborns to express simple emotions
foundation for the child’s language development. through facial expressions and movements guides
Loving care also provides the infant with a caregivers to understand and respond in ways that
mirror reflecting a tender and sympathetic view are most helpful for infants to calm, feed, sleep,
of the child’s self and of the world. Early stay alert or interact with others.
experiences function as schema on which the In a matched way, all normal human beings,
infant then predicts future events and encounters. young and old, male and female, have a capacity
The young child who receives loving care feels to care for young children. When interacting with
that he is a loved person and expects other people a young child, adults adapt the pitch and
to respond to him as someone deserving of care simplicity of their language, make their actions
and attention. In contrast, a child whose needs slow and purposeful, carefully watch the reactions
have been neglected does not usually expect of the child to them, and make ongoing modifi-
others to be kind and considerate, and frequently cations to their behaviour to engage and
behaves aggressively and defensively. accommodate the child.
■ Inadequate, disrupted and negligent care ■ Factors directly affecting the caregiver and
has adverse consequences for the child’s child, as well as underlying social and
survival, health and development. The quality economic issues, influence the quality of
of caregiving relationships has an impact on caregiver-child relationships. Barriers to the
children’s health and development. These effects natural emergence of a caring relationship disrupt
occur because children, whose care is less than the care a child needs. Caregiver mood and
adequate or whose care is disrupted in some way, emotional state are critical determinants of care-
may not receive sufficient nutrition; they may be giver behaviour, for example, with consequences
subjected to stress; they may be physically abused for the child’s health and development. Studies
and neglected; they may develop malnutrition; of maternal depression illustrate how self-
they may not grow well; and early signs of illness preoccupation and a negative mood can disrupt
may not be detected. caregiving. Faced with chronic stress or anxiety,
Research on what occurs when young children the caregiver may withdraw from her infant and
are placed in institutions provides powerful become inattentive to the child’s physical and
evidence of the importance of supportive and psychological states. With a lack of attention and
stable caregiver-child relationships for the health poor surveillance, the caregiver is not aware of
of young children and their cognitive and social early signs of illness, that a child has not eaten
development. Young children in group care often sufficiently during the last meal, or that no one
fail to thrive, they tend to be sickly, they are has praised the child for efforts to do something
demanding of attention, and they find it difficult or provided the child with guidance and limits
to have normal peer relationships with other for behaviour. Chronic stress, associated with
children. poverty and other environmental challenges, can
also disrupt the capacity of adults to give loving
care. The effects of caregiving on young children
2
EXECUTIVE SUMMARY
can persist well into adolescence in the form of conducted in developed countries, and the extent
behaviour disorders, anxiety, and depression. to which the results can be applied in different
On the other hand, a strong caring relationship cultural and socio-economic conditions is not
can protect a young child from the effects of known. For example, comparatively little is
deprivation and disadvan- known about the varieties and effects of rearing
tage. The caring relationship children by more than one intimate adult, a
is the strongest explanation common practice in many non-Western
Caring interactions for why some children who communities.
promote the health grow up under wretched
■ The link between the qualities of the
and development of conditions nonetheless grow
caregiving relationship and the child’s survival
vulnerable children. well, are healthy, are able to
and health, in addition to psychosocial
They increase the be productive in school and
development. The strongest empirical evidence
resilience of young work, and have good
on the importance of sensitive and responsive
children to the relationships with other
caregiving is from developed countries, where the
potential damaging people.
greatest effects have been demonstrated in school
effects of poverty and
performance and later behavioural outcomes.
deprivation. ■ Nurturant caregiver-
More research is needed on the direct contri-
child relationships have
butions of the qualities of effective caregiving to
universal features across
the survival and health of infants and young
cultures, regardless of differences in specific
children – particularly among children living
child care practices. In all human groups, babies
under poor and otherwise high-risk conditions.
depend on warm, responsive, linguistically rich,
Some potential outcomes of positive care to study
and protective relationships in which to grow and
include: the reduction of the frequency and
develop. They cannot survive in environments
severity of episodes of common childhood illness;
that do not meet threshold levels of these
the speed and adequacy of catch-up growth and
characteristics. Caregivers in all cultures
development; adherence to medical treatment and
demonstrate sensitivity and responsiveness
return for follow-up care; the prevention of injury
towards infants and young children, although the
and family abuse; and improvements in feeding
form of the caregiver’s actions may vary
and the prognosis for low birth weight infants and
considerably from one cultural milieu to another.
malnourished young children. In many areas of
Sometimes these features of caregiver-child
the world, additional documentation of these
relationships are not so easily observed because
effects on the health and growth of children, as
interactions with children, or the expression of
well as on their psychosocial development, will
emotions, are kept private as a matter of social
be key to mobilizing attention and resources to
convention. This does not mean, however, that
improve caregiver-child interactions.
caring adults do not watch young infants, cuddle
and talk to them, and stimulate babies to develop ■ The effectiveness of interventions in
skills indicative of healthy growth and wellbeing. changing the basic skills in caregiving and the
There are also factors that commonly affect the qualities of the caregiver-child relationship.
quality of caregiving relationships and the child’s Interventions need to be designed and tested for
development. For example, the positive their effectiveness in improving the basic qualities
correlation between the family’s socio-economic or skills – sensitivity and responsiveness – that
status and the psychological development and determine the effectiveness of caregiving, as well
adjustment of the child is found in all societies. as specific care practices, for example, those
included in feeding, attending to the sick child,
and stimulating the child’s language and cognitive
Research priorities development. The technology is now available to
The review exposes several areas of much needed observe the patterns of interaction and changing
research, including on: affect between caregivers and children to demon-
strate how these qualitative improvements in the
■ The nature and determinants of child care
relationship are likely to benefit the child.
by caregivers in poor communities, especially
in developing countries. As in other fields of
science, most of the available research has been
3
THE IMPORTANCE OF CAREGIVER–CHILD INTERACTIONS FOR THE SURVIVAL AND HEALTHY DEVELOPMENT OF YOUNG CHILDREN
1
An overview of interventions to promote the develop-
ment of especially low-income, nutritionally-at-risk
children is the subject of a separate paper.
4
1
Chapter
Introduction
The role of caregiving in the
development of children
5
THE IMPORTANCE OF CAREGIVER–CHILD INTERACTIONS FOR THE SURVIVAL AND HEALTHY DEVELOPMENT OF YOUNG CHILDREN
that physical, rather than psychological, factors instead of mother, loses something essential to the
are likely to act causally on the child’s survival core activities of what mothering care involves and
and healthy development. Consequently, much which is precisely what young children need. The
of the literature cited in this report on the effects word caregiver does not capture the continuity
of early caregiver-child relationships on children’s and emotional commitment to a child that is part
survival and health tends to be more indirect. of parenting, and thus potentially obscures what
As in all other fields of science, most of the might be latent features of childcare that are
available research has been conducted in critical to healthy development.
developed countries, and it is not known to what Nevertheless, the term caregiver is preferred
degree the knowledge because many young children are not looked after
generated can be applied by their biological mothers. Furthermore, with
This review exposes areas in different cultural and the exception of the earliest days of life, the care
of much needed research, socio-economic con- of young children is not limited to one person.
especially on the nature ditions. Published work Infants and young children frequently have several
and determinants of child from the United States key caregivers, as occurs in many African societies,
care by caregivers who are and Europe tends to take as well as in situations in which fathers, other
subjected to chronic place within a tradition of relatives, siblings and friends participate actively
stressors in their poor sustained research on a in the care of young children. There is no evidence
communities. topic and is therefore that biological mothers are more capable of caring
progressive. It is of for young children, apart from their role in
generally good quality breastfeeding, than fathers or other people who
and is subject to replication and validation by have a stable presence and are emotionally
researchers from different ideological and committed to the wellbeing of the child (Parke,
theoretical standpoints. 1978).
In comparison, work done in developed There are other ways in which the term care-
countries is frequently conducted by visitor giver, as a single individual responsible for the care
scientists with little knowledge of local priorities of one or more young children, may distort our
and culture. It tends to be once-off and is not understanding of the effects of caregiving on
sustained. As a result, comparatively little is children. Firstly, responsive caregiving by one
known about important issues of child care in person is frequently dependent on the caregiver’s
non-Western cultures, including the varieties and supportive relationships with other people in the
effects of the rearing of children by more than caregiver’s intimate social group. In addition, the
one intimate adult (polymatric child-rearing). In qualities of the caregiving relationships young
this respect, the review exposes areas of much children have with different people vary. The
needed research, most especially the nature and differences may serve to compensate for a
determinants of child care by caregivers subjected deficiency in a primary relationship, if and when
to chronic stressors in poor communities in it does occur (Hewlett, 1992; Rutter, 1979).
undeveloped countries. Several international agencies have incor-
porated a focus on early child development and
caregiving into their
The caregiver
frameworks of action for
The word caregiver as used in the paper denotes social development. For A caregiver is the person
the people who look after infants and young example, the World Bank who looks after infants
children. However, there is considerable contro- has committed support and young children.
versy about the most accurate and appropriate for interventions to
term by which to denote the wide variety of people improve early child
involved in regular child care. Some advocate the development on the basis of the fact that the
term parent or parenting to denote long-term quality of the first few years of a child’s life has a
family care. Parenting embodies past and future multiplier effect on society (Keating & Hertzman,
perspectives and deep emotional involvement in 1999; Young, 1996). The arguments outlined in
the rearing and socialization of a young child. In the Bank’s documentation stress both the
these ways, it is distinguishable from the motives economic and the neurobiological evidence for
and activities of people involved in short term or this support. For example, Mary Eming Young
professional care of children. Call (1984), for argues, “Fogel, the 1993 Nobelist in economics,
example, argues that the term caregiver, used states that the quality of early child development
6
1. INTRODUCTION: THE ROLE OF CAREGIVING IN THE DEVELOPMENT OF CHILDREN
Child survival
Growth Development
Adequate nutrient
Health
intake
Caregiving behaviours
Care for pregnant/lactating women
Feeding/breastfeeding
Household food Psychosocial and cognitive stimulation Health care and healthy
security Hygiene behaviours environment
Health seeking
Food preparation and storage
AVAILABILITY OF RESOURCES
Caregiving resources
Food/ Knowledge/beliefs Health
economic (Value of child care) resources
resources Health/nutritional status/anemia Water supply
Food production Mental health/stress Sanitation
Control of resources/autonomy
Income Health care
(Decision-making, allocation decisions, employment)
Labour Workload/time constraints availability
Land assets Social support Environmental
(Alternative caregivers, workload sharing, fathers’ roles, safety/shelter
community support)
7
2
Chapter
Historical background
The importance of stable, loving care for young children
WHO and the work of John Bowlby the caregiver-child relationship in a social and
economic context, and argued, “Just as children
T he World Health Organization (WHO) has
incorporated early child development through
activities in the areas of the Mental Health of
are absolutely dependent on their parents for
sustenance, so…are parents, especially their
mothers, dependent on a greater society for
children and Child and Adolescent Health and
economic provision. If a community values its
Development. For example, the Programme for the
children, it must cherish their parents” (p.84).
Enrichment of Interactions between Mothers and
Together with a film made in 1953 by James
Their Children was developed as a primary
Robertson, who worked with Bowlby at the
prevention tool in mental health, and Care for
Tavistock Clinic, the WHO monograph led to
Development is an element to support caregiving
widespread improvements in the care of children
in the larger strategy Integrated Management of
in hospitals, care centres and residential
Childhood Illness (IMCI).
institutions. Robertson’s film, A two year-old goes
WHO played a unique role in fostering research
to hospital, graphically illustrated the phases of
on attachments and early child development
separation effects on young children as they pass
through its commission to John Bowlby (Kjellberg,
through protest, to despair and finally detachment
1953; WHO, 1977; 1978). In 1949, Dr George
in their efforts to cope with the stress and pain of
Brock Chisholm, the first Director-General of
being separated from their principal attachment
WHO, established a mental health section with
figures. Practices began to be put in place to avoid
Dr Ronald Hargreaves as head. The third session
separating young children from caregivers.
of the Social Commission of the United Nations,
Furthermore, staff-child ratios in institutional care
held in April 1948, decided to make a study of
environments were reduced to allow professional
the needs of homeless children, given the
care staff to give more
widespread social dislocation that followed in the
individual attention to
wake of the Second World War. WHO offered to
young children, and The formation of an
contribute a study of the mental health of children
efforts were made to ongoing, warm relation-
orphaned or separated from their families and in
encourage family fost- ship is as crucial to the
need of foster or institutional care.
ering and adoption in child’s survival and
The initial groundbreaking work took place
order to avoid the institu- healthy development as
when Hargreaves employed John Bowlby, then
tionalization of young the provision of food,
head of the Children’s Department at the Tavistock
children. child care, stimulation
Clinic in London, on a 6-month contract to write
The importance of and discipline.
a report on the mental health of homeless children
Bowlby’s early writings
in post-war Europe. Bowlby reviewed the available
on maternal deprivation
literature and interviewed people in the United
lay in his emphasis on the primacy of inter-
States and Europe. WHO published his mono-
personal relationships for young children. He
graph Maternal care and mental health in 1951,
asserted that the formation of an ongoing, warm
and it has been translated into 14 languages.
relationship was as crucial to the child’s survival
Bowlby’s major conclusion, grounded in the
and healthy development as the provision of food,
available empirical evidence, was that to grow up
child care, stimulation and discipline (Hinde,
mentally healthy, “the infant and young child
1991; Rutter, 1995).
should experience a warm, intimate and
Bowlby also conceptualized a mental
continuous relationship with his mother (or
mechanism, an internal working model, whereby
mother substitute) in which both find satisfaction
early attachments came to influence later relation-
and enjoyment” (1951, p.13). Bowlby also saw
8
2. HISTORICAL BACKGROUND: THE IMPORTANCE OF STABLE, LOVING CARE FOR YOUNG CHILDREN
ships. On the basis of the quality of relationships among these infants who had food, water,
with caregivers, young children developed a set medicine, and other essential elements of care.
of expectations about how people would behave He proposed that the absence of a close caring
towards them and continued to respond in terms relationship led to the progressive signs of anaclitic
of these expectations irrespective of the other depression and finally death. Spitz depicted his
person’s actual behaviour. Bowlby went on to write observations of infant withdrawal, regression and
a trilogy, Attachment (1969), Separation (1973) and deterioration in his powerful 1947 film, Grief: A
Loss (1980). Together with the work of his early peril in infancy. The film widely publicized the
collaborator, Mary Ainsworth, he established what debilitating effects on young children of separation
is the pre-eminent contemporary account of the from caregivers and institutional care.
development of personal competence, social The plight of orphaned children after the
capacity, and child and adolescent behaviour Second World War created concern about the ill-
problems. effects on personality development of prolonged
institutional care or frequent changes of mother-
figures during the early years of life. This led to a
In looking back on…the 25 years since the
great deal of clinical and empirical research, in
first volume of his [Bowlby’s] trilogy on
both the United States and Europe, on the
attachment, it is obvious that the field has
developmental significance of the infant’s
changed out of all recognition. From the early
relationships with others (Bowlby, 1982).
years when he was criticized by academic
Following Bowlby’s monograph, the
psychologists and ostracized by the academic
momentum in child mental health was maintained
establishment, attachment concepts have
in the WHO. Between 1953 and 1955, Ronald
become generally accepted. That they have
Hargreaves organized four meetings of the world’s
become so, is a tribute to the creativity and
leading scholars in fields having an impact on
perceptiveness of Bowlby’s original formulation
children’s development. The people who attended
and to the major conceptual and methodo-
these meetings included Jean Piaget, Margaret
logical contributions of Ainsworth.
Mead, John Bowlby, Erik Erikson, Julian Huxley,
Rutter (1995, p.566) Bärbel Inhelder, Konrad Lorenz and Ludwig von
Bertalanffy – all regarded today as classic figures
in the social and psychological sciences. The
WHO also funded English and French sound
The effects of separation from a versions of James Robertson’s film on hospital-
familiar caregiver on the health and ization and, in 1954, convened a Study Group on
development of children the Child in Hospital.
John Bowlby’s work did not take place in isolation. In 1962, in response to widespread criticism
The studies he reviewed for the WHO went as far of Bowlby’s 1951 monograph, the WHO commis-
back as the turn of the century. He incorporated sioned a second monograph edited by Mary
into the review the accounts of infants less than 6 Ainsworth, Deprivation of maternal care: A
months of age who had been institutionalized for reassessment of its effects. The follow-up 1962
some length of time. The outstanding features of monograph dealt with misinterpretations of
these children were: listlessness, emaciation and Bowlby’s work (such as the assumed importance
pallor, relative immobility, quietness, unrespon- of the biological mother as the primary caregiver),
siveness to stimuli, an appearance of unhappiness, definitional problems (such as the effect of psycho-
poor sucking response, indifferent appetite, failure logical versus physical separation from caregivers),
to gain weight properly, frequent stools, poor the validity of generalizations (for example, from
sleep, and proneness to febrile episodes (Bowlby, institutional environments to day care), and
1951). methodological problems in controlling for
One of the major influences on Bowlby’s confounding effects in determining long-term
thinking at the time that he undertook the consequences. The monograph concluded that
commission for WHO was the work of René Spitz. separation experiences are only one factor in what
Spitz described emotional development in the first are frequently complex and multi-determined
year of life, and the emergence of what he called problems. It recommended greater specificity
anaclitic depression in infants separated from their regarding the universality and enduring nature
primary caregivers (Spitz, 1945; Spitz & Wolf, of maternal separation and deprivation effects,
1946). He identified the high level of mortality especially in relation to the development of what
9
THE IMPORTANCE OF CAREGIVER–CHILD INTERACTIONS FOR THE SURVIVAL AND HEALTHY DEVELOPMENT OF YOUNG CHILDREN
10
3
Chapter
11
THE IMPORTANCE OF CAREGIVER–CHILD INTERACTIONS FOR THE SURVIVAL AND HEALTHY DEVELOPMENT OF YOUNG CHILDREN
considerable influence over the behaviour of “there is no such thing as an infant”. In these early
others through the expression of their emotional relationships, the infant forms mental
states and through their temperamental representations of the world, including a self-
characteristics (Bell, 1974; 1979). concept, and these concepts and representations
More complex models of children’s develop- determine the child’s later motivations and
ment, necessitated by these gains in knowledge, interpretations of experiences (Waters et al.,
incorporated the concepts of feedback 1991). For this reason, loving, mutually
mechanisms with homeostatic functions taken responsive early care is essential for the child to
from control and cybernetic theory (Miller, develop into an emotionally secure and confident
Galanter & Pribram, 1960). Neither caregivers nor individual.
children behave in fixed Donald Winnicott (1965) described the
ways without regard to caregiver’s role in the early relationship with the
Neither caregivers the other’s behaviour. infants as “a stage of primary maternal pre-
nor children behave in Instead, their interactions occupation”. This is a period of heightened aware-
fixed ways without regard are mutually regulated in ness on the part of the caregiver to the state,
to the other’s behaviour. a dynamic and adaptable emotional expressions and behaviours of the
Their interactions are system (Bretherton, infant. This awareness enables the caregiver to
mutually regulated in a 1994). adjust sensitively and responsively to the child’s
dynamic and adaptable Several strands of needs.
system. theory and research have Winnicott described how the infant “finds
come together to form a himself reflected” in the absorbed adoration of
complex contemporary the mother’s gaze. In this relationship, the
understanding of children’s development in the caregiving creates a
first three years of life, including the role that “holding” environment,
personal exchanges with other people play in which comprises both Loving, mutually
children’s development (Bronfenbrenner, 1979). physical protection and responsive early care is
The strands include psychoanalytic theory, psychological contain- essential for the child to
particularly the Object Relations Theory, the work ment or envelopment. develop into an
of Lev Vygotsky and his followers, developmental Early relationships emotionally secure and
psycholinguistics, and developmental psychology. mirror for the infant a confident individual.
sense of being recog- If the infant is treated
nized, understood and with love and kindness, he
Psychoanalytic theory, particularly
validated through the or she feels worthy of
Object Relations Theory
experience of warm and love, and becomes capable
René Spitz, Melanie Klein, Donald Winnicott and empathic care. of feeling and expressing
other early child psychoanalysts based their Further, the mental love and kindness
theories on insightful observations of infants in state of the caregiver, towards others.
relationships with other people. They postulated determined by her own
that babies had an inborn sensitivity to the developmental history,
emotions of others, and to the ongoing exerts an effect on the attitudes, emotions and
interactions between themselves and their behaviours that she brings to child care. When
caregivers. They believed that these interactions an adult watches a loved infant or toddler during
were highly significant for the child’s healthy everyday life, there is a moment-by-moment
psychological development, and that insensitive triggering of her own thoughts, feelings and
care, neglect or abuse could distort or delay memories. These subjective experiences exert a
development (Fraiberg & Fraiberg, 1980; Spitz, determining effect on caregiving behaviour.
1945; Spitz & Wolf, 1946). In their relationships Many of these psychoanalytic concepts are
with others, infants develop a sense of self that is dealt with in more detail in Chapter 4.
akin to a mirror image of their experience with
the caregiver. If the infant is treated with love and
Lev Vygotsky and social mediation
kindness, he or she feels worthy of love, and
becomes capable of feeling and expressing love Jean Piaget’s theory depicted the cognitive growth
and kindness towards others. of a child as occurring largely as a result of the
It is in this sense that Winnicott (1965) child’s maturation. The Russian psychologist, Lev
observed that, without the mother’s contribution, Vygotsky, challenged this notion. Instead,
12
3. ADVANCES IN CHILD DEVELOPMENT THEORY AND RESEARCH
Vygotsky asserted, as did George Mead, that that are sensitive to the child’s cognitive
mental processes have social origins (Feinman, functioning – complementing and extending the
1991; Wertsch & Tulviste, 1992). According to child’s capacity – are essential for the child’s
Vygotsky’s theory of cultural development: cognitive development and acquisition of cultural
meaning (Rogoff & Wertsch, 1984). When
“Any function in the child’s cultural
caregivers successfully instruct young children,
development appears twice, or on two planes.
they do so by providing a scaffold consisting of
First it appears on the social plane, and then
linguistic and situational props, contingent on the
on the psychological plane. First it appears
child’s efforts and errors. The caregiver might
between people as an interpsychological
move an object closer, point to something, or
category, and then within the child as an
name an action to assist the child to overcome an
intrapsychological category. This is equally true
obstacle in the way of achieving a particular goal
with regard to voluntary attention, logical
(Feinman, 1991; Wood, 1980).
memory, the formation of concepts, and the
development of volition…It goes without
saying that the internalization transforms the Developmental psycholinguistics
process itself and changes its structure and
Enormous advances were made in developmental
functions. Social relations or relationships
psycholinguistics when knowledge about the
among people genetically1 underlie all higher
pragmatics of communication, how people try to
functions and their relationships” (Vygotsky,
influence others with words and communicative
1981, p.163).
gestures, was applied to
In this view, an individual’s functioning derives pre-speech communi-
from the internalization and mastery of social cation between infants Long before the child is
processes, that is, from the internalization of what and their caregivers able to speak, the
occurs between people. With respect to young (Austin, 1962). By this caregiver attributes
children, Vygotsky argued that there exists a “zone view of communication, meaning to the utterances,
of proximal development”, a potential level of the infant’s growing use gestures and actions of the
cognitive functioning, which the child can achieve of language requires first infant, and responds
with the guidance and collaboration of a more that the infant become accordingly.
experienced, perceptive and responsive adult. competent at influencing
This idea has a lot in common with Werner & their caregivers through
Kaplan’s theory of symbol formation (1963), the communication of his or her emotional and
whereby the child is able to acquire complex motivational states (Bruner, 1975).
concepts on the basis of the “primordial sharing Caregiver-child interaction during the first few
situation”. This sharing situation is a meeting months of the child’s life – the reciprocal and turn-
point between the child’s developing capacities taking interchange of looks, expressions and
and the symbolic medium provided by a caregiver. vocalizations – is a proto-dialogue or preverbal
The caregiver mediates the child’s experience of conversation (Bretherton & Bates, 1979; Stern,
the world by structuring it and giving it cultural 1977). Caregiver and child alternate “utterances”,
meaning. The adult vocalizations, gestures and facial expressions in
points out and explains what are called proto-conversations (Stevenson
objects and events. In et al., 1986). Caregivers attribute meaning to the
The caregiver simplifies
this way, the adult utterances, gestures and actions of infants and
and personalizes the
simplifies and person- respond according to inferred meanings and the
child’s experience so that
alizes the child’s experi- baby’s intentions. The caregiver might ask if the
it occurs in a form that
ence so that it occurs in a baby is tired when she observes the child’
the child, at her current
form that the child, at her becoming fretful, and she might try to settle the
level of development, is
current level of child to sleep.
able to use. The caregiver
development, is able to This early interaction predisposes the child to
complements and extends
use. language acquisition by sensitizing the infant to a
the child’s capacity.
Interactions between sound system, to the referential requirements of
caregivers and children speech or what is being talked about, and to
communication objectives such as getting the
other person to understand what one wants
1
Genetically means developmentally in this context. (Bruner & Sherwood, 1983). Prelinguistic
13
THE IMPORTANCE OF CAREGIVER–CHILD INTERACTIONS FOR THE SURVIVAL AND HEALTHY DEVELOPMENT OF YOUNG CHILDREN
communication first fulfils these functions in the developmental laboratories (Beckwith, 1972; Fish,
interactions between caregivers and infants. Stifter & Belsky, 1993; Hinde, 1976; Maccoby &
According to Halliday (1975), in these interactions Martin, 1983; Murray, 1991; Schaffer, 1977;
the child learns how to convey meanings to others Trevarthen, 1977).
long before she speaks. Although the precursors To a large degree, these advances in obser-
to language are extremely complex, in these ways vations were dependent on technological
early social interactions play a central role in advances, including improvements in videotaping,
language development (Bruner, 1983; Nelson, psycho-physiologic measurement, and the
1973). creation of behavioural taxonomic systems (Miller,
The preceding three strains of theory and Hollingsworth & Sander, 1985). Small sections
research, (object relations, social mediation, and of videotape of the face-to-face interactions
psycholinguistics) indicate the importance of early between non-clinical samples of mothers and their
interactions to emotional, social, cognitive and babies were subjected to micro-analysis. The
language development. In each theoretical area, analysis followed coding schemes that are sensitive
the mechanisms are assumed to be universal, for capturing complex interactive processes
although specific manifestations may vary with (Sawin, Langlois, & Leitner, 1977; Stern, 1974).
different cultural and situational circumstances. In some studies, these filmed observations were
What follows is an outline of findings since the paired with measurements of infant heart rate,
1970s regarding the development of infants and respiration and brain electrical activity.
young children in interaction with their intimate A variety of rating scales were developed,
caregivers. suitable for different ages and with differential
emphasis on language and/or socio-emotional
communication. New coding systems also
Developmental psychology
described aspects of the interaction between adult
In the early 1970s, there were dramatic changes and child, such as reciprocity and sensitivity.
in studies of infants. One of these changes Reliability and validity studies have confirmed the
occurred in observations of both naturalistic and usefulness of these measures for research and
contrived interactions between infants and their clinical purposes, as well as the associations
familiar caregivers, both at home and in between the constructs they measure and child
outcomes (Baird et al., 1992; Bakeman & Brown,
1977; Fogel & Thelen, 1987; Moustakas, Sigel,
An approach to observing and recording & Sachalock, 1956; Price, 1983; Siebert, Hogan
caregiver-infant interactions in a & Mundy, 1982).
naturalistic setting A remarkable reciprocity and mutuality is seen
as early as 4-6 weeks of age in these interactions
1. An observer might watch a caregiver and between infants and their caregivers. This
child in their home environment, in a care mutuality is expressed in cyclical bouts of
centre or in some other everyday setting. emotional expressiveness, eye contact, facial
The dyad may be engaged in routine activity, configuration, gesture, postural orientation, and
such as feeding, bathing, changing or vocalization (Cohn & Tronick, 1988). Caregiver
playing. and infant engage in rounds of smiling and
2. The observer will make the caregiver and looking at one another and alternating their
child comfortable and will try to be unob- communicative signals in a dialogue. The infant
trusive so that the couple’s behaviour is as responds to the expressions of the caregiver and
natural as possible. the caregiver appears to mirror and interpret the
ill-formed acts of the baby through her attunement
3. The observer may make continuous obser- to the infant’s apparent “state of mind”
vations, or record behaviours sampled on (Trevarthen, 1980). Caregivers speak in finely
the basis of time (for example, every 30 modulated and repetitive “baby talk”. The adult’s
seconds) or on the basis of events (for talk is:
example, caregiver vocalization).
“…synchronized with large smooth and
4. Recordings are made using pen and paper undulating movements of her head and
on checklists or rating scales, or using hand- face…She may touch her infant’s hands, face
held events recorders of a variety of kinds. or body in time with her speech. Her voice is
14
3. ADVANCES IN CHILD DEVELOPMENT THEORY AND RESEARCH
15
THE IMPORTANCE OF CAREGIVER–CHILD INTERACTIONS FOR THE SURVIVAL AND HEALTHY DEVELOPMENT OF YOUNG CHILDREN
behaviours emerge in the caregiver-child relation- states in others and to be expressive in reciprocal
ship in the second year and build on the ways. In a complementary fashion, caregivers of
reciprocity and turn taking established at the start all ages, respond to babies in the same supportive
of the caregiver-child ways, raising the possibility of corresponding
relationship (Hay, 1979; intrinsic systems in human caregivers to interact
People respond to babies Zahn-Waxler et al., with infants (Trevarthen, 1987b).
in feedback loops, 1992). Although caregivers and infants spend only a
initiated and adjusted in Experiments that small fraction of each day in the kind of intense
response to the infant’s disrupt or distort care- interaction elicited in observational studies –
ongoing behaviour. giver-child interaction usually during care
produce dismay and routines of bathing,
distress in both the dressing and feeding –
caregiver and the infant. One such experimental even brief interactions are Infants have intrinsic
perturbation involves asking the caregiver to stop nonetheless regarded as abilities to recognize
talking and to look at her child in an highly emblematic of the emotional states in others
expressionless way, called the “still face” condition quality of the early and to be expressive in
(Cohn & Tronick, 1989; Field, 1977; Tronick et relationship between reciprocal ways.
al., 1978). Another, using closed circuit video caregiver and child.
technology, has the child or the caregiver interact
with relayed filmed images of their partner from
Empirical findings regarding the
a previous session, producing an unsynchronised
perceptual and learning capacities
and non-contingent interaction that resists repair
of infants
and adaptation.
Under these conditions, when the infant’s
expectations for rhythmic, reciprocal interaction A major form of mythology about infancy has
are violated, she becomes visibly concerned. The been that the infant, especially during the
infant’s movements become jerky and neonatal period, is an incomplete, relatively
uncoordinated, and she attempts to draw the incompetent and inadequate organism; and
caregiver into interaction. When repeated that by a series of linear progressions, the
attempts to do so fail, the infant withdraws, averts infant becomes a complex, competent, and
her face, and shows signs of distress such as self- complete organism – as an adult. Such a view
stimulation, yawning and sleepiness, and is a logical and emotional heritage of the
fretfulness. The infant is initially puzzled when supposedly discarded notion that the infant is
the caregiver resumes their regular interactional a miniature adult with a tabula rasa, helpless
style, but the partners soon pick up their and passive, dependent on an imprint from the
interactional tempo (Brazelton et al., 1975). mature caretaker who provides a model for
Behaviour during perturbation experiments imitation and a stimulus for learning adult
indicates that infants only a few months old are modes of thinking and behaving.
extremely sensitive to the caregiver’s respon-
siveness, and that babies expect a particular kind Thoman (1979, p.446)
of contingent human interaction. In these short
exchanges, infants behave in ways that are In the 1960s a revolution occurred largely in the
reminiscent of the behaviour of the toddler in understanding of infant perception. The
James Robertson’s film, passing through phases revolution was largely as a result of innovative
of distress, despair and detachment. While these experiments in which infants were not only
brief experimental demonstrations are quickly presented with stimuli to elicit their responses as
repaired, they illustrate the likely response of in the past, but were also given opportunities,
infants to repeated or enduring experiences of through mechanical and electronic devices, to
these kinds. These disturbances probably play a express recognition, preferences and curiosity, and
part in the development of insecure attachments to change the way stimuli occurred (Thoman &
and in the response of infants and small children Freese, 1982). Sucking and suppression, head
to depressed caregivers. turning and gaze avoidance, and movements of
Several experts in the field have interpreted the the infant’s limbs are measured in response to
perturbation experiments as indicating that infants novel and habituated stimuli to gauge the infant’s
have intrinsic abilities to recognize emotional motivational state, recognition and memory, and
16
3. ADVANCES IN CHILD DEVELOPMENT THEORY AND RESEARCH
17
THE IMPORTANCE OF CAREGIVER–CHILD INTERACTIONS FOR THE SURVIVAL AND HEALTHY DEVELOPMENT OF YOUNG CHILDREN
JACQUELINE CIDÉRAC
Children’s facial
expressions of
emotional states
intimate caregivers. They also suggest that the ment to supportive experiences with people; the
infant requires matching forms of responsiveness dependence of the developing brain on social and
by caregivers for its biological and mental devel- emotional inputs for the establishment and
opment (Trevarthen, Murray & Hubley, 1981). retention of synaptic connections; and the
Colwyn Trevarthen argues that emotions “conditioning” of the brain by experiences in the
regulate interpersonal life. He is critical of those nurturing relationship with caregivers, especially
who think that the emotional responses of infants with regard to stress-reactivity.
and their reactions to the emotions of others are The infant’s brain has been described as being
undifferentiated. In support of his argument, he both experience-expectant and experience-
quotes Charles Darwin’s careful observations of dependent. New synaptic connections and the
his four and a half month-old son: “An infant maintenance of existing connections occur in
understands to a certain extent, and as I believe response to experiences (Als, 1977; Greenough
at a very early period, the meaning or feelings of & Black, 1992; Scarr, 1993; Wachs, 1992). That
those who tend him, by the expression of their is, infants’ neurological anatomy and physiology
features” (Trevarthen, Murray & Hubley, 1981, depend for their development and differentiation,
p.240). according to an evolving timetable, on meaningful
forms of sensory and motor stimulation from
caregivers. This stimulation includes the kind of
Recent advances in understanding
patterned activation that occurs during affective
the neurobiology of early experience
interactions with responsive caregivers.
Recent evidence suggests that children’s neuro- As examples of evidence for these claims,
logical development occurs in response to, and Greenough and Black (1992) found that dendritic
with an impact on, social and interpersonal growth in rat pups is dependent on particular
processes (Gottlieb, 1976; Nelson & Bloom, forms of tactile and emotional stimulation during
1997). Three findings in the emerging neuro- nursing. In human infants, interpersonal
science of child development have relevance for encounters involving mutual gaze start to peak at
this paper: the special sensitivity of brain develop- about 2 months of age. They are associated with
dramatic metabolic changes in the primary visual
cortex, during which the infant’s visual
Effects of a secure attachment experiences modify synaptic connections in the
relationship on right brain development occipital cortex (Katz, 1999). High-energy
growth-spurts in the brain during early childhood
…I have offered data that suggest that the are embedded in, and are regulated by, the
inceptive stages of development represent a emotional interchanges between infants and their
maturational period of specifically the early caregivers (Siegel, 2001). Siegel argues that there
maturing right brain, which is dominant in the is a great deal of agreement across a number of
first three years of human life. The right brain fields of research in different disciplines, in both
is centrally involved in not only processing animal and human studies, pointing to the
social-emotional information, facilitating attach- cardinal importance of emotional communication
ment functions, and regulating bodily and to the development of the brain (2001, p. 71).
affective states, but also in the control of vital These early brain developments can be halted
functions supporting survival and enabling the or distorted by an absence of experience-
organism to cope actively and passively with dependent neurochemical cues when expected
stress. experiences do not occur, as in an emotionally
Schore (2001a, p.10) deficient caregiving environment. They can also
be damaged by cues that are abnormal, as might
18
3. ADVANCES IN CHILD DEVELOPMENT THEORY AND RESEARCH
19
THE IMPORTANCE OF CAREGIVER–CHILD INTERACTIONS FOR THE SURVIVAL AND HEALTHY DEVELOPMENT OF YOUNG CHILDREN
20
3. ADVANCES IN CHILD DEVELOPMENT THEORY AND RESEARCH
language development
Across many dimensions because they enable the
of child and caregiver infant to isolate and
behaviour, unique recognize what will
adaptations in the become meaningful units
behavioural systems of of information (Stern,
both people prepare them Spieker & MacKain,
for a relationship on 1982).
which the infant is Across many dimen-
dependent for her sions of child and
development. caregiver behaviour,
unique adaptations in the
behavioural systems of
both people prepare them for a relationship on
which the infant is dependent for her development
(Melson, Fogel & Mistry, 1986).
WHO/CAH
Children can learn from adults through imitation
21
4
Chapter
The nature of
caregiver-child relationships
Attachment, development and cultural adaptation
22
4. THE NATURE OF CAREGIVER-CHILD RELATIONSHIPS: ATTACHMENT, DEVELOPMENT AND CULTURAL ADAPTATION
giver as a secure base from which to explore. They picked up. However, they do not want to be held
will experiment in an unfamiliar environment and for long and, as soon as they are put down, they
with unfamiliar objects while the attachment move off to play happily. When the attachment
figure is present. They move freely away from her, figure is absent, there is little exploration and
but keep track of her whereabouts with an heightened attachment is
occasional glance back at her. They move back to expressed in calling and
the caregiver to make brief contact with her from looking for the attachment Securely attached
time to time, and they respond positively when figure (Ainsworth, Bell & children have an
Stayton, 1974; Waters & internal representation
Cummings, 2000). of the caregiver as
Bowlby proposed the stable, responsive and
development of an internal caring. Insecurely
working model, a mental attached children –
representation of the attach- insecure-anxious and
ment relationship and insecure-avoidant –
eventually of the self, as the have representations of
mechanism by which attach- the caregiver as
ments became stable and by inconsistent and
which they exert an rejecting, respectively.
influence on the child’s
future behaviour and
LINDA RICHTER
23
THE IMPORTANCE OF CAREGIVER–CHILD INTERACTIONS FOR THE SURVIVAL AND HEALTHY DEVELOPMENT OF YOUNG CHILDREN
24
4. THE NATURE OF CAREGIVER-CHILD RELATIONSHIPS: ATTACHMENT, DEVELOPMENT AND CULTURAL ADAPTATION
25
THE IMPORTANCE OF CAREGIVER–CHILD INTERACTIONS FOR THE SURVIVAL AND HEALTHY DEVELOPMENT OF YOUNG CHILDREN
26
4. THE NATURE OF CAREGIVER-CHILD RELATIONSHIPS: ATTACHMENT, DEVELOPMENT AND CULTURAL ADAPTATION
27
THE IMPORTANCE OF CAREGIVER–CHILD INTERACTIONS FOR THE SURVIVAL AND HEALTHY DEVELOPMENT OF YOUNG CHILDREN
28
4. THE NATURE OF CAREGIVER-CHILD RELATIONSHIPS: ATTACHMENT, DEVELOPMENT AND CULTURAL ADAPTATION
29
THE IMPORTANCE OF CAREGIVER–CHILD INTERACTIONS FOR THE SURVIVAL AND HEALTHY DEVELOPMENT OF YOUNG CHILDREN
30
4. THE NATURE OF CAREGIVER-CHILD RELATIONSHIPS: ATTACHMENT, DEVELOPMENT AND CULTURAL ADAPTATION
31
THE IMPORTANCE OF CAREGIVER–CHILD INTERACTIONS FOR THE SURVIVAL AND HEALTHY DEVELOPMENT OF YOUNG CHILDREN
32
4. THE NATURE OF CAREGIVER-CHILD RELATIONSHIPS: ATTACHMENT, DEVELOPMENT AND CULTURAL ADAPTATION
aspect of the theory, exceeds inter-country were similar across the different cultures, but
variation (Main, 1990; van Ijzendoorn & were used differently. The emergence of play
Kroonenberg, 1988). and talk episodes, with the modulation of voice
The final set of studies has examined caregiver- effective for sustaining infant attention, were
child interactions through microanalysis of seen in this cultural setting as well as our own.
recorded observations among a variety of cultural Adult behavior, including speech in all cultures
groups around the world. For example, Keller, described to date, had an infantilized form
Schölmerich & Ebil-Eibelsfeldt (1988) observed when interacting with young infants. This
caregiver-child dyads between 2 and 6 months of seems to reflect the universal awareness of the
age from two Western (German and Greek) and capabilities of the young infant. The infants
two non-Western cultural groups (Yanomami displayed a full range of behaviours within our
Indians in Venezuela and Tobrian Islanders in New system in spite of very different social
Guinea). Martini and Kirkpatrick (1981) analysed experience” (Dixon et al., 1981, p.163).
videotapes of infants and mothers in the
Marquesas Islands in French Polynesia. Hausa
dyads have been studied in Nigeria (Marvin et Models of caregiving and parenting
al., 1977), as have African mother-infant pairs in Caregiver-child interactions occur within a
South Africa (Richter, Grieve & Austin, 1988), framework of caregiving and parenting, which,
Japanese infants with their mothers (Caudill & as we have seen from the above, are influenced
Weinstein, 1969; Bornstein, 1989b), Yoruba by both cultural and sub-cultural beliefs and
infants and their mothers in Lagos (Mundy-Castle, practices. Nonetheless, common dimensions of
1980; Trevarthen, 1987b), and mother-infant caregiving are manifest in all situations as a result
dyads amongst the Gusii in Kenya (Dixon et al., of the infant’s universal needs and developmental
1981; 1984). All these studies have concluded programme. At the same time, the infant’s
that emotionally expressive interactions with a “individual development
fundamentally common occurs in a family zone
dialogue structure take place where internal and external The common
Across cultures, between infants and their dimensions of
systems overlap and
emotionally expressive primary caregivers. caregiving across all
interact” (Balbernie, 2002,
interactions between Suzanne Dixon and her situations are a result
p. 330), and “where factors
infants and their colleagues (1981) in Kenya of the universal needs
found outside of the mother-
primary caregivers undertook an African- of infants.
baby relationship are being
have a common American comparison of 18 titrated into the developing
dialogue structure. Gusii infants with their psyche of the child” (p.335).
mothers, and 18 mother- Bradley and Caldwell (1995) see caregiving
infant pairs in Boston, in functions as a mutual regulator of human
three cohorts from 6 to 36 months of age. They behaviour and development in a transactional
recorded caregivers and children in free play and system (Sameroff & Fiese, 2000). They classify
engaged in a structured teaching task. The caregiving in terms of five primary caregiving
researchers conducted analyses of the data based functions that cannot be separated from one
on both micro- and macro- coding systems. They another:
found distinct variations in style between the two
groups, with Gusii mothers touching their babies • Sustenance: to promote biological integrity
more than American mothers. This finding was through the provision of food and shelter.
also reported amongst a Yoruba sample (Mundy- • Stimulation: to engage attention and provide
Castle, 1980), and in a South African study experience and information that is neither
(Richter, Grieve & Austin, 1988). However, Dixon incomplete nor excessive or disorganized
et al. concluded that: (Wohlwill & Heft, 1977). The deleterious
effects of understimulation on children were
“Gusii mother-infant face-to-face interaction brought to light a long time ago in studies of
was seen to be organized in a cyclic flow of institutionalized children (Skeels & Dye,
affective behaviours similar to interactions 1939).
described in our own culture…This organi- • Support: to meet social and emotional needs
zation suggests an underlying universal form… and to reinforce goal-directed behaviour.
The range and quality of affective behaviours • Structure: to differentiate inputs to the child
33
THE IMPORTANCE OF CAREGIVER–CHILD INTERACTIONS FOR THE SURVIVAL AND HEALTHY DEVELOPMENT OF YOUNG CHILDREN
34
4. THE NATURE OF CAREGIVER-CHILD RELATIONSHIPS: ATTACHMENT, DEVELOPMENT AND CULTURAL ADAPTATION
noise); caregiver characteristics (such as age, organise interactions with children so that
physical health and knowledge); and child empathic goals and concerns are achieved” (Dix,
characteristics (such as temperament, health and 1992, p.320). However, the arousal and
developmental status). These factors, together maintenance of empathic motivations in
with resource constraints and support systems, caregivers depend to some degree on supportive
are all inter-related to some degree and affect the environmental conditions and caregiver
extent to which the caregiver characteristics, both of which may need to be
and child can engage in addressed in intervention programmes.
mutually rewarding, devel-
Responsive parenting
opmentally appropriate,
comes about because How is it that some children become sad,
reciprocal interactions.
parents develop withdrawn and lacking in self-esteem, whereas
Theodore Dix (1991) sees
affectional ties that others become angry, unfocused and brittlely
responsive parenting as
make their child’s well- self-assertive, whereas still others become
emanating from empathic
being critically happy, curious affectionate and self-confident?
motivation in the caregiver
important to them. … Although the nature of these processes is
towards the child. Respon-
sive parenting comes about, not known, an answer is taking shape on the
he says, because “parents basis of recent work on the nature of infant-
develop affectional ties that make outcomes in caregiver emotional communication.
children’s wellbeing critically important to them. Tronick (1989, p.112)
When children’s wellbeing is important, parents
35
5
Chapter
The quality of psychosocial care provided the Three likely mechanisms involved in carrying
young child is reflected in the caregiver’s forward effects from caregiver-child interactions
responsiveness, warmth and affection, to later competence and adjustment involve
involvement with the child, and encouragement priming, the consolidation of internal working
of autonomy and exploration…There is models, and repetitive or enduring experiences.
considerable correlational and some experi- ■ The priming of the child’s responses to the
ment evidence [for the link between] the quality environment occurs through neurophysiological
of psychosocial care to a child’s development and psychological adaptations to the quality of
of mental abilities, and to his or her growth regulation experienced in very early caregiver-
and nutritional status. child interactions. Cohn and Tronick (1989) argue
Engle & Ricciuti (1995) that negative or disruptive interactions force the
infant to self-regulate their own negative
emotional states in an attempt to reduce the effects
As the determinants involved are complex and
of their caregiver’s inappropriate behaviour. “It is
transactional, it is difficult to attribute causes of
expected that the accumulation of such interactive
particular outcomes to highly specific antecedents.
experience has a structuring effect on infants such
It is not possible given the dynamic feedback
that a self-directed regulatory style comes to
systems involved, therefore, to generate empirical
dominate all interpersonal exchanges” (p.247).
evidence of simplistic associations between
Excessive needs for self-regulation are likely to
caregiver-child interactions and particular health
limit exploration and learning, and reduce a child’s
or development outcomes. For example, one
competence in interactions with others, including
cannot say that parental divorce causes child
peers.
psychopathology.
However, probabilistic assertions about ■ Internal working models or mental represen-
associations can be made on the strength of the tations of the self and other people determine
theoretical arguments and the correlative evidence subsequent behaviour. These can have a knock-
linking outcomes to caregiver-child interactions. on effect because the child may avoid experiences
36
5. THE IMPACT OF CAREGIVER-CHILD INTERACTIONS ON THE DEVELOPMENT AND HEALTH OF CHILDREN
that have the potential to alter negative represen- replication study with 96 children in New Haven
tations (Bretherton, 1987b; Main, Kaplan & across the first two years of life. Methods included
Cassidy, 1985; Zeanah & Anders, 1987). For naturalistic observations, standardized tests, semi-
example, if a child expects adults to be uncaring, structured situations and interviews. Measures of
she may stop seeking assistance and comfort from child social competence across a number of
adults, even though some adults in her developmental domains – cognition, language and
environment would respond warmly if she social relations – were found to be intercorrelated
approached them. and associated with a cluster of stimulating
■ Repetitive or enduring interactional failures may interactive maternal behaviours, including
become part of a cycle of determinants that are positive interaction with the child. These
linked to poor outcomes. In themselves, “they may associations were not attributable to socio-
seemingly be of little clinical significance and yet economic status or to maternal intelligence.
cause major problems because they may function Olson, Bates & Kaskie (1992) assessed 79
as starting points for chains of reciprocal conse- infants at 6, 13 and 24 months and then again at
quences, becoming vicious circles that hinder 6 years. Nonrestrictiveness and verbal stimulation
development” (Papous̆ek & predicted cognitive functioning at 6 years; and it
Papous̆ek, 1983, p.35). In was established that the association was not
If a child expects addition, enduring con- confounded by family socio-economic status,
adults to be uncaring, ditions of impoverished or child temperament or developmental level.
she may stop seeking neglectful interactions with Carlson (1998) reported a study of 157 mixed
assistance and comfort caregivers often reduce the ethnic infants in Minneapolis who were assessed
from adults, even likelihood of positive inter- on a large number of biological, social and
though some adults in actions with other adults in psychological measures in early childhood. The
her environment the child’s environment. This measures included mother-child interaction at 24
would respond minimises the exposure of and 42 months, preschool adjustment at 4 to 5
warmly. the child to compensatory years, teacher reports in grades 2, 3, 4, 6 and in
experiences. high school, ratings of self-esteem, as well as
aspects of parent-child relationships at 13 years.
Outcomes were assessed at 17 and 19 years of
Child development outcomes age. The results confirmed that ratings of the
The evidence linking caregiver-child interactions quality of caregiving determined attachment
during the first three years of life to child status, and that both early interactions and
development outcomes can be categorized into: attachment were related to outcomes in socio-
follow-up studies from early interaction; studies emotional functioning and behaviour problems
that examine particular outcomes such as at all subsequent ages.
psychopathology and child abuse; and studies of
alternative care, especially institutionalization. Attachment status. In a follow-up study, from 18
months to 5 years, of infants from 62 low income
families, Lyons-Ruth, Aspen & Repacholi (1993)
Follow-up studies from early interactions found that attachment status predicted aggressive
A variety of studies involve assessments of infants behaviour rated by preschool teachers. Similarly,
or young children, either in terms of the quality Pierrehumbert et al. (1989) examined 49 children
of caregiver-child interactions, attachment status, at 2 and 5 years and found that attachment at 2
or HOME scores, with follow-up into the pre- years predicted competence in peer relations at 5
school and school age groups and early adulthood years. In a longitudinal study in Uppsala, which
(Arend, Gove & Sroufe, 1979). Outcomes followed 96 children from 15 months to 9 years,
commonly measured include intellectual attachment status predicted a number of social
functioning, adjustment, social competence, self- and psychological outcomes. Secure children were
esteem, and social relationships (Matas, Arend & reported to be more popular, socially active and
Sroufe, 1978). A few studies, cited as examples, confident (Bohlin, Hagekull & Rydell, 2000).
are described below. In a review of longitudinal and concurrent
studies, Cohn, Patterson & Christopoulus (1991)
Quality of caregiver-child interactions. Clarke- found that attachment status was generally found
Stewart, VanderStoep & Killian (1979) report to be associated with peer relationships and
results from a panel study of 14 children and a popularity ratings in preschool and school
37
THE IMPORTANCE OF CAREGIVER–CHILD INTERACTIONS FOR THE SURVIVAL AND HEALTHY DEVELOPMENT OF YOUNG CHILDREN
JANE LUCAS
delinquency, especially boys.
in boys.
HOME scores. Many studies
in the USA report associa-
tions between early psychosocial care, as assessed Children want to share interests and information
about the world with adults
on the HOME scale, and later cognitive, social
and emotional development assessed through
interviews, observations and rating scales (Bee et
al., 1982; Bradley & Caldwell, 1984; Bradley et
Psychopathology and child abuse
al., 1989). For example, McGowan & Johnson Positive and stable caregiver-child relationships
(1984) examined parental teaching styles, warmth in the early years have been found to be associated
and affection, and HOME scores on the 8-year with better social adjustment and protection from
cognitive performance of 60 low income Mexican- psychopathology in long-
American children in Houston. Although maternal term studies of child out-
education was a powerful predictor of children’s comes (Garmezy, 1985; Positive and stable
intellectual functioning at school age, maternal 1988; Werner, 1989; Werner caregiver-child
attitudes of encouragement and reciprocity were & Smith, 1992; Zuravin, relationships in the
also related to cognitive outcomes. 1989). For example, Osborn early years are
A panel study of income dynamics used a (1990) reported, from the 5 associated with
randomized control design in eight sites to and 10 year follow up in the protection from later
examine education and support services in the Child Health and Education psychopathology.
Infant Health and Development Program. It found Study of more than 13 000
that HOME scores were a highly significant children in the UK, that
predictor of children’s IQ at 5 years, accounting children whose parents were child-centred, as
for more than 30% of family income effects on expressed in reading to children and spending
children’s cognitive functioning (Duncan, Brooks- time with them, were 2.5 times more likely to be
Gunn & Kiebanov, 1994). rated as competent than their peers.
Relationships between HOME scores rated in Keren, Feldman & Tyano (2001) assessed 113
infancy and later cognitive level have been found referred infants from well-baby centres in Israel,
to hold in high-risk settings, for example, in from which they selected 30 cases and matched
studies of low birth weight infants and low socio- them with control families. Referrals were mainly
economic status families (Bakeman & Brown, for eating and sleeping problems, aggressive
1981) and amongst malnourished children in behaviour and irritability. The most common
Jamaica (Grantham-McGregor, Schonfield & diagnoses were primary infant disorder and
Powell, 1987; Grantham-McGregor et al., 1991). parent-child relationship disorder. Mothers of
These relationships have also been established in referred children were found to have lower levels
a variety of disadvantaged settings, for example, of sensitivity, support and structure in their
in a Mexican village (DeLicardie & Cravioto, relationships with their infants than control
1974), in India (Argawal et al., 1992), in the mothers.
Philippines (Church & Katigbak, 1991), in rural Chronically disturbed and or interrupted
Kenya (Sigman et al., 1988) and in an Egyptian caregiver-child interactions, as well as disorg-
village environment (Wachs et al., 1993). anized attachments, have been found to occur
38
5. THE IMPACT OF CAREGIVER-CHILD INTERACTIONS ON THE DEVELOPMENT AND HEALTH OF CHILDREN
disproportionately amongst very young children average of 28 points), while the matched control
with anxiety, depressive disorders and behaviour group dropped an average of 26 points over the
problems (Crittenden, 1995; Egeland & Sroufe, same period. A 21-year follow-up of the two
1981a and b; Lewis et al., 1984; Lyons-Ruth, groups showed that the divergent pattern was
Esterbrooks & Cibelli, 1997; Zeanah, Boris, & maintained. All the experimental children were
Larrieu, 1997). self-supporting, while five of the control children
Disturbed caregiver-child interactions occur in remained in institutions for mentally handicapped
neglect and child abuse, conditions frequently individuals.
associated with insecure attachments. Several Even recent studies, mostly of children adopted
studies show a relationship between conditions out of Eastern European orphanages into homes
that disrupt caregiver-child relationships, such as in the United States, Canada and Britain, indicate
hospitalization, alcohol abuse, and the like, and that early age of institutionalization and length of
the risk of child abuse (for example, Klein and time spent in an institution are strong deter-
Stern, 1981). In addition, parental stress, impaired minants of later psycho-
parent-child interactions, and poor quality of the pathology (Marcovitch et al.,
home environment have been identified as specific 1997; Rutter, 1972). This is Children reared in
risk factors for physical abuse of children the case even though in most institutions in their
(Whipple, 1999), as has the caregiver’s own contemporary institutions, first year of life are
insecure adult attachment style (Montcher, 1996). including in resource-poor insecurely attached.
The effects of these conditions sometimes persist countries, an effort is made to They are more likely
across generations (Bousha & Twentyman, 1984; ensure that children receive to manifest socio-
Crittenden, 1993; Giovannoni & Billingsley, 1970; adequate mental stimulation emotional disorders
Kaufman & Zigler, 1989; Main & Goldwyn, 1984; and at least some individual and personality
Ricks, 1985). care. dysfunctions. They
Follow-up studies of tend to show
children reared in institutions
Institutional care indiscriminate
in their first year of life, and attachment and
The earliest reports of the negative effects of thus deprived of an intense friendliness, and are
maternal deprivation came from studies of and stable nurturant relation- clinging and attention
children institutionalized in their first year of life ship, have found that the seeking.
(Provence & Lipton, 1962). Studies of young children are insecurely
children in institutions still provide the most attached (Chisholm, 1998;
robust evidence for the importance of nurturant Landau, 1989; O’Connor,
caregiver-child interactions for children’s healthy Bredenkamp & Rutter, 1999) and that they
development. manifest socio-emotional disorders and
In one of the first intervention studies for personality dysfunctions (Lis, 2000). Long-term
children in institutions, Skeels and Dye (1939; studies into adulthood, for example by Rutter and
Skeels, 1966) placed 13 institutionalized infants Quinton (1984), show that institutionalization in
in the care of older girls, who “adopted” them the first five years of life jeopardizes adult
and provided them with consistent care from 6 emotional and social adjustment.
months of age. At 2 years, these children were Institution-reared children tend to show
found to have made dramatic gains in IQ (an indiscriminate attachment and friendliness, and
they are clinging and attention seeking. Their
needs for physical and psychological contact with
In 1977 a World Health Organization expert attachment figures, even in the stable care
committee concluded that continuity of provided by “substitute mothers”, are constantly
relationships to parental figures is especially frustrated. Their daily contacts with caregivers are
important in the first few years of life … short, and they are frequently separated from
children most at risk are those who experience caregivers as institutional staff are called to other
multiple changes of parent figures or who are activities or go off duty (Lis, 2000). In a recent
reared in institutions with many attendants who review, Frank et al. (1996) concluded that:
have no special responsibility for individual
“…infants and young children are uniquely
children.
vulnerable to the medical and psychosocial
(WHO, 1977, p.22) hazards of institutional care, negative effects
39
THE IMPORTANCE OF CAREGIVER–CHILD INTERACTIONS FOR THE SURVIVAL AND HEALTHY DEVELOPMENT OF YOUNG CHILDREN
40
5. THE IMPACT OF CAREGIVER-CHILD INTERACTIONS ON THE DEVELOPMENT AND HEALTH OF CHILDREN
ment without specific support. As a result, they through naturalistic observations at 1, 3 and 8
are less organized than full-term infants. They are months age, with follow-up to two years. They
fussier, cry more, are more difficult to soothe. found that interactional features at one month of
Their emotional states change more frequently and infant age predicted later competence on
more unpredictably than full-term infants (Crnic developmental scales, a finding they attributed to
et al., 1983; Friedman, Jacobs & Werthman, cumulative interactional effects.
1982). These infants are also generally less Beckwith and Rodning (1996) followed up 51
responsive to handling. preterm babies born into low-income families
Caregivers of preterm babies have been from birth to five years of age. The infants were
observed to interact with their infants differently assessed on the Bayley Scales of Infant
from full-terms. Goldberg’s review (1978) Development, The Reynell Language Scales, the
concluded that mothers of atypical babies, McCarthy Scales of Children’s Abilities, and other
including premature and low birth weight infants, measures of child performance and competence.
seem to work harder and carry more of the The researchers found that caregiver responsive-
“interactive burden” than mothers of normal, ness to infant vocalizations and infant irritability
healthy, full-term babies. Some caregivers were significant predictors of later competence,
compensate by becoming highly active in their taking into account the potential confounders.
interactions, a reaction that tends, in the They also found that maternal responsiveness had
homeostatic system of caregiver and child inter- a modifying effect on infant irritability, thus
action, to result in reduced responsiveness from diminishing the potential impact of a child risk
the baby (Macy, Harmon & Easterbrooks, 1987). characteristic.
Infants are reported to become inattentive to these
excessive overtures and to avoid their caregiver’s
gaze. Caregiver satisfaction with parenting is
frequently reported to drop under these
conditions (Crnic et al., 1983).
WHO/ARMANDO WAAK
JANE LUCAS
41
THE IMPORTANCE OF CAREGIVER–CHILD INTERACTIONS FOR THE SURVIVAL AND HEALTHY DEVELOPMENT OF YOUNG CHILDREN
42
5. THE IMPACT OF CAREGIVER-CHILD INTERACTIONS ON THE DEVELOPMENT AND HEALTH OF CHILDREN
43
THE IMPORTANCE OF CAREGIVER–CHILD INTERACTIONS FOR THE SURVIVAL AND HEALTHY DEVELOPMENT OF YOUNG CHILDREN
more socially isolated, passive, and less sensitive intake with little impairment
and responsive to their child’s needs than on the offspring (Galler et Nurturant mothering
caregivers in control groups (Arya, 1989; Chavez, al., 1984). protects children from
Martinez & Yaschine, 1975; de Miranda et al., Several studies report the combined stresses
1996; Dixon, LeVine & Brazelton, 1982; Galler disturbed relationships of rapid growth and
& Ramsay, 1985; Graves, 1976, 1978; Kerr, between malnourished low quality nutritional
Bogues & Kerr, 1978). children and their care- intake. Inadequate
On the basis of these findings, Galler et al. givers. Hepner and Maiden mothering precipitates
(1984) concluded, “It is increasingly clear that (1971), in a study of 9 000 malnutrition, even in
unfavourable or dysfunctional patterns of early disadvantaged urban chil- the presence of more
infant care or mother-infant interaction may be dren in Baltimore, used a adequate and balanced
significantly involved in the aetiology of matched control design and nutritional intake.
malnutrition” (p.270). However, in the absence assessed caregiving on
of longitudinal studies, it is also likely that the Polansky et al.’s Childhood
onset of early undernutrition could impair the Level of Living Scale (1972). They concluded that
infant’s ability to elicit and engage in positive social nurturant mothering protects children from the
interactions (Brazelton et al., 1977). Through combined stresses of rapid growth and low quality
transactional influences, the caregiver-child dyad nutritional intake, and that inadequate mothering
could get locked into precipitates malnutrition even in the presence of
maladaptive interactions, more adequate and balanced nutritional intake.
Dysfunctional especially if the caregiver is They observed, “A mother may have the best
patterns of early infant unable to adapt and respond intentions and desire to perform adequately, but
care or mother-infant sensitively to an irritable and her priority for this effort may be deflected by
interaction may unresponsive infant (Richter, inundating life circumstances beyond her control.
contribute Bac & Hay, 1990; Rossetti- Thus, the pathology of social and economic
significantly to Ferreira, 1978).
malnutrition. What is clear is that the
caregiving of malnourished
children is frequently
dysfunctional, whether antecedent to or
consequent upon malnutrition (ACC/SCN, 2000;
Ricciuti, 1981). In a follow-up study of 9-month-
old infants hospitalized for illnesses associated
with malnutrition, Richter, Bac & Hay (1990)
found that the rate and amount of catch-up
growth of the children at 2 years of age was
predicted by ratings of maternal warmth and
responsiveness. The authors speculate that good
caregiver-child relationships reduce the impact of
malnutrition on children and promote speedy
recovery from illness.
It is well known that nutrition and caregiving
factors cannot be separated in malnutrition, even
in highly controlled animal studies. This has been
clearly illustrated in studies of malnutrition in rats.
All methods of inducing malnutrition in rat pups,
whether through malnourishing the dam,
increasing the litter size, or mammectomising the
dam, result in mother rats compensating for the
WHO/L.TAYLOR
44
5. THE IMPACT OF CAREGIVER-CHILD INTERACTIONS ON THE DEVELOPMENT AND HEALTH OF CHILDREN
45
6
Chapter
Socio-economic conditions
A number of factors influence the
establishment, maintenance and quality of
caregiver-child interactions. These include factors
A large amount of work has been done in
developed countries on the impact of poverty on
in the wider social environment, such as resource
children’s development. The positive correlation
constraints and social support; factors associated
found between socio-economic status and
with child characteristics such as physical
children’s psychological development and adjust-
disability; and factors associated with caregiver
ment is consistent (Aber, Jones & Cohen, 1999;
characteristics, such as mental and physical health
Fitzgerald, Lester & Zuckerman, 1995; Garmezy,
(Belsky & Isabella, 1988; Engle & Ricciuti, 1995;
1991; Halpern, 1990; McLoyd, 1990; McLoyd &
Rutter, 1979).
Flanagan, 1990; Rahmanifar et al., 1993; Richter,
Belsky (1984), for example, identified three
1994a; 1999; Skinner, 1985).
kinds of determinants of the quality of parenting:
• Contextual sources of stress and support, of
While many causes underlie the developmental
which the quality of the marital relationship
problems of the young, the most profound and
is an important element;
pervasive exacerbating factor is poverty.
• Characteristics of the child, such as difficult Poverty does not harm all children, but it does
temperament; put them at greater developmental risk,
through the direct physical consequences of
• Psychological resources of the caregiver, with
deprivation, the indirect consequences of
a focus on depression, which depletes
severe stress on the parent-child relationship,
emotional and coping resources.
and the overhanging pall of having a
There is a very large literature on all of these depreciated status in the social environment.
factors, usually discussed under the general David Hamburg (in Halpern, 1990, p.14)
heading of developmental risk (Crittenden &
Bonvillian, 1984; Emde & Easterbrooks, 1985;
Engle & Ricciuti, 1995; Sameroff & Chandler, Poverty is not a distinct episode or state. Especially
1975). in developing countries, poverty is a conglomerate
Only selected, illustrative determinants are of conditions and events that create pervasive
discussed in the following section. It should be hardship and stress (Huston, McLoyd & Garcia-
noted that considerably Coll, 1994). Similarly, there is no single
more research has been done mechanism by which poverty affects children.
The positive on caregiver factors affecting Rather, says Robert Halpern (1990), “poverty
correlation between the quality of relationships increases the likelihood that numerous risk factors
socio-economic status with children, than the will be present simultaneously – in the child, the
and children’s reverse; that is, the impact of parents, the family’s informal support system, and
psychological child characteristics on the neighbourhood; as a corollary, poverty reduces
development and caregiver-child interactions the likelihood that protective factors will be
adjustment is is a relatively less developed present” (p.9). In addition, risk factors accumulate
consistent in all area of study. and concentrate over time, and few opportunities
societies. are available for children in poverty, especially in
underdeveloped communities, to escape from
these cumulative effects or to benefit from
interventions that might ameliorate their impact.
46
6. SOCIAL AND PERSONAL DETERMINANTS OF THE QUALITY OF CAREGIVER-CHILD INTERACTIONS
One of the important concerns about their baby and less satisfaction
Risk factors ways in which poverty with the social support available to them. These
accumulate and affects children is through its mothers reported feeling overwhelmed by the
concentrate over time. impact on home environ- challenges of caring for a vulnerable child.
Few opportunities are ments, family life, child care Infant temperament,
available for children and parenting. For many particularly infant difficult-
in poverty, especially people, life is chronically ness, has been found to be Mothers report feeling
in underdeveloped stressful as events outside of associated with caregiver- overwhelmed by the
communities, to their control, relating to child interaction (Bates, challenges of caring
escape from these work, housing, family, and Bennett Freeland, & Louns- for a vulnerable child.
cumulative effects or other matters, impinge on bury, 1979; Campbell,
to benefit from them in continuous ways, 1979). Sometimes also
interventions that depleting their capacity to called behavioural style, temperament is believed
might ameliorate their cope. The World Bank to have constitutional origins.
impact. publication, Voices of the Difficult children are described as fussy, labile,
Poor: From Many Lands, hard to soothe, with frequently negative affect,
contains accounts of “people irregularity in eating and sleeping, intense
who are worn down by persistent deprivation, reactions to stimuli, and slow adaptation to
and buffeted by severe shocks they feel ill changes in the environment. Children with these
equipped to overcome” (Narayan & Petesch, characteristics clearly present challenges to
2002, p.1), “childhoods lived struggling against sensitive care (Belsky & Isabella, 1988).
the pain of hunger, humiliation and violence” Difficult temperament, however, may be an
(p.486), communities exploited by corruption and advantage in some circumstances. De Vries (1984)
crime, and people who are disregarded and tracked Masai children in Kenya from one season
disrespected by those institutions in society that to another, during which time a severe drought
are meant to provide them with assistance – health occurred that reduced the availability of food. The
services, welfare offices, agricultural extension growth of children who were rated as irritable,
workers, and so on. difficult and demanding before the season was not
It is clear that the stressors occasioned by these as adversely affected as the growth of easier, less
conditions make it difficult to provide sensitive, demanding children. DeVries speculated that the
responsive and stimulating care for young children “difficult” behaviour of these children might have
(McLoyd, 1995). Balbernie (2002) suggests that led to them receive more attention and nutrition
children may place additional burdens on than easier, less demanding children. Health
caregivers stressed by material concerns: “Babies workers in developing countries report a similar
broadcast their demands to the exclusion of effect among hospitalized children. Infants who
everybody else’s. If parents feel depleted, carry a cry vigorously and persistently are more likely to
history of unmet needs and on top of that are receive attention than passive, quiet babies. In
struggling to simply get by, then the baby is not resource-constrained environments, the care-
just an additional burden, but may also trigger giving a child receives as a result of these
envy and be unconsciously cast as scapegoat” temperamental variations may mean the difference
(p.332). Certainly, several studies have between life and death.
demonstrated a relationship between adversity
and the quality of caregiver-child relationships
Caregiver characteristics
(Shaw & Vondra, 1993).
Characteristics of caregivers that are associated
with caregiver-child relationships include age,
Child characteristics knowledge and mental state, situational factors
A number of child characteristics have been found in the home, marital relations and autonomy, and
to negatively affect caregiver-child interaction, circumstances beyond the home, such as
including prematurity and congenital community resources and supports (Badger, Burns
malformations. For example, Bennett and Slade & Vietze, 1981; Cochran & Brassard, 1979; Engle
(1991) followed 53 mothers of infants with a & Ricciuti, 1995; Lyons-Ruth et al., 1984;
range of neonatal conditions. Mothers of higher Okagaki & Divecha, 1993; Ragozin et al., 1982;
risk infants reported higher levels of emotional Spieker & Booth, 1988).
distress and depressive symptomatology, more Social support is usually conceptualised in
47
THE IMPORTANCE OF CAREGIVER–CHILD INTERACTIONS FOR THE SURVIVAL AND HEALTHY DEVELOPMENT OF YOUNG CHILDREN
48
6. SOCIAL AND PERSONAL DETERMINANTS OF THE QUALITY OF CAREGIVER-CHILD INTERACTIONS
WHO/D. WHITNEY
preoccupation, irritability, diminished emotional
involvement, increased hostility and resentment,
fatigue and helplessness (Weissman, Paykel &
Klerman, 1972). A very large number of studies
demonstrate that depressed mothers are
withdrawn and/or intrusively insensitive in their Many people in the home environment can provide
a child with supportive care
interactions with their infants and young children
(Cohn et al., 1986; Cooper et al., 1999; Donovan,
Leavill & Walsh, 1998; Hart, Field & Roitfarb, Apart from its effect on children’s adjustment and
1999) and that, from a very early age, infants show attention, caregiver depression may threaten the
a disturbed reaction to such behaviour (Field, survival and health of children through a number
1984, 2000; Lyons-Ruth et al., 1986; Martins & of mechanisms, including lack of adequate care
Gaffan, 2000). Effects of maternal depression on and decreased surveillance of the child’s safety
infants may persist well into childhood and early (Bagedahl-Strindlund, Tunnell & Nillson, 1988;
adolescence in the form of behaviour disorders, Rutter, 1990a; Webb, Sanson-Fisher & Bowman,
anxiety, depression and attentional problems (Cox 1988). For example, McLennan & Kotelchuck
et al., 1987; Galler et al., 2000; Goodman et al., (2000), using data from more than 8 000 women
1993; Kurstjens & Wolke, from the National Maternal and Infant Health
2001; Murray, 1992; Murray Survey in the United States, found that depressed
The negative effects of et al., 1999; Petterson & women were less likely to engage in a number of
the caregiver’s Albers, 2001). child health and development preventive
depression on an As a result of these practices, including the use of child car seats or
infant may persist well studies, there is a general restraints, electrical plug covers, and reading to
into childhood and consensus that caregiver children to encourage literacy. Similarly, Rahman,
early adolescence – in depression during the early Harrington & Bunn (2002) and others (Zeitlin,
behaviour disorders, years of children’s lives has Ghassemi & Mansour, 1990) have suggested that
anxiety, depression long-term effects on their there are grounds to think that maternal
and problems with development. The effects are depression plays a role in the risk of infant illness
attention. compounded with other and growth impairment in developing countries
risks, such as extended through decreased child surveillance and
duration of the depressive inattention to simple health promotional activities.
episode, low socio-economic status and being a They suggest that an appreciation of the relation-
male child (Field, 1994 McLennan, Kotelchuck ship between maternal depression and child
& Cho, 2001; Murray, Hyswell & Hooper, 1996; health will have significant effects on child health
Rutter, 1990b). programmes in developing
It is not yet clear what accounts for the risk of countries.
psychopathology in children of depressed Depression amongst Maternal depression
mothers. The heritability of depression is a factor; women with young children plays a role in the risk
as are potentially dysfunctional neuroregulatory is very high, reaching up to of infant illness and
mechanisms arising innately or through lack of 40% among non-working impaired growth
contingent support from caregivers; exposure to poor mothers of preschool through decreased
negative caregiver cognitions and erratic children (Chakrabotry, child surveillance and
behaviour; and the stressful context of the 1991; Puckering, 1989; inattention to simple
children’s lives brought about by having an Sartorius, 1974). For health promotional
emotionally disturbed caregiver (Dodge, 1990; example, Cooper et al. activities.
Goodman & Gottlib, 1999). (1999) found a prevalence in
49
THE IMPORTANCE OF CAREGIVER–CHILD INTERACTIONS FOR THE SURVIVAL AND HEALTHY DEVELOPMENT OF YOUNG CHILDREN
excess of 30% among 147 women of 2-month- McLennan and Offord (2002) have looked at a
old babies in a poor peri-urban settlement in number of criteria for incorporating programmes
South Africa. Similarly, Patel (2002) found addressing maternal depression as part of public
depressive disorders in 23% of the women they health efforts to promote children’s mental health.
examined in Goa, 6 to 8 weeks after childbirth. These include:
These authors conclude that maternal and child
• The plausibility for causation of caregiver
health policies, which are a priority in low-income
depression for child mental health;
countries, need to integrate caregiver depression
as a disorder of public health significance. Alvarez, • High attributable risk of caregiver depression
Wurgaft & Wilder (1982) made an analogous for child mental health;
point with respect to interventions for mal- • Alterability of the relationship between
nourished children. They concluded, “A caregiver depression and child mental health;
depressed, emotionally depleted mother will not
be able to utilize educational input. Interventions • Caregiver depression being detectable
will have to be broad yet specific enough to through screening;
address and ameliorate the dynamics underlying • Feasible dissemination of interventions for
the detrimental patterns, and will have to go well targeting maternal depression;
beyond content teaching” (p.1369).
• Low adverse risk of interventions for
maternal depression; and
Preventive strategies such as infant feeding
advice, sanitation, immunization, health • Acceptability of child mental health and
education and health-seeking behaviours are intervention by key stakeholders.
mostly directed at the mother. The impact of In their review, McLennan and Offord found
these programmes is related, therefore, to the mixed support for programmes on the seven
functional capacity of this group, their criteria. The authors urge that further research is
receptivity to the message and uptake of the needed on the preventive implications of
intervention offered. The mother’s psycho- programmes to ameliorate the impact of caregiver
logical well-being is probably key to the depression on children’s mental health.
success of these programmes.
Rahman, Harrington & Bunn (2002, p.54)
50
7
Chapter
51
THE IMPORTANCE OF CAREGIVER–CHILD INTERACTIONS FOR THE SURVIVAL AND HEALTHY DEVELOPMENT OF YOUNG CHILDREN
It is urgent that program- life. The impact of the HIV/AIDS epidemic, like
Improved caregiver- mes to enhance caregiver- the homelessness of children following the Second
child interactions child relationships in World War, is a crisis of human development
promote the health developing countries are whose effects will endure for several generations
and development of designed and tested. through its impact on young children.
vulnerable children. Improved caregiver-child It is urgent that the knowledge gained about
They also increase the interactions promote the the importance of caring relationships between
resilience of young health and development of adults and children be applied to benefit children
children to the vulnerable children and and caregivers in all of these situations.
damaging effects of increase the resilience of
poverty and young children to the
Early child development (ECD) programs that
deprivation. damaging effects of poverty
comprehensively address children’s basic
and deprivation.
needs – health, nutrition, and emotional and
intellectual development – foster development
Conclusion of capable and productive adults. And early
interventions can alter the lifetime trajectories
Children who live in difficult conditions are
of children who are born poor or are deprived
additionally dependent on the nurture of primary
of the opportunities for growth and develop-
caregivers to shield them from the most
ment available to those more fortunate. These
threatening features of their environment. Warm
facts are well known today and are founded
and responsive caregiving extends protection to
on evidence from the neurological, behavioral
children in otherwise adverse conditions.
and social sciences, and the evaluation of
Conditions of chronic and worsening poverty
model interventions and large, publicly funded
prevail in many parts of the world. There are
programs.
countless communities fraught with violence and
instability. Thousands of people flee their homes Mary Eming Young (2002, p.1)
each year in search of food, safety and a better
52
Glossary
Affectionless, psychopathic character: A person returns. The child clings to the caregiver
incapable of intimate one-to-one relationships when they are reunited, but seems little
because of a lack of empathy for others. John comforted by the caregiver’s presence.
Bowlby argued that maternal deprivation — Disorganized/disoriented attachment:
resulted in an ‘affectionless personality’. Infants with ‘disorganized’ attachment, on
Anaclitic depression: First described by Rene the other hand, appear disoriented during
Spitz in 1945 as an emotional response in interactions or behave in a manner that
securely attached infants who are separated suggests anxiety. A child with a classifi-
from their regular caregivers for extended cation of disorganized attachment displays
periods of time. The infant may become listless, a combination of resistant and avoidant
withdrawn, lose their appetite and interest in patterns that reflects confusion about
their surroundings, and become hyper-vigilant whether to approach or avoid the caregiver,
with widened, unblinking gaze and immobility. sometimes appears afraid of the caregiver,
The result may be death. and may show different patterns in different
Attachment: An emotional bond between infant episodes.
and one or more adults. The infant will Attunement: An empathic responsiveness
approach these individuals in times of distress, between two individuals, described by Daniel
particularly during the phase of infant Stern as the “performance of behaviours that
development when the presence of strangers express the quality of feeling of a shared affect
induces anxiety. In addition, the infant is state” (1985, p.142). Attunement is different
distressed if separated from attachment figures. from imitation.
Attachment status: A description of an infant’s Behavioural paediatrics: A field of study that
attachment as being either secure or insecure. concentrates on the diagnosis, aetiology and
• Secure attachment: A child who is securely management of common behavioural problems
attached actively explores the environment in and the recognition of serious mental illness
the presence of the caregiver, is visibly upset in childhood.
by separation, and greets the mother warmly Behaviourism: A school of psychological thought
when they are reunited. that studies only unambiguously observable
• Insecure attachment: Attachment that takes and preferably measurable behaviour.
one of three forms: avoidant attachment, Coding scheme: A set of descriptors according
anxious-resistant attachment and disorganized/ to which observed behaviour is classified.
disoriented attachment. Coding schemes can be hierarchical with sub-
— Avoidant attachment: A child who categories.
displays avoidant attachment shows little Contingency: In the context of early caregiver-
distress when separated from the caregiver infant interaction, contingency refers to a
and may turn away to avoid contact or to behaviour on the part of one individual of the
ignore her when they are reunited. dyad that depends for its occurrence on a
— Anxious-resistant attachment: A child particular behaviour on the part of the other
whose attachment classification is of the individual. The caregiver’s behaviour is
anxious-resistant type tries to stay close to contingent on the behaviour of the infant if the
the caregiver, explores very little while she caregiver’s behaviour occurs specifically,
is present, is very distressed when the immediately and appropriately in response to
caregiver leaves but ambivalent when she the infant’s behaviour.
53
THE IMPORTANCE OF CAREGIVER–CHILD INTERACTIONS FOR THE SURVIVAL AND HEALTHY DEVELOPMENT OF YOUNG CHILDREN
54
GLOSSARY
molecular codes refer to the smallest units of Psychosocial care: Psychological nurturance
meaningful behaviour that can be observed, for provided by persons in an individual’s social
example, infant looks at mother. Macro-codes environment.
refer to processes or states that are made up of Reciprocity: The situation where an action by one
several behavioural components, for example, individual is returned by an action by the
baby is fretful. The micro-codes for fretfulness recipient. This ‘give and take’ arrangement is
could be made up from mouth down turned, usually mutually agreed upon, implicitly if not
arm waving, back arching, crying, etc. explicitly.
Non-clinical samples: Persons included in a Regression: A return to an earlier, more im-
study but who do not form part of a particular mature, level of functioning.
group characterised by some or other medical
Reinforcement: Any action, event or experience
or psychological background.
that increases the probability of a response
Observational study: A study which derives its recurring.
information from observing situations,
Responsiveness: The capacity of the caregiver to
behaviours and responses on the part of
respond contingently and appropriately to the
particular individuals or groups.
infant’s signals.
Object Relations School: A group of psycho-
Scaffolding: A concept derived from Vygotsky’s
analysts who attempt to understand inter-
theory of mediated learning, scaffolding is the
personal relationships by focusing on people
process by which someone organizes an event
as internalised “objects” that can have
that is unfamiliar or beyond a learner’s ability
conflicting properties.
in order to assist the learner in carry out that
Phylogenetic: The origin and evolution of a event.
species of animal or plant (as opposed to onto-
ScienceDirect: A digital library that began as a
genetic, the origin of an individual organism).
database of Elsevier Science journals and is now
Priming: In learning theory, priming refers to the one of the largest providers of scientific,
preparation of a subject (human or animal) by technical and medical (STM) literature.
presenting a specific experience that makes the
Self-regulation: The act of soothing or calming
subject more sensitive or responsive to a wide
oneself at times of high physiological and/or
range of stimuli.
emotional arousal.
Proprioceptively organized action: Behaviour
Sensitivity: The capacity of the caregiver to be
which relies primarily on sensory information
aware of the infant and aware of the infant’s
from the muscles, tendons, and joints that
acts and vocalizations as signals communicat-
helps one to locate the position of one’s body
ing needs and wants. Ainsworth described
or body parts in space.
sensitivity as regarding the child as a separate
PsychLIT: A database of psychological literature person, and being capable of seeing things from
held by the American Psychological the child’s point of view.
Association. Formerly published in book form
Separation effects: When a child has formed an
as ‘Psychological Abstracts’, the current data-
attachment, she will display any of a range of
base is electronic in form and is also available
distress behaviours when separated from the
through the Word Wide Web.
attachment figure, including protest,
Psychoanalytic theory: Generally refers to fearfulness, and despair. Prolonged separation
Freudian theory but also describes clinical or produces additional effects such as despair,
therapeutic procedures based on Freudian protest, withdrawal, weeping.
ideas, especially those related to the
Social mediation: Assistance and/or guidance
unconscious.
given by other members of an individual’s
Psychological holding: Donald Winnicott’s group. In Vygotsky’s theory, social mediation
conception of the psychic space between the refers to the acquisition of meaning by the child
mother and infant, which he held was neither through his familiarity with the way in which
wholly psychological nor physical, and which words are used or things are done. For
allows for the child’s transition to being more example, the infant’s learning how to use a
autonomous. spoon is socially mediated.
55
THE IMPORTANCE OF CAREGIVER–CHILD INTERACTIONS FOR THE SURVIVAL AND HEALTHY DEVELOPMENT OF YOUNG CHILDREN
Social referencing: The use of information from Taxonomic systems: A collection of procedures
the responses of others as clues to the meaning whereby names or descriptions are allocated
of otherwise ambiguous situations and/or as a according to an agreed upon logical procedure
guide for one’s own reactions. for a particular set of objects.
Symbolic medium: Representational facility Temperament: An individual’s characteristic
whereby words, images or actions are used as mode of responding emotionally and behav-
symbols to represent or stand for objects and iourally to environmental events. Temperament
experiences. includes the dimensions of irritability, activity
Tabula rasa: The notion that the mind of a human level, fearfulness and sociability.
being is a blank slate at birth and that all Withdrawal: The emotional state and demeanour
behaviour and knowledge is acquired through of a depressed adult or child. Such individuals
experience. show little interest in their surroundings, they
lack enthusiasm, appear sad and are relatively
inactive and unreactive.
56
Bibliography
Abel, S., Park, J., Tipene-Leach, D., Finau, S., & Ainsworth, M.D.S. (1967). Infancy in Uganda: Infant
Lennan, M. (2001). Infant care practices in New care and the growth of love. Baltimore: John Hopkins
Zealand: a cross-cultural qualitative study. Social University Press.
Science and Medicine, 53(9), 1135–1148. Ainsworth, M.D.S. (1969). Object relations, depend-
Aber, J.L., Jones, S., & Cohen, J. (1999). The impact ency and attachment: A theoretical review of the
of poverty on the mental health and development infant-mother relationship. Child Development, 40,
of very young children. In C.H.Zeanah (Ed.), The 969–1025.
Handbook of Infant Mental Health. (p. 113–128). New Ainsworth, M.D.S. (1973). The development of infant-
York: The Guilford Press. mother attachment. In B.Caldwell & H.Ricciuti
Abravanel, E., & Sigafoos, A.D. (1984). Exploring the (Eds.), Review of Child Developmental Research. (p.
presence of imitation during early infancy. Child 1–94). Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
Development, 55, 381–392. Ainsworth, M.D.S. (1979). Infant-mother attachment.
ACC/SCN Commission. (2000). Ending malnutrition American Psychologist, 34, 932–937.
by 2020: An agenda for change in the millennium. Ainsworth, M.D.S. (1982). Attachment: Retrospect and
Food and Nutrition Bulletin, 21(3), (supplement). prospect. In C.M.Parkes & J.Stevenson-Hinde
Adamakos, H., Ryan, K., Ullman, D.G., Pascoe, J., Diaz, (Eds.), The place of attachment in human behaviour.
R., & Chessare, J. (1986). Maternal social support (p. 3–30). New York: Basic Books.
as a predictor of mother-child stress and stimula- Ainsworth, M.D.S. (1985a). Attachments across the life
tion. Child Abuse and Neglect, 10, 463–470. span. Bulletin of the New York Academy of Medicine,
Adams, P.L. (1987). The mother not the father. Journal 61(9), 792–812.
of the American Academy of Psychoanalysis, 15(4), Ainsworth, M.D.S. (1985b). Patterns of infant-mother
465–480. attachment: Antecedents and effects on develop-
Adamson, L.B., & Bakeman, R. (1984). Mothers’ com- ment. Bulletin of the New York Academy of Medicine,
municative acts: Changes during infancy. Infant 61(9), 771–791.
Behavior and Development, 7, 467–478. Ainsworth, M.D.S. (1989). Attachment beyond infancy.
Ahnert, L., & Lamb, M.E. (2001). The East German American Psychologist, 44, 709–716.
Child Care System: Associations with caretaking and Ainsworth, M.D.S. (1992). A consideration of social
caretaking beliefs, and children’s early attachment referencing in the context of attachment theory and
and adjustment. American Behavioral Scientist, research. In S. Feinman (Ed.), Social referencing and
44(11), 1843–1863. the social construction of reality in infancy. (p. 349–
Ainsworth, M.D.S. (1962). The effects of maternal dep- 367). New York: Perseus Press.
rivation: A review of findings and controversy in Ainsworth, M.D.S. (1993). Attachment as related to
the context of research strategy. In M.S.D.Ainsworth, mother-infant interaction. Advances in Infancy
R.G.Andry, R.G.Harlow, S.Lebovici, M.Mead, Research, 8, 1–50.
D.G.Prugh, & B.Wootton (Eds.), Deprivation of
Ainsworth, M.D.S. (1997). The personal origins of
maternal care: A reassessment of its effects. (p. 97–
attachment theory. An interview with Mary Salter
165). Geneva: World Health Organization.
Ainsworth. Interview by Peter L. Rudnytsky. Psy-
Ainsworth, M.D.S. (1964). Patterns of attachment choanalytic Study of the Child, 52, 386–405.
behavior shown by the infant in interaction with
Ainsworth, M.D.S., Andry, R.G., Harlow, R.G.,
his mother. Merrill Palmer Quarterly,1, 51–58.
Lebovici, S., Mead, M., Prugh, D.G., & Wootton,
B. (1962). Deprivation of maternal care: A reassess-
ment of its effects.
57
THE IMPORTANCE OF CAREGIVER–CHILD INTERACTIONS FOR THE SURVIVAL AND HEALTHY DEVELOPMENT OF YOUNG CHILDREN
Ainsworth, M.D.S., & Bell, S. (1970). Attachment, Vandell, D.L., Wallner- Allen, K., & Weinraub, M.
exploration, and separation: Illustrated by the (2001). Nonmaternal care and family factors in early
behavior of one-year-olds in a strange situation test. development: An overview of the NICHD Study of
Child Development, 41, 49–67. Early Child Care. Journal of Applied Developmental
Ainsworth, M.D.S., Bell, S.M., & Stayton, D.J. (1972a). Psychology, 22(5), 457–492.
Individual differences in the development of some Alpher, V.S. (1984). Attachment: A reconsideration of
attachment behaviours. Merrill-Palmer Quarterly of its heterogeneity and construct validity. Psychologi-
Behaviour and Development, 18, 123–143. cal Reports, 54, 531–535.
Ainsworth, M.D.S., Bell, S.M., & Stayton, D.J. (1972b). Als, H. (1977). The newborn communicates. Journal
Individual differences in strange situation behavior of Communication, 27, 66–73.
of one-year-olds. In H.R Schaffer. (Ed.), The origins Als, H., & Duffy, F.H. (1983). The behavior of the pre-
of human social relations. (p. 17–57). London: Aca- mature infant: A theoretical frame work for a sys-
demic Press. tematic assessment. In T.B.Brazelton & B.M.Lester
Ainsworth, M.D.S., Bell, S.M., & Stayton, D.J. (1974). (Eds.), New approaches to developmental screening of
Infant-mother attachment and social development: infants. (p. 153–173). New York: Elsevier Science
“Socialization” as a product of reciprocal respon- Publishing Co., Inc.
siveness to signals. In M.P.M.Richards. (Ed.), The Als, H., & Gilkerson, L. (1997). The role of relation-
integration of a child into a social world. (p. 99–135). ship-based developmentally supportive newborn
Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press. intensive care in strengthening outcome of preterm
Ainsworth, M.D.S., Blehar, M., Waters, E., & Wall, S. infants. Seminars in Perinatology, 21(3), 178–189.
(1978). Patterns of attachment: A psychological study Als, H., Lawhon, G., Duffy, F.H., McAnulty, G.B.,
of the strange situation. Hillside, NJ.: Lawrence Gibes-Grossman, R., & Blickman, J.G. (1994).
Erlbaum Associates. Individualized developmental care for the very low-
Ainsworth, M.D.S., & Eichberg, C.G. (1991). Effects birth-weight preterm infant. Medical and neuro-
on infant-mother attachment of mother’s unresolved functional effects. Journal of the American Medical
loss of an attachment figure, or other traumatic ex- Association, 272(11), 853–858.
perience. In C.M.Parkes, J.Stevenson-Hinde, & Alvarez, M.L., Wurgaft, F., & Wilder, H. (1982). Non
P.Marris (Eds.), Attachment across the life cycle. (p. verbal language in mothers with malnourished in-
160–183). New York: Tavistock/Routledge. fants. Social Science and Medicine, 16, 1365–1369.
Ainsworth, M.D.S., & Marvin, R.S. (1995). On the Amighi, J.K. (1990). Some thoughts on the cross-cul-
shaping of attachment theory and research: An in- tural study of maternal warmth and detachment.
terview with Mary D. S. Ainsworth (Fall 1994). Pre- and Peri-Natal Psychology Journal, 5(2), 131–
Monographs of the Society for Research in Child De- 146.
velopment, 60(2–3), 3–21.
Anderson, B.J. (1977). The emergence of conversational
Ainsworth, M.D.S., & Wittig, B.A. (1969). Attachment behavior. Journal of Communication, 27, 85–91.
and exploratory behavior of one-year-olds in a
Anderson, C.W. (1980). Attachment in daily separa-
strange situation. In B.M.Foss. (Ed.), Determinants
tions: Reconceptualizing day care and maternal
of infant behavior. (p. 111–136). London: Methuen.
employment issues. Child Development, 51(1), 242–
Aitken, K.J., & Trevarthen C. (1997). Self-other or- 245.
ganization in human psychological development.
Andersson, B.E. (1989). Effects of public day-care.
Development and Psychopathology, 9, 651–675.
Child Development, 60, 857–866.
Alfasi, G. (1982). A failure-to-thrive at play: Applica-
Andry, R.G. (1957). Faulty paternal and maternal-child
tions of microanalysis. Journal of Pediatric Psychol-
relationships, affection and delinquency. British Jour-
ogy, 7, 111–123.
nal of Delinquency, 1957–48.
Allhusen, V., Appelbaum, M., Belsky, J., Booth, C.L.,
Angold, A., & Costello, E.J. (1995). Developmental
Bradley, R.H., Brownwell, C., Burchinal, P.,
epidemiology. Epidemiological Reviews, 17(1), 74–
Caldwell, B., Campbell, S., Clarke-Stewart, A., Cox,
82.
M., DeHart, G., Friedman, S.L., Hirsh-Pasek, K.,
Huston, A.C., Jaeger, E., Johnson, D., Kelly, J., Arend, R., Gove, F., & Sroufe, L.A. (1979). Continuity
Knoke, B., Marshall, N., McCartney, K., O’Brien, of individual adaptation from infancy to kindergar-
M., Owen, M.T., Payne, C., Phillips, D., Pianta, R.C., ten: A Prospective study of ego-resiliency and curi-
Randolph, S., Robeson, S., Wagner, W., Spieker, S.J., osity in preschoolers. Child Development, 50,
950–959.
58
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Argawal, D., Awasthy, A., Upadhyay, S., Singh, P., Balbernie, R. (2002). An infant in context: Multiple
Kumar, J., & et al. (1992). Growth, behaviour, risks, and a relationship. Infant Mental Health Jour-
development and intelligence in rural children be- nal, 23, 329–341.
tween 1–3 years of life. Indian Pediatrics, 29, 467– Banks, E. (1979). Mother-child interaction and com-
480. petence in the first two years of life: Is there a criti-
Armstrong, K.L., & Morris, J. (2000). Promoting se- cal period? Child Study Journal, 9(2), 93–107.
cure attachment, maternal mood and child health Barbarin, O.A. & Richter, L.M. (2001). Mandela’s chil-
in a vulnerable population: A randomized control- dren: Growing up in post-apartheid South Africa. New
led trial. Journal of Paediatrics and Child Health, York: Routledge.
36(6), 555–562.
Barden, R.C., Ford, M.E., Jensen, A.G., & Rogers-
Arya, S. (1989). Infant nutrition and mother-child dyad. Salyer, M. (1989). Effects of craniofacial deformity
Indian Journal of Clinical Psychology, 16, 34–40. in infancy on the quality of mother-infant inter-
Austin, J. (1962). How to do things with words. Oxford: actions. Child Development, 60(4), 819–824.
Oxford University Press. Barglow, P., Vaughn, B.E., & Molitor, N. (1987). Ef-
Ayoub, C.C., & Milner, J.S. (1985). Failure to thrive: fects of maternal absence due to employment on
Parental indicators, types, and outcomes. Child the quality of infant-mother attachment in a low-
Abuse and Neglect, 9, 491–499. risk sample. Child Development, 58, 945–954.
Azar, S., Robinson, D., Hekimian, E., & Twentyman, Barnard, K.E., Morisset, C.E., & Spieker, S. (1993).
C.T. (1984). Unrealistic expectations and problem- Preventative interventions: Enhancing parent-infant
solving ability in maltreating and comparison moth- relationships. In C.H.Zeanah (Ed.), Handbook of
ers. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 52, Infant mental health. (p. 386–401). New York: The
687–691. Guilford Press.
Badger, E., Burns, D., & Vietze, P. (1981). Maternal Barocas, R., Seifer, R., Sameroff, A.J., Andrews, T.A.,
risk factors as predictors of developmental outcome Croft, R.T., & Ostrow, E. (1991). Social and inter-
in early childhood. Infant Mental Health Journal, personal determinants of developmental risk. De-
2(1), 33–43. velopmental Psychology, 27 (3), 479–488.
Bagedahl-Strindlund, M. (1998). Children of mentally Barrera, M.E., & Ainlay, S. (1983). The structure of
ill mothers: mental development, somatic growth social support: A conceptual and empirical analy-
and social. Scandinavian Journal of Social Medicine, sis. Journal of Community Psychology, 11, 133–143.
16(2), 121–127. Barrera, M.E., Doucet, D.A., & Kitching, K.J. (1990).
Bagedahl-Strindlund, M., Tunell, R., & Nilsson, B. Early home intervention and socio-emotional de-
(1988). Children of mentally ill mothers: mortality velopment of preterm infants. Infant Mental Health
and utilization of paediatric health services. Acta Journal, 11, 142–157.
Paediatrica Scandinavica, 77(2), 242–250. Barrera, M.E., & Rosenbaum, P. (1986). The transac-
Baird, S.M., Haas, L., McCormick, K., Carruth, C., & tional model of early home intervention. Infant
Turner, K.D. (1992). Approaching an objective sys- Mental Health Journal, 7, 121–131.
tem for observation and measurement: Infant- Barrera, M.E., Rosenbaum, P.L., & Cunningham, C.E.
Parent Social Interaction Code. Topics in Early Child- (1986). Early home intervention with low-birth-
hood Special Education, 12(4), 544–571. weight infants and thier parents. Child Development,
Bakeman, R., & Brown, J.V. (1977). Behavioral dia- 57, 20–33.
logues: An approach to the assessment of mother- Bates, J.E. (1980). The concept of difficult tempera-
infant interaction. Child Development, 48, 195–203. ment. Merrill Palmer Quarterly, 5026, 299–319.
Bakeman, R., & Brown, J.V. (1981). Early interaction: Bates, J.E., Bennett Freeland, C.A., & Lounsbury, M.L.
Consequences for social and mental development (1979). Measurement of infant difficultness. Child
at three years. In S.Chess & A.Thomas (Eds.), Development, 50, 794–803.
Annual Progress in Child Psychiatry and Child Devel-
Bates, J.E., Maslin, C.A., & Frankel, K.A. (1985). At-
opment. (p. 17–35). New York: Brunner-Mazel Pub-
tachment security, mother-child interaction, and
lishers.
temperament as predictors of behavior-problem
Balbernie, R. (2001). Circuits and circumstances: The ratings at age three years. In I.Bretherton & E.Waters
neurological consequences of early relationship (Eds.), (p. 167–193). Monographs of the Society for
experiences and how they shape later behaviour. Research in Child Development.
Journal of Child Psychotherapy, 27, (3), 237–255.
59
THE IMPORTANCE OF CAREGIVER–CHILD INTERACTIONS FOR THE SURVIVAL AND HEALTHY DEVELOPMENT OF YOUNG CHILDREN
Bateson, M.C. (1971). The interpersonal context of Bell, R.Q. (1979). Parent, child, and reciprocal influ-
infant vocalization. Quarterly Progress Report of the ences. American Psychologist, 34(10), 821–826.
Laboratory of Electronics, 100, 101–113. Bell, S. (1970). The development of the concept of the
Bateson, M.C. (1979). ‘The epigenesis of conversation object as related to infant-mother attachment. Child
interaction’: a personal account of research devel- Development, 41, 291–311.
opment. In M.Bullowa (Ed.), Before Speech. (p. 63– Bell, S., & Ainsworth, M.D.S. (1972). Infant crying
77). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. and maternal responsiveness. Child Development, 43,
Bauman, P.S., & Dougherty, F.E. (1983). Drug-addicted 1171–1190.
mothers’ parenting and their children’s develop- Belsky, J. (1981). Early human experience: a family
ment. The International Journal of the Addictions, perspective. Developmental Psychology, 17(1), 3–23.
18(3), 291–302.
Belsky, J. (1984). The determinants of parenting: A
Baumwell, L., Tamis-LeMonda, C.S., & Bornstein, M.H. process model. Child Development, 55, 83–96.
(1997). Maternal verbal sensitivity and child lan-
Belsky, J. (1988). Annotation: Infant day care and
guage comprehension. Infant Behavior and Develop-
socioemotional development: The United States.
ment, 20(2), 247–258.
Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 29(4),
Beck, C.T. (2001). Predictors of postpartum depres- 397–406.
sion – An update. Nursing Research, 50(5), 275–
Belsky, J., & Fearon, R.M.P. (2002). Infant-mother at-
285.
tachment security, contextual security, and early
Becker, P.T., Grunwald, P.C., & Brazy, J.E. (1999). development: A moderational analysis. Development
Motor organization in very low birth weight infants and Psychopathology, 14, 293–310.
during caregiving: effects of a developmental inter-
Belsky, J., Fish, M., & Isabella, R. (1991). Continuity
vention. Journal of Developmental and Behavioral
and discontinuity in infant negative and positive
Pediatrics, 20(5), 344–354.
emotionality: Family antecedents and attachment
Beckwith, L. (1972). Relationships between infants’ consequences. Developmental Psychology, 27, 421–
social behaviour and thier mothers’ behaviour. Child 431.
Development, 43, 397–411.
Belsky, J., Goode, M.K., & Most, R.K. (1980). Mater-
Beckwith, L. (1984). Parent interaction with their nal stimulation and infant exploratory competence:
preterm infants and later mental development. Early Cross-sectional, correlational and experimental
Child Development and Care, 16, 27–40. analyses. Child Development, 51, 1163–1178.
Beckwith, L., & Cohen, S.E. (1989). Maternal respon- Belsky, J., & Isabella, R. (1988). Maternal, infant and
siveness with preterm infants and later competency. social-contextual determinants of attachment secu-
In M.Bornstein (Ed.), Maternal responsiveness: Char- rity. In J.Belsky. & T.Nezworski (Eds.), Clinical im-
acteristics and consequences. (p. 75–87). San Fran- plications of attachment. (p. 41–94). NJ: Hillsdale:
cisco: Jossey-Bass Inc. Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
Beckwith, L., & Rodning, C. (1996). Dyadic processes Belsky, J., & Rovine, M. (1987). Temperament and at-
between mothers and preterm infants: Development tachment security in the strange situation: An em-
at ages 2 to 5 years. Infant Mental Health Journal, pirical rapprochement. Child Development, 58,
17(4), 322–333. 787–795.
Bee, H.L., Barnard, K.E., Eyres, S.J., Gray, C.A., Belsky, J., & Rovine, M. (1988). Nonmaternal care in
Hammond, M.A., Spietz, A.L., Snyder, C., & Clark, the first year of life and security of attachment. Child
B. (1982). Predictions of IQ and language skills from Development, 59, 157–167.
perinatal status, child performance, family charac-
Belsky, J., Taylor, D., & Rovine, M.J. (1984). The Penn-
teristics, and mother-infant interaction. Child De-
sylvania Infant and Family Development Project,
velopment, 53, 1134–1156.
III: The origins of individual differences in infant-
Bégin, F., Frongillo, E.A., & Delisle, H. (1999). mother attachment: Maternal and infant contribu-
Caregiver behaviors and resources influence child tions. Child Development, 55, 718–728.
height-for-age in rural Chad. Journal of Nutrition,
Belsky, J., Youngblade, L., & Pensky, E. (1989).
129(3), 680–686.
Childrearing history, marital quality, and maternal
Bell, R.Q. (1974). Contributions of humans infants to affect: Intergenerational transmission in a low-risk
caregiving and social interaction. In M.Lewis & sample. Development and Psychopathology, 1(4), 291–
L.A.Rosenblum. (Eds.), The effect of the infant on its 304.
caregiver. (p. 1–19). New York: John Wiley & Sons.
60
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Benasich, A.A., & Brookes-Gunn, J. (1996). Maternal Bithoney, W.G., McJunkin, J., Michalek, J., Snyder, J.,
attitudes and knowledge of child-rearing: Associa- Egan, H., & Epstein, D. (1991). The effect of a
tions with family and child outcomes. Child Devel- multidisciplinary team approach on weight gain in
opment, 67, 1186–1205. nonorganic failure-to-thrive children. Journal of De-
Benasich, A.A., Brooks-Gunn, J., & Clewell, B.C. velopmental and Behavioral Pediatrics, 12(4), 254–
(1992). How do mothers benefit from early inter- 258.
vention programs? Journal of Applied Developmental Bjorklund, D.F., & Pellegrini, A.D. (2000). Child de-
Psychology, 13, 311–362. velopment and evolutionary psychology. Child De-
Bender, F.W. (1983). A videotape analysis of mother- velopment, 71(6), 1687–1708.
infant interaction at 6 and 12 months among dia- Black, M.M., & Dubowitz, H. (1991). Failure to thrive:
betic women and a control group. Dissertation Lessons from animal models and developing coun-
Abstracts International, 44(3–B), 933. tries. Journal of Developmental and Behavioral
Bennett, D.E., & Slade, P. (1991). Infants born at risk: Pediatrics, 2, 259–267.
Consequences for maternal post-partum adjust- Black, M.M., Dubowitz, H., Hutcheson, J., Berenson-
ment. British Journal of Medical Psychology, 64, 159– Howard, J., & Starr, R.H. (1995). A randomized
172. clinical trial of home intervention for children with
Benoit, D., Zeanah, C.H. , & Barton, M.L. (1989). failure to thrive. Pediatrics, 95(6), 807–814.
Maternal attachment disturbances in failure to Blackford, J.U., & Walden, T.A. (1998). Individual
thrive. Infant Mental Health Journal, 10(3), 185–201. differences in social referencing. Infant Behavior and
Benoit, D., Zeanah, C.H., Boucher, C., & Minde, K.K. Development, 21(1), 89–102.
(1992). Sleep disorders in early childhood: Asso- Blehar, M., Lieberman, R.F., & Ainsworth, M.S.D.
ciation with insecure maternal attachment. Journal (1977). Early face-to-face interaction and its rela-
of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psy- tion to later infant-mother attachment. Child De-
chiatry, 31(1), 86–93. velopment, 48, 182–194.
Bentley, M., Stallings, R., Futumoto, M., & Elder, J. Blount, B.G. (1982). Culture and the language of social-
(1991). Maternal feeding behaviour and child ac- ization: Parental speech. In D.A.Wagner & H.W.
ceptance of food during diarrhea, convalescence, Stevenson (Eds.), Cultural perspectives on child devel-
and health in Central Sierra of Peru. American Jour- opment. (p. 54). San Francisco: W.H. Freeman & Co.
nal of Public Health, 81, 43–47. Blurton-Jones, N. (1974). Ethology and early
Berman, P.W. (1987). Children caring for babies: Age socialisation. In M.P.M.Richards. (Ed.), The integra-
and sex differences in response to infant signals and tion of a child into a social world. (p. 263–295). Cam-
to the social context. In N.Eisenberg. (Ed.), Con- bridge: Cambridge University Press.
temporary topics in developmental psychology. (p. 141– Blurton-Jones, N., Woodson, R.H., & Chisholm, J.
164). New York: John Wiley and Sons. (1979). Cross-cultural perspectives on the signifi-
Bernstein, V.J., Jeremy, R.J., & Marcus, J. (1986). cance of social relationships in infancy. In D.Schaffer
Mother-infant interaction in multi-problem fami- & J.Dunn (Eds.), The first year of life. (p. 117–131).
lies: Finding those at risk. Journal of the American New York: Wiley and Son.
Academy of Child Psychiatry, 25, 631–640. Boccia, M., & Campos, J.J. (1989). Maternal emotional
Berwick, D. (1980). Non-organic failure to thrive. signals, social referencing, and infants’ reactions to
Pediatric Review, 1(265), 270. strangers. New Directions for Child Development,
Bettes, B. (1988). Maternal depression and motherese: 44,25–49. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.
Temporal intonational features. Child Development, Boddy, J.M., & Skuse, D.H. (1994). Annotation: The
59, 1089–1096. process of parenting in failure to thrive. Journal of
Biringen, Z., & Robinson, J.-A. (1991). Emotional avail- Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 35(3), 401–424.
ability in mother-child interactions: A reconcept- Bohlin, G., Hagekull, B., & Lindhagen, K. (1981). Di-
ualization for research. American Journal of mensions of infant behavior. Infant Behavior and
Orthopsychiatry, 61(2), 258–271. Development, 4, 83–96.
Bischof-Kohler, D. (1991). The development of empa- Bohlin, G., Hagekull, B., Germer, M., Andersson, K.,
thy in infants. In M.E.Lamb & H.Keller (Eds.), In- & Lindberg, L. (1989). Avoidant and resistant re-
fant development: Perspectives from German-speaking union behaviors as predicted by maternal interac-
countries. (p. 245–273). Hillsdale, New Jersey: Law- tive behavior and infant temperament. Infant
rence Erlbaum Associates. Behavior and Development, 12, 105–117.
61
THE IMPORTANCE OF CAREGIVER–CHILD INTERACTIONS FOR THE SURVIVAL AND HEALTHY DEVELOPMENT OF YOUNG CHILDREN
Bohlin, G., Hagekull, B., & Rydell, A.M. (2000). At- ment of infant, parental status, and gender. Child
tachment and social functioning: A longitudinal Development, 53, 1291–1298.
study from infancy to middle childhood. Social Bousha, D.M., & Twentyman, C.T. (1984). Mother-
Development, 9(1), 24–39. child interactional style in abuse, neglect, and con-
Bohman, M., & Sigvardsson, S. (1979). Long term ef- trol groups: Naturalistic observations in the home.
fects of early institutional care: A prospective lon- Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 93(1), 106–114.
gitudinal study. Journal of Child Psychology and Bowlby, J. (1951). Maternal care and mental health.
Psychiatry and Allied Disciplines, 20, 111–117. Bulletin of the World Health Organization, 1951–533.
Booth, C.L., Barnard, K.E., Mitchell, S.K., & Spieker, Bowlby, J. (1958). The nature of the child’s tie to its
J. (1987). Successful intervention with multi-prob- mother. International Journal of Psycho-Analysis, 39,
lem mothers: Effects on the mother-Infant relation- 350–373.
ship. Infant Mental Health Journal, 8(3), 288–306.
Bowlby, J. (1960). Grief and mourning in infancy and
Booth, C.L., Mitchell, S.K., Barnard, K.E., & Spieker, S. early childhood. Psychoanalytic Study of the Child,
(2002). Development of maternal social skills in 15, 9–52.
multiproblem families: Effects on the mother-child
Bowlby, J. (1961). The Adolf Meyer lecture: Childhood
relationship. Developmental Psychology, 25(3), 403–
mourning and its implications for psychiatry. Ameri-
412.
can Journal of Psychiatry, 1961–498.
Borduin, C.M., Henggeler, S.W., Sanders-Walls, M., &
Bowlby, J. (1969). Attachment and loss (Vol. 1). Attach-
Harbin, F. (1986). An evaluation of social class dif-
ment. New York: Basic Books.
ferences in verbal and nonverbal maternal controls,
maternal sensitivity and child compliance. Child Bowlby, J. (1973). Attachment and loss: Vol 2. Separa-
Study Journal, 16(2), 95–112. tion, anxiety and anger. New York: Basic Books.
Borkowski, J.G.E., Ramey, S.L., & Bristol-Power, M. Bowlby, J. (1977). The making and breaking of
(2002). Parenting and the child’s world: Influences on affectional bonds. British Journal of Psychiatry, 130,
academic, intellectual, and social-emotional develop- 201–210.
ment. Mahwah, NJ, US: Lawrence Erlbaum Associ- Bowlby, J. (1980). Attachment and loss: Vol 3. Loss, sad-
ates, Inc., Publishers. ness and depression. New York: Basic Books.
Bornstein, M.H. (1989a). Maternal responsiveness: Char- Bowlby, J. (1982). Attachment and loss: Retrospect and
acteristics and consequences. CA:San Francisco: prospect. American Journal of Orthopsychiatry, 52(4),
Jossey-Bass. 664–678.
Bornstein, M.H. (1989b). Sensitive periods in devel- Bowlby, J. (1988). A secure base: Parent-child attachment
opment: Structural characteristics and causal inter- and healthy human development. New York: Basic
pretations. Psychological Bulletin, 105(2), 179–197. Books.
Bornstein, M.H. (1989). Cross-cultural developmen- Bradley, R.H., & Caldwell, B.M. (1976). Early home
tal comparisons: The case of Japanese-American environment and changes in mental test perform-
infant and mother activities and interactions. De- ance in children from 6 to 36 months. Developmen-
velopmental Review, 9, 171–204. tal Psychology, 12, 93–97.
Bornstein, M.H., & Sigman, M.D. (1986). Continuity Bradley, R.H., & Caldwell, B.M. (1984). The HOME
in mental development from infancy. Child Devel- Inventory and family demographics. Developmen-
opment, 57, 251–274. tal Psychology, 20, (2), 315–320.
Bornstein, M.H., & Tamis-LeMonda, C.S. (1989). Ma- Bradley, R.H., & Caldwell, B.M. (1995). Caregiving and
ternal responsiveness and cognitive development. the regulation of child growth and development:
In M.H.Bornstein (Ed.), Maternal responsiveness: Describing proximal aspects of caregiving systems.
Characteristics and consequences. (p. 49–61). San Developmental Review, 15, 38–85.
Francisco: Jossey-Bass Inc. Bradley, R.H., Caldwell, B.M., Rock, S.L., Barnard, K.E.,
Boukydis, C.F.Z. (2000). Support services and peer Gray, C., Hammond, M.A., Mitchell, S., Siegel, L.,
support for parents of at-risk infants: An interna- Ramey, C.T., Gottfried, A.W., & Johnson, D.L.
tional perspective. Children’s Health Care, 29(2), (1989). Home environment and cognitive develop-
129–145. ment in the first three years of life: A collaborative
Boukydis, C.F.Z., & Burgess, R.L. (1982). Adult physi- study involving six sites and three ethnic groups in
ological response to infant cries: Effects of tempera- North America. Developmental Psychology, 25(2),
217–235.
62
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Bradley, R.H., Casey, P.H., & Wortham, B. (1984). Bretherton, I. (1987a). Attachment theory: Retrospect
Home environment of low SES non-organic failure- and prospect. In I.Bretherton & E.Waters (Eds.),
to-thrive infants. Merrill Palmer Quarterly, 30, 393– Growing points of attachment theory and research. (p.
402. 3–35). Chicago: Chicago University Press.
Bradley, R.H., Whiteside-Mansell, L., Brisby, J.A., & Bretherton, I. (1987b). New perspectives on attach-
Caldwell, B.M. (1997). Parents socioemotional in- ment relations: Security, communication and inter-
vestment in children. Journal of Marriage and the nal working models. In J.Osofsky (Ed.), Handbook
Family, 59(1), 77–90. of infant development. (p. 1061–1100). New York:
Bradley, R.H., Whiteside, L., Mundfrom, D.J., Casey, Basic Books.
P.H., Kelleher, K.J., & Pope, S.K. (1994). Early in- Bretherton, I. (1992). Social referencing, intentional
dications of resilience and their relation to experi- communication, and the interfacing of minds in
ences in the home environments of low birthweight, infancy. In S.Feinman (Ed.), Social referencing and
premature children living in poverty. Child Devel- the social construction of reality in infancy. (p. 57–77).
opment, 65(2), 346–360. New York: Perseus.
Bradshaw, D.L., Goldsmith, H.H., & Campos, J.J. Bretherton, I. (1994). The origins of attachment theory:
(1987). Attachment, temperament, and social ref- John Bowlby and Mary Ainsworth. In R.Parke,
erencing: Interrelationships among three domains P.Ornstein, J.Rieser, & C.Zahn-Waxler (Eds.), A cen-
of infant affective behavior. Infant Behavior and De- tury of developmental psychology. (p. 431–471). New
velopment, 10, 223–231. York: American Psychological Association.
Brazelton, T.B. (1974). Does the neonate shape his Bretherton, I., & Bates, E. (1979). The emergence of
environment? Birth Defects Original Article Series, 10, intentional communication. New Directions for Child
131–140. Development, 4, 81–100.
Brazelton, T.B. (1982). Joint regulation of neonate-par- Breunlin, D.C., Desai, V.J., Stone, M.E., & Swilley, J.A.
ent behavior. Baltimore: University Park Press. (1983). Failure-to-thrive with no organic etiology:
Brazelton, T.B., Koslowski, B., & Main, M. (1974). The A critical review of the literature. International Jour-
origins of reciprocity: The early mother-infant in- nal of Eating Disorders, 2(3), 25–49.
teraction. In M.Lewis & L.A.Rosenblum. (Eds.), The Brighi, A. (1997). Patterns of mother-infant interac-
effects of the infant on its caregiver. (p. 49–76). New tion and contingency learning in full-term infants.
York: John Wiley & Sons. Early Development and Parenting, 6(1), 37–45.
Brazelton, T.B., & Tronick, E. (1980). Preverbal com- Brim, O.G. (1975). Macro-structural influences on
munication between mothers and infants. In D. R. child development and the need for childhood so-
Olson (Ed.), The social foundations of language and cial indicators. American Journal of Orthopsychiatry,
thought. (p. 299–315). NewYork: W.W. Norton and 45(4), 516.
Company. Broberg, A.G. (2000). A review of interventions in the
Brazelton, T.B., Tronick, E.Z., Adamson, L.B., Als, H., parent-child relationship informed by attachment
& Wise, S. (1975). Early mother-infant reciprocity. theory. Acta Paediatrica Supplement, 89(434), 37–
In Ciba Foundation Symposium 33 (Ed.), Parent- 42.
infant interaction. (p. 137–154). Amsterdam: Brody, E.B. (2004). The search for mental health: A his-
Elsevier. tory and memoir of WFMH, 1947–1997.
Brazelton, T.B., Tronick, E.Z., Lechtig, A., & Klein, R. Brody, G.H., Stoneman, Z., & McCoy, J.K. (1994).
(1977). The behaviour of nutritionally deprived Contributions of protective and risk factors to lit-
Guatemalan infants. Developmental Medicine and eracy and socioemotional competency in former
Child Neurology, 19, 364–372. Head Start children attending kindergarten. Early
Bråten, S. (1998). Intersubjective communication and Childhood Research Quarterly, 9(3–4), 407–425.
emotion in early ontogeny. New York: Cambridge Brody, S. (1981). The concepts of attachment and bond-
University Press. ing. Journal of the American Psychoanalytic Associa-
Bretherton, I. (1980). Young children in stressful situ- tion, 29(4), 815–829.
ation: The supporting role of attachment figures and Brody, S., & Axelrad, S. (1977). Maternal stimulation
unfamiliar caregivers. In G.V.Coelho and P.Ahmed. and social responsiveness of infants. In H.R Schaffer.
(Ed.), Uprooting and development. (p. 179–210). New (Ed.), Studies in mother-infant interaction. (p. 195–
York: Plenum. 215). London: Academic Press.
63
THE IMPORTANCE OF CAREGIVER–CHILD INTERACTIONS FOR THE SURVIVAL AND HEALTHY DEVELOPMENT OF YOUNG CHILDREN
Bronfenbrenner, U. (1979). The ecology of human de- Calkins, S.D. (1994). Origins and outcomes of indi-
velopment. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University vidual differences in emotion regulation. Mono-
Press. graphs of the Society for Research in Child Development,
Brooks-Gunn, J., & Furstenberg, F.F. (1986). Anteced- 59(2–3), 53–72.
ents and consequences of parenting: The case of Call, J.D. (1984). Child abuse and neglect in infancy:
adolescent motherhood. In A.Fogel & G.Melson. Sources of hostility within the parent-infant dyad
(Eds.), Origins of nurturance: Developmental, biologi- and disorders of attachment in infancy. Child Abuse
cal and cultural perspectives on caregiving. (p. 233– and Neglect, 8, 185–202.
259). New Jersey: Lawrence Erlbaum. Camp, B.W., Morgan, L.J., & Schmidt, B. (1987). In-
Brookes-Gunn, J., Han, W., & Waldfogel, J. (2002). fant vocalization: An index of maternal attitude to-
Maternal employment and child cognitive outcomes ward the child. Journal of Pediatric Psychology, 12(3),
in the first three years of life: n the NICHD Study of 333–341.
Early Child Care. Child Development, 73, 1052– Campbell, F.A., Pungello, E.P., Miller-Johnson, S.,
1072. Burchinal, M., & Ramey, C.T. (2001). The develop-
Bruner, J. (1975). The ontogenesis of speech acts. Jour- ment of cognitive and academic abilities: growth
nal of Child Language, 2, 1–19. curves from an early childhood educational experi-
Bruner, J. (1983). Child’s talk. New York: W.W. Norton. ment. Developmental Psychology, 37(2), 231–242.
Bruner, J. (1985). Vygotsky: a historical and concep- Campbell, S.B.G. (1979). Mother-infant interaction as
tual perspective. In J.V.Wertsch (Ed.), Culture, com- a function of maternal ratings of temperament. Child
munication and cognition: Vygotskian perspectives. (p. Psychiatry and Human Development, 10(2), 67–76.
21–85). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Campos, J.J., & Barrett, K.C. (1985). Toward a new
Bruner, J., & Sherwood, V. (1983). Thought, language understanding of emotions and their development. In
and interaction in infancy. In J.D.Call, E.Galenson, C.E.Izard (Ed.), (p. 229–263). New York: Cam-
& R.Tyson (Eds.), Frontiers of psychiatry, (Vol 2.). bridge University Press.
(p. 39–55). New York: Basic Books. Campos, J.J., Campos, R.G., & Barrett, K.C. (1989).
Burchinal, M.R., Bryant, D.M., Lee, M.W., & Ramey, Emergent themes in the study of emotional devel-
C.T. (1992). Early day care, infant-mother attach- opment and emotion regulation. Developmental
ment, and maternal responsiveness in the infant’s Psychology, 25(3), 394–402.
first year. Early Childhood Research Quarterly, 7(3), Caplan, P.J., & Hall-McCorquodale, I. (1985). The
383–396. scapegoating of mothers: A call for change. Ameri-
Burchinal, M.R., Lee, M., & Ramey, C. (1989). Type of can Journal of Orthopsychiatry, 55(4), 610–613.
day-care and preschool intellectual development in Carey, W.B. (1986). Clinical interactions of tempera-
disadvantaged children. Child Development, 60, ment: Transitions from infancy to childhood. In
128–137. R.Plomin & J.Dunn (Eds.), The study of tempera-
Burgess, R.L., & Youngblade, L.M. (1988). Social in- ment: Changes, continuities, and challenges. (p. 151–
competence and the intergenerational transmission 162). Hillsdale: Lawrence Erlbaum.
of abusive parental practices. In G.T.Hotaling & Carlson, E.A. (1998). A prospective longitudinal study
D.Finkelhor (Eds.), Family abuse and its conse- of attachment disorganization/disorientation. Child
quences: New directions in research. (p. 38–60). Thou- Development, 69(4), 1107–1128.
sand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications. Carlson, V., Cicchetti, D., Barnett, D., & Braunwald,
Burns, K., Chethik, L., Burns, W.J., & Clark, R. (1991). K. (1989). Disorganized/Disoriented attachment
Dyadic disturbances in cocaine-abusing mothers relationships in maltreated infants. Developmental
and their infants. Journal of Clinical Psychology, 47(2), Psychology, 25(4), 525–531.
316–319. Case, A., & Paxson, C. (2002). Parental behaviour and
Caldwell, B.M., & Bradley, R.H. (1984). Home obser- child health. Health Affairs, 21, 164–178.
vation for measurement of the environment. Little Rock, Casey, P.H. (1987). Failure-to-thrive: Transitional per-
Arkansas: University of Kansas Press. spective. Journal of Developmental and Behavioral
Caldwell, B.M., Hersher, L., Lipton, E.L., Richmond, Pediatrics, 8(1), 37–38.
J.B., Stern, G.A., Eddy, E., Drachman, R., & Casey, P.H., Barrett, K., Bradley, R.H., & Spiker, D.
Rothman, A. (1963). Mother-infant interaction in (1993). Pediatric clinical assessment of mother-child
monomatric and polymatric families. American Jour- interaction: concurrent and predictive validity. Jour-
nal of Orthopsychiatry, 33, 653–664. nal of Developmental and Behavioral Pediatrics, 14,
313–317.
64
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Casler, L. (1961). Maternal deprivation: A critical re- nately friendly behavior in children adopted from
view of the literature. Monographs of the Society for Romanian orphanages. Development and Psychopa-
Research in Child Development, 26(1) thology, 7(2), 283–294.
Casler, L. (1965). The effects of extra tactile stimula- Church, A.T., & Katigbak, M.S. (1991). Home envi-
tion on a group of institutionalized infants. Genetic ronment, nutritional status and maternal intelli-
Psychology Monographs, (1), 137–175. gence as determinants of intellectual development
Cassidy, J. (1988). Child-mother attachment and the in rural Philippine preschool children. Intelligence,
self in six-year-olds. Child Development, 59, 121– 15, 49–78.
134. Cicchetti, D. (1989). How research on child maltreat-
Cassidy, J. (1994). Emotional regulation: Influences of ment has informed the study of child development:
attachment relationships. In N.A.Fox (Ed.), The Perspectives from developmental psychopathology.
development of emotion regulation: Biological and In D.Cicchetti & V.Carlson (Eds.), Child maltreat-
behavioral considerations. (p. 228–249). Mono- ment: Theory and research on the causes and conse-
graphs of the Society for Research in Child Develop- quences of child abuse and neglect. (p. 377–431). New
ment. York: Cambridge University Press.
Cassidy, J., & Berlin, L.J. (1994). The insecure/ambiva- Cicchetti, D., & Carlson, V. (1989). Child maltreatment:
lent pattern of attachment: Theory and research. Theory and research on the causes and consequences of
Child Development, 65, 971–991. child abuse and neglect. New York: Cambridge Uni-
versity Press.
Caudill, W., & Weinstein, H. (1969). Maternal care
and infant behaviour in Japan and America. Psy- Cicchetti, D., Cummings, E.M., Greenberg, M.T., &
chiatry, 32, 12–42. Marvin, R.S. (1990). An organizational perspective
on attachment beyond infancy: Implications for
Chakrabotry, S. (1991). Social stress and mental health.
theory, measurement, and research. In M.T.Green-
New Delhi: Sage.
berg, D.Cicchetti, & E.M.Cummings (Eds.), Attach-
Chamberlin, R. (19890). Editorial: Home Visiting, A ment in the preschool years. (p. 3–49). Chicago:
necessary but not sufficient program component for University of Chicago Press.
promoting the health and development of families
Clarke-Stewart, K.A. (1973). Interactions between
and children. Pediatrics, 84, 178–180.
mothers and their young children: Characteristics
Chang, P., Thompson, T.R., & Fisch, R.O. (1982). Fac- and consequences. Monographs of the Society for Re-
tors affecting attachment between infants and moth- search in Child Development, 38(6–7).
ers separated at birth. Journal of Developmental and
Clarke-Stewart, K.A. (1978). And Daddy makes three:
Behavioral Pediatrics, 3(2), 96–98.
The father’s impact on mother and young child.
Chase-Lansdale, P.L., & Owen, M.T. (1987). Maternal Child Development, 49(2), 466–478.
employment in a family context: Effects on infant-
Clarke-Stewart, K.A. (1979). Evaluating parental ef-
mother and infant-father attachments. Child Devel-
fects on child development. In L.Shulman (Ed.),
opment, 58, 1505–1512.
Review of research in education (Vol 6.). Itasca, IL: F
Chase, P., & Martin, H. (1970). Undernutrition and E Peacock.
child development. New England Journal of Medi-
Clarke-Stewart, K.A. (1988). Parents’ effects on chil-
cine, 282, 933.
dren’s development: A decade of progress? Journal
Chavez, A., Martinez, C., & Yaschine, T. (1975). Nu- of Applied Developmental Psychology, 9, 41–84.
trition, behavioural development and mother-child
Clarke-Stewart, K.A., & Hevey, C.M. (1981). Longitu-
interaction in young rural children. Federation Pro-
dinal relations in repeated observations of mother-
ceedings, 34, 1574–1582.
child interaction from 1 to 2_ years. Developmental
Chen, C.H., Wang, T.M., & Chi, C.S. (2000). Indi- Psychology, 17(2), 127–145.
vidualized developmental care in the newborn in-
Clarke-Stewart, K.A., VanderStoep, L.P., & Killian, G.A.
tensive care unit. Acta Paediatrica Taiwan., 41(3),
(1979). Analysis and replication of mother-child
119–122.
relations at two years of age. Child Development,
Chisholm, K. (1998). A three year follow-up of attach- 50(3), 777–793.
ment and indiscriminate friendliness in children
Coates, D.L., & Lewis, M. (1984). Early mother-infant
adopted from Romanian orphanages. Child Devel-
interaction and infant cognitive status as predictors
opment, 69(4), 1092–1106.
of school performance and cognitive behavior in
Chisholm, K., Carter, M.C., Ames, E.W., & Morison, six-year-olds. Child Development, 55, 1219–1230.
S.J. (1995). Attachment security and indiscrimi-
65
THE IMPORTANCE OF CAREGIVER–CHILD INTERACTIONS FOR THE SURVIVAL AND HEALTHY DEVELOPMENT OF YOUNG CHILDREN
Cochran, M., & Brassard, J. (1979). Child develop- tion participation and language acquisition. Science,
ment and personal social networks. Child Develop- 183, 99–101.
ment, 50, 606–616. Conway, A.E. (1989). Young infants’ feeding patterns
Cohen, S.E., & Beckwith, L. (1979). Preterm infant when sick and well. Maternal Child Nursing Journal,
interaction with the caregiver in the first year of life 18(4), 1–353.
and competence at age two. Child Development, 50, Cooper, C., Dunst, C., & Vance, S. (1990). The effect
767–776. of social support on adolescent mothers’ styles of
Cohn, D.A. (1990). Child-mother attachment in six- parent-child interaction as measured on three sepa-
year-olds and social competence at school. Child rate occasions. Adolescence, XXV, 49–57.
Development, 61, 152–162. Cooper, P.A., & Sandler, D.L. (1997). Outcome of very
Cohn, D.A., Patterson, C.J., & Christopoulos, C. low birth weight infants at 12 to 18 months of age
(1991). The family and children’s peer relations. in Soweto, South Africa. Pediatrics, 99(4), 537–544.
Journal of Social and Personal Relationships, 8(3), Cooper, P.A., Tomlinson, M., Swartz, L., Woolgar, M.,
315–346. Murray, L., & Molteno, C. (1999). Postpartum de-
Cohn, J.F., Campbell, S.B., Matias, R., & Hopkins, J. pression and the mother-infant relationship in a
(1990). Face-to-face interactions of postpartum South African peri-urban settlement. British Jour-
depressed and nondepressed mother-infant pairs at nal of Psychiatry, 175, 554–558.
2 months. Developmental Psychology, 26(1), 15–23. Cox, A.D., Puckering, C., Pound, A., & Mills, M.
Cohn, J.F., Matias, R., Tronick, E.Z., Connell, D.B., & (1987). The impact of maternal depression in young
Lyons-Ruth, K. (1986). Face-to-face interactions of children. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychia-
depressed mothers and their infants. In E.Z.Tronick try and Allied Disciplines, 28(6), 917–928.
& T.Field. (Eds.), Maternal depression and infant dis- Cravioto, J., & DeLacardie, E. (1976). Microenviron-
turbance. (p. 31–46). San Francisco: Jossey-Bass Inc. mental factors in severe protein-energy malnutri-
Cohn, J.F., & Tronick, E.Z. (1988). Mother-infant face- tion. In N.Scrimshaw & M.Behar (Eds.), Nutrition
to-face interaction: Influence is bidirectional and and agricultural development: Significance and poten-
unrelated to periodic cycles in either partner’s tial for the Tropics. (p. 25–35). New York: Plenum
behavior. Developmental Psychology, 24(3), 386-392. Press.
Cohn, J.F., & Tronick, E. (1989). Specificity of infants’ Crittenden, P.M. (1982). Abusing, neglecting, problem-
response to mothers’ affective behavior. Journal of atic, and adequate dyads: Differentiating by patterns
the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psy- of interaction. Merrill Palmer Quarterly, 27(3), 201–
chiatry, 28, 242–248. 218.
Coie, J., & Dodge, K.A. (1983). Continuities and Crittenden, P.M. (1985a). Maltreated infants: Vulner-
changes in children’s social status: A five year lon- ability and resilience. Journal of Child Psychology and
gitudinal study. Merrill Palmer Quarterly, 29, 261– Psychiatry, 26, 85–96.
282. Crittenden, P.M. (1985b). Social networks, quality of
Cole, M. (1985). The zone of proximal development: child-rearing, and child development. Child Devel-
where culture and cognition create each other. In opment, 56, 1299–1313.
J.V.Wertsch (Ed.), Culture, communication and cog- Crittenden, P.M. (1987). Non-organic failure-to-thrive.
nition: Vygotskyian perspectives. (p. 146–161). Cam- Infant Mental Health Journal, 8, 51–64.
bridge: Cambridge University Press.
Crittenden, P.M. (1990). Internal representational
Cole, P.M., Michel, M.K., & Teti, L.O. (1995). The models of attachment relationships. Infant Mental
development of emotion regulation and dys- Health Journal, 11(3), 259–277.
regulation: a clinical perspective. In N.A.Fox (Ed.),
Crittenden, P.M. (1992a). Children’s strategies for cop-
The development of emotion regulation: Biological and
ing with adverse home environments: An interpre-
behavioral considerations. (p. 73–100).
tation using attachment theory. Child Abuse and
Colombo, M., de la, P.A., & Lopez, I. (1992). Intellec- Neglect, 16(3), 329–343.
tual and physical outcome of children undernour-
Crittenden, P.M. (1992b). Quality of attachment in the
ished in early life is influenced by later
preschool years. Development and Psychopathology,
environmental conditions. Developmental Medicine
4(2), 209–241.
and Child Neurology, 34(7), 611–622.
Crittenden, P.M. (1992c). Treatment of anxious attach-
Condon, W., & Sander, L.W. (1974). Neonate move-
ment in infancy and early childhood. Development
ment is synchronized with adult speech: Interac-
and Psychopathology, 4(4), 575–602.
66
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Crittenden, P.M. (1993). An information processing sitivity. American Journal of Orthopsychiatry, 54, 250–
perspective on the behavior of neglectful parents. 261.
Criminal Justice and Behavior, 20(1), 27–48. Crittenden, P.M., & Claussen, A.H. (2000). The organi-
Crittenden, P.M. (1995a). Attachment and psychopa- zation of attachment relationships: Maturation, culture,
thology. In S.Goldberg & R.Muir (Eds.), Attachment and context. New York, NY, US: Cambridge Univer-
theory: Social, developmental, and clinical perspectives. sity Press.
(p. 367–406). Hillsdale, New Jersey: Analytic Press. Crnic, K., & Greenberg, M.T. (1987). Transactional
Crittenden, P.M. (1995b). Attachment and risk for psy- relations between perceived family style, risk-sta-
chopathology: The early years. Journal of Develop- tus and mother-child interactions in two-year-olds.
mental and Behavioral Pediatrics, 16(3), S12–S16. Journal of Pediatric Psychology, 12, 343–362.
Crittenden, P.M. (1996a). Development, experience Crnic, K., Greenberg, M.T., Robinson, N.M., &
and relationship patterns: psychological health from Ragozin, A.S. (1984). Maternal stress and social
the object attachment viewpoint. Praxis der support: Effects on the mother-infant relationship
Kinderpsychologie und Kinderpsychiatrie, 45(3–4), from birth to eighteen months. American Journal of
147–155. Orthopsychiatry, 54(2), 224–235.
Crittenden, P.M. (1996b). Language and psychopathol- Crnic, K., Ragozin, A.S., Greenberg, M.T., Robinson,
ogy: An attachment perspective. In J.H.Beitchman. N.M., & Basham, R. (1983). Social interaction and
& N.J.Cohen (Eds.), Language, learning, and behavior developmental competence of preterm and full-term
disorders: Developmental, biological, and clinical per- infants during the first year of life. Child Develop-
spectives. (p. 59–77). New York: Cambridge Uni- ment, 54, 1199–1210.
versity Press. Crockenberg, S.B. (1981). Infant irritability, mother
Crittenden, P.M. (1997). Truth, error, omission, dis- responsiveness, and social support influences on the
tortion, and deception: The application of attach- security of infant-mother attachment. Child Devel-
ment theory to the assessment and treatment of opment, 52, 857–865.
psychological disorder. In S.M.C.Dollinger & L.F.di Crockenberg, S.B., & McCluskey, K. (1985). Change
Lalla (Eds.), Assessment and intervention issues across in maternal behavior during the baby’s first year of
the life span. (p. 35–76). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence life. Child Development, 57, 746–753.
Erlbaum Associates.
Crouch, M., & Manderson, L. (1995). The social life
Crittenden, P.M. (1999). Danger and development: The of bonding theory. Social Science and Medicine, 41(6),
organization of self-protective strategies. In J.Vondra 837–844.
& D.Barnett (Eds.), Atypical attachment. (p. 145–
Crowell, J.A., & Feldman, S.S. (1991). Mothers’ work-
171). Monographs of the Society for Research in Child
ing models of attachment relationships and mother
Development.
and child behavior during separation and reunion.
Crittenden, P.M. (2000). A dynamic-maturational Developmental Psychology, 27(4), 597–605.
exploration of the meaning of security and adapta-
Curtiss, S. (1977). Genie: A psycholinguistic study of a
tion: Empirical, cultural and theoretical considera-
modern-day “wild child”. New York: Academic Press.
tions. In P.M Crittenden & A.H.Claussen (Eds.), The
organization of attachment relationships: Maturation, Cusson, R.M., & Lee, A.L. (1994). Parental interven-
culture, and context. (p. 358–383). New York: Cam- tions and the development of the preterm infant.
bridge University Press. Journal of Obstetric, Gynecologic and Neonatal Nurs-
ing, 23(1 ), 60–68.
Crittenden, P.M. (2002). Research on maltreating fami-
lies: Implications for intervention. In J.Briere, D’Apolito, K. (1991). What is an organized infant?
L.Berliner, & T.Reid. (Eds.), Handbook of Child mal- Neonatal Network – Journal of Neonatal Nursing,
treatment. (p. 158–174). Thousand Oaks, CA: SAge 10(1), 23–29.
Publications. Das Gupta, M. (1990). Death clustering, mother’s edu-
Crittenden, P.M., & Ainsworth, M.D.S. (1989). Child cation and the determinants of child mortality in
maltreatment and attachment theory. In D.Cicchetti rural Punjab, India. Population Studies, 44, 489–505.
& V.Carlson (Eds.), Child maltreatment: Theory and Dawson, G., Frey, K., Panagiotides, H., Osterling, J.,
research on the causes and consequences of child abuse & Hessl, D. (1997). Infants of depressed mothers
and neglect. (p. 432–463). New York: Cambridge exhibit atypical frontal brain activity: A replication
University Press. and extension of previous findings. Journal of Child
Crittenden, P.M., & Bonvillian, J. (1984). The relation- Psychology and Psychiatry, 38(2), 179–186.
ship between maternal risk status and mental sen-
67
THE IMPORTANCE OF CAREGIVER–CHILD INTERACTIONS FOR THE SURVIVAL AND HEALTHY DEVELOPMENT OF YOUNG CHILDREN
de Chateau, P. (1980). Parent-neonate interaction and Diego, M.A., Field, T.M., & Hernandez-Reif, M. (2001).
its long-term effects. In E.C.Simmel (Ed.), Early BIS/BAS scores are correlated with frontal EEG
experiences and early behavior: Implications for social asymmetry in intrusive and withdrawn depressed
development. (p. 109–179). New York: Academic mothers. Infant Mental Health Journal, 22(6), 665–
Press. 675.
de Miranda, C.T., Turecki, G., Mare, J.J., Andreoli, S.B., DiVitto, B., & Goldberg, S. (2002). The effects of new-
Marcolim, M., Goihman, S., Puccini, R., Strom, B.L., born medical status on early parent-infant interac-
& Berlin, J.A. (1996). Mental health of the mothers tion. In T.M.Field & A.M.Sostek (Eds.), Infants born
of malnourished children. International Journal of at risk: Behavior and development. (p. 311–332). New
Epidemiology, 25, 128–133. York: Spectrum.
De Roiste, A., & Bushnell, I.W.R. (1996). Tactile stimu- Dix, T. (1991). The affective organization of parenting:
lation: Short- and long-term benefits for pre-term Adaptive and maladaptive processes. Psychological
infants. British Journal of Developmental Psychology, Bulletin, 110(1), 3–25.
14, 41–53. Dix, T. (1992). Parenting on behalf of the child: Em-
De Vries, M. (1984). Temperament and infant mortal- pathic goals in the regulation of responsive
ity among the Masai of East Africa. American Jour- parenting. In I.E.Sigel, A. V. McGillicuddy-DeLisi,
nal of Orthopsychiatry, 141, 1189–1194. & J. J. Goodnow (Eds.), Parental belief systems: The
De Wolff, M., & van Ijzendoorn, M.H. (1997). Sensi- psychological consequences for children. (p. 319–346).
tivity and attachment: A meta-analysis on parental Hillsdale, New Jersey: Lawrence Erlbaum Associ-
antecedents of infant attachment. Child Development, ates.
68, 571–591. Dixon, S.D., LeVine, R.A., & Brazelton, T.B. (1982).
Dejin-Karlsson, E., Hanson, B.S., Ostergren, P.O., Malnutrition: A closer look at the problem in an
Lindgren, A., Sjoberg, N.O., & Marsal, K. (2000). East African village. Developmental Medicine and
Association of a lack of psychosocial resources and Child Neurology, 14, 670–685.
the risk of giving birth to small for gestational age Dixon, S.D., LeVine, R.A., Richman, A., & Brazelton,
infants: a stress hypothesis. British Journal of Ob- T.B. (1984). Mother-child interaction around a
stetrics and Gynaecology, 107(1), 89–100. teaching task: An African-American comparison.
Del Carmen, R., Pedersen, F.A., Huffman, L.C., & Child Development, 55(4), 1252–1264.
Bryan, Y.E. (1993). Dyadic distress management Dixon, S.D., Tronick, E.Z., Keefer, K., & Brazelton, T.B.
predicts subsequent security of attachment. Infant (1981). Mother-infant interaction among the Gusii
Behavior and Development, 16, 131–147. of Kenya. In T.Field., A.Sostek, P.Vietze, &
DeLicardie, E., & Cravioto, J. (1974). Behavioural re- P.Liederman (Eds.), Culture and early interactions.
sponsiveness of survivors of clinically severe mal- (p. 149–168). Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum
nutrition to cognitive demands. In J.Cravioto (Ed.), Associates.
Early malnutrition and mental development. (p. 134– Doan, R., & Bisharat, L. (1990). Female autonomy and
153). Upsala, Sweden: Almquist & Wiksell. child nutritional status: the extended family resi-
Denham, S.A. (2002). Maternal affect and toddlers’ dential unit in Amman, Jordon. Social Science and
social-emotional competence. American Journal of Medicine, 31, 783–790.
Orthopsychiatry, 59(3), 368–376. Dodge, K.A. (1990). Developmental psychopathology
Denham, S.A., Mitchell-Copeland, J., Strandberg, K., in children of depressed mothers. Developmental
Auerbach, S., & Blair, K. (1997). Parental contri- Psychology, 26(1), 3–6.
butions to preschoolers’ emotional competence: Donovan, W.L., & Leavitt, L.A. (1985). Simulating
Direct and indirect effects. Motivation and Emotion, conditions of learned helplessness: the effects of
21(1), 65–86. interventions and attributions. Child Development,
Denzin, N.K. (1992). A phenomenological analysis of 56(3), 594–603.
social referencing. In Saul Feinman (Ed.), Social ref- Donovan, W.L., Leavitt, L.A., & Walsh.R.O. (1998).
erencing and the social construction of reality in infancy. Conflict and depression predict maternal sensitiv-
(p. 95–114). New York: Perseus. ity to infant cries. Infant Behavior and Development,
Diamond, G.W., Gurdin, P., Wiznia, A.A., Belman, A.L., 21(3), 505–517.
Rubinstein, A., & Cohen, H.J. (1990). Effects of Dozier, M., Stovall, K.C., Albus, K.E., & Bates, B.
congenital HIV infection on neurodevelopmental (2001). Attachment for infants in Foster Care: The
status of babies in foster care. Developmental Medi- role of caregiver state of mind. Child Development,
cine and Child Neurology, 32(11), 999–1004. 72(5), 1467–1477.
68
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Drotar, D. (1985). New directions in failure to thrive: In P.M.Taylor (Ed.), Parent-infant relationships.
Implications for research and practice. New York: Ple- Orlando, FL: Grune & Stratton.
num Press. Emde, R.N. (1988). Development terminable and in-
Dudley, M., Gyler, L., Blinkhorn, S., & Barnett, B. terminable. I. Innate and motivational factors from
(1993). Psychosocial interventions for very low infancy. International Journal of Psychoanalysis, 69,
birthweight infants: their scope and efficacy. Aus- 23–42.
tralian and New Zealand Journal of Psychiatry, 27(1), Emde, R.N. (1990). Presidential address: Lessons from
74–83. infancy: New beginnings in a changing world and
Duncan, G.J., Brooks-Gunn, J., & Klebanov, P.K. a morality for health. Infant Mental Health Journal,
(1994). Economic deprivation and early childhood 11(3), 196–212.
development. Child Development, 65, 296–318. Emde, R.N. (1992a). Individual meaning and increas-
Dunst, C., Lesko, K., Holbert, L., Wilson, K., Sharpe, ing complexity: Contributions of Sigmund Freud
L., & Liles, R. (1987). A systematic approach to and René Spitz to developmental psychology. In
infant intervention. Topics in Early Childhood Spe- R.Parke, P.Ornstein, J.Rieser, & C.Zahn-Waxler
cial Education, 7, 19–37. (Eds.), A century of developmental psychology. (p.
Eagle, R.S. (1994). The separation experience of chil- 203–231). New York: American Psychological As-
dren in long-term care: Theory, research, and sociation.
implications for practice. American Journal of Or- Emde, R.N. (1992b). Social referencing research: Un-
thopsychiatry, 64(3), 421–434. certainty, self, and the search for meaning. In Saul
Earle, A.M., & Earle, B.V. (1961). Early material dep- Feinman (Ed.), Social referencing and the social con-
rivation and later psychiatric illness. American Jour- struction of reality in infancy. (p. 79–94). New York:
nal of Orthopsychiatry, 181–186. Perseus.
Easterbrooks, M.A., & Biringen, Z. (2000). Guest edi- Emde, R.N., & Buchsbaum, H.K. (1989). Toward a
tors’ introduction to the special issue: Mapping the psychoanalytic theory of affect: II. Emotional de-
terrain of emotional availability and attachment. velopment and signaling in infancy. In S.Greenspan
Attachment and Human Development, 2(2), 123–129. (Ed.), The course of life. (p. 193–227). Madison, CT:
International Universities Press, Inc.
Egeland, B., & Erickson, M.F. (1987). Psychologically
unavailable caregiving. In M.R.Brassard, R.Germain, Emde, R.N., & Buchsbaum, H.K. (1990). “Didn’t you
& S.M.Hart (Eds.), Psychological maltreatment of chil- hear my mommy?” Autonomy with connectedness
dren and youth. New York: Pergamon Press. in moral self-emergence. In D.Cicchetti &
M.Beeghley (Eds.), The self in transition: infancy to
Egeland, B., & Farber, E.A. (1984). Infant mother at-
childhood. (p. 35–60). Chicago: The University of
tachment: Factors related to its development and
Chicago Press.
changes over time. Child Development, 55, 753–771.
Emde, R.N., & Easterbrooks, M.A. (1985). Assessing
Egeland, B., & Sroufe, L.A. (1981a). Attachment and
emotional availability in early development. In
early maltreatment. Child Development, 52, 44–52.
W.K.Frankenburg, R.N.Emde, & J.W.Sullivan
Egeland, B., & Sroufe, L.A. (1981b). Developmental (Eds.), Early identification of children at risk: an inter-
sequelae of maltreatment in infancy. In R.Rizley & national perspective. (p. 79–101). New York: Plenum
D.Cicchetti (Eds.), Developmental perspectives on Press.
child maltreatment. (p. 77–92). San Francisco:
Emde, R.N., & Harmon, R.J. (1972). Endogenous and
Jossey-Bass.
exogenous smiling systems in early infancy. Journal
Eibl-Eibelsfeldt, I. (1975). Ethology: The biology of be- of the American Academy of Child Psychiatry., 11,
haviour. 2nd Ed. New York: Holt, Rinehart & 177–200.
Winston.
Emde, R.N., & Sorce, J.F. (1983). The rewards of in-
Eisenberg, N., Murphy, B.C., & Shepard, S. (1997). fancy: Emotional availability and maternal referenc-
The development of empathic accuracy. In W.J.Ickes ing. In J.D.Call, E.Galenson, & R.Tyson (Eds.),
(Ed.), Empathic accuracy. (p. 73–116). New York: Frontiers of Psychiatry. (p. 17–30). New York: Basic
The Guilford Press. Books.
Ekman, P., Friese, W., & Ellsworth, P. (1972). Emotion Engle, P.L. (1993). Influences of mothers’ and fathers’
in the human face. New York: Pergamon Press. income on child nutritional status in Guatemala.
Emde, R.N. (1980). Emotional availability: A recipro- Social Science and Medicine, 37, 1303–1312.
cal reward system for infants and parents with im-
plications for prevention of psycho-social disorders.
69
THE IMPORTANCE OF CAREGIVER–CHILD INTERACTIONS FOR THE SURVIVAL AND HEALTHY DEVELOPMENT OF YOUNG CHILDREN
Engle, P.L., Bentley, M., & Pelto, G. (2000). The role dicts birth weight and fetal growth in human preg-
of care in nutrition programmes: current research nancy. Psychosomatic Medicine, 62(5), 715–725.
and a research agenda. [Review] [47 refs]. Proceed- Feldman, R., & Greenbaum, C.W. (1997). Affect regu-
ings of the Nutrition Society, 59(1), 25–35. lation and synchrony in mother-infant play as
Engle, P.L., & Lhotska, L. (1999). The role of care in precursors to the development of symbolic compe-
programmatic actions for nutrition: Designing pro- tence. Infant Mental Health Journal, 18 (1), 4–23.
grammes involving care. Food and Nutrition Bulle- Fernald, A. (1992). Human maternal vocalizations to
tin, 20, 121–135. infants as biologically relevant signals: An evolu-
Engle, P.L., Pelto, G., & Bentley, P. (2000). Care for tionary perspective. In J.H.Barkow, L.Cosmides, &
nutrition and development. [Review] [21 refs]. Jour- J.Tooby (Eds.), The adapted mind: Evolutionary psy-
nal of the Indian Medical Association, 98(9), 530–535. chology and the generation of culture. (p. 391–428).
Engle, P. L., Lhotska, L., & Armstrong, H. The care Oxford: Oxford University Press.
initiative: Care for nutrition. Guidelines for assess- Feuerstein, R. (1980). Instrumental enrichment. Balti-
ment, analyses and action to improve care for nu- more: University Park Press.
trition. www.ifpri.cgiar.org/divs/fcnd/dp/papers/ Field, T.M. (1977). Effects of early separation, interac-
dp28.pdf. 1997. (GENERIC) Ref Type: Electronic tive deficit, and experimental manipulation on
Citation mother-infant face-to-face interaction. Child Devel-
Engle, P.L., & Ricciuti, H.N. (1995). Psychosocial as- opment, 48, 763–771.
pects of care and nutrition. Food and Nutrition Field, T.M. (1981). Infant arousal, attention and affect
Bulletin Supplement, 16(4), 356–377. during early interactions. In L.Lipsitt & C.Rovee-
Erickson, M.F., Sroufe, L.A., & Egeland, B. (1985). The Collier (Eds.), Advances in Infancy Research, ( Vol
relationship between quality of attachment and be- 1.). Norwood, NJ: Ablex.
haviour problems in preschool in a high-risk sam- Field, T.M. (1984). Early interactions between infants
ple. In I.Bretherton & E.Waters (Eds.), Growing and their postpartum depressed mothers. Infant
points of attachment theory and research. (p. 147– Behavior and Development, 7, 517–522.
166). Chicago: Monographs of the Society for Research
Field, T.M. (1987a). Affective and interactive distur-
in Child Development.
bances in infants. In Joy Osofsky (Ed.), Handbook
Esman, A.H. (1994). Review essay: The contributions of infant development. (p. 972–1005). New York:
of Robert N. Emde, M.D. Journal of Clinical Psycho- John Wiley and Sons.
analysis, 3, 47–53.
Field, T.M. (1987b). Interaction and attachment in
Eyberg, S.M., & Matarazzo, R.G. (1980). Training par- normal and atypical infants. Journal of Consulting
ents as therapists: A comparison between individual and Clinical Psychology, 55(6), 853–859.
parent-child interaction training and parent group
Field, T.M. (1994). The effects of mother’s physical and
didactic training. Journal of Clinical Psychology, 36(2),
emotional unavailability on emotion regulation.
492–499.
Monographs of the Society for Research in Child De-
Fairbairn, W.R.D. (1952). Psychoanalytic studies of the velopment, 59(2–3), 208–227.
personality. London: Routledge.
Field, T.M. (1999). Sucking and massage therapy re-
Farran, D.C., & Ramey, C.T. (1977). Infant day care duce stress during infancy. In M.Lewis & D.Ramsay
and attachment behaviors toward mothers and (Eds.), Soothing and stress. (p. 157–169). Mahwah,
teachers. Child Development, 48(3), 1112–1116. NJ, Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
Feinman, S. (1991). Bringing babies back into the so- Field, T.M. (2000a). Infant massage therapy. In
cial world. In M.Lewis & S.Feinman (Eds.), Social C.H.Zeanah (Ed.), Handbook of infant mental health.
influences and socialization in infancy. (p. 281–325). (p. 494–500). New York: The Guilford Press.
New York: Plenum Press.
Field, T.M. (2000b). Infants of depressed mothers. In
Feinman, S., Roberts, D., Hsieh, K.F., Sawyer, D., & S.L.Johnson. & A.M.Hayes (Eds.), Stress, coping, and
Swanson, D. (1992). A critical review of social ref- depression. (p. 3–22). Mahwah: Lawrence Erlbaum
erencing in infancy. In Saul Feinman (Ed.), Social Associates.
referencing and the social construction of reality in in-
Field, T.M. (2001). Massage therapy facilitates weight
fancy. (p. 15–54). New York: Perseus.
gain in preterm infants. Current Directions in Psy-
Feldman, P.J., Dunkel-Schetter, C., Sandman, C.A., & chological Science, 10 (2), 51–54.
Wadhwa, P.D. (2000). Maternal social support pre-
70
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Field, T.M., & Fogel, A. (2004). Emotion and early in- Fonagy, P., & Higgitt, A. (2000). An attachment theory
teraction. Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associ- perspective on early influences on development and
ates. social inequalities in health. In J.Osofsky &
Field, T.M., Gewirtz, J., Cohen.D., Garcia, R., H.Fitzgerald (Eds.), WAIMH Handbook of infant
Greenberg, R., & Collins, K. (1984). Leave-takings mental health (Vol 4.) Infant mental health in groups
and reunions of infants, toddlers, preschoolers, and at high risk. New York: John Wiley and Sons.
their parents. Child Development, 55, 628–635. Fonagy, P., & Target, M. (1999). An interpersonal view
Field, T.M., Healy, B., Goldstein, S., & Guthertz, M. of the infant. In A.Hurry (Ed.), Psychoanalysis and
(1990). Behavior-state matching and synchrony in developmental therapy. (p. 3–31). Madison, CT, US:
mother-infant interactions of nondepressed versus International Universities Press.
depressed dyads. Developmental Psychology, 26(1), Formby, D. (1967). Maternal recognition of infant’s cry.
7–14. Developmental Medicine and Child Neurology, 9, 292–
Field, T.M., Hossain, Z., & Malphurs, J. (1999). ‘De- 298.
pressed’ fathers’ interactions with their infants. In- Foss, B.M. (1961). Determinants of infant behaviour. New
fant Mental Health Journal, 20(3), 322–332. York: John Wiley and Sons.
Field, T.M., & Liepack, S. (1999). Infancy. In Fox, N., Kimmerly, N., & Schafer, W. (1991). Attach-
W.K.Silverman & T.H.Ollendick (Eds.), Develop- ment to mother/attachment to father. Child Devel-
mental issues in the clinical treatment of children. (p. opment, 62, 210–225.
77–87). Needham Heights, MA, US: Allyn and Ba- Fraiberg, S., & Fraiberg, L. (1980). Clinical studies in
con Publishers. infant mental health: The first year of life. London:
Field, T.M., Morrow, C., & Adlestein, D. (1993). De- Tavistock.
pressed mothers’ perceptions of infant behavior. Frank, D.A., Klass, P.E., Earls, F., & Eisenberg, L.
Infant Behavior and Development, 16, 99–108. (1996). Infants and young children in orphanages:
Field, T.M., Pickens, J., Prodromidis, M., Malphurs, one view from pediatrics and child psychiatry. [Re-
J., Fox, N., Bendell, D., Yando, R., Schanberg, S., view] [173 refs]. Pediatrics, 97(4), 569–578.
& Kuhn, C. (2000). Targeting adolescent mothers Fraser, B.C. (1986). Child impairment and parent/
with depressive symptoms for early intervention. infant communication. Child: Care, Health & Devel-
Adolescence, 35(138), 381–414. opment, 12(3), 141–150.
Field, T.M., Widmayer, S.M., Stringer, S., & Ignatoff, Freitag, M.K., Belsky, J., Grossmann, K., Grossmann,
E. (1980). Teenage, lower-class, black mothers and K.E., & Scheuerer-Englisch, H. (1996). Continuity
their preterm infants: An intervention and devel- in parent-child relationships from infancy to mid-
opmental follow-up. Child Development, 51, 426– dle childhood and relations with friendship com-
436. petence. Child Development, 67(4), 1437–1454.
Fineman, N.R., Beckwith, L., Howard, J., & Espinosa, Freud, S. (1959). Inhibitions, symptoms and anxiety.
M. (1997). Maternal ego development and mother- In J.Strachey. (Ed and Trans.) (Ed.), The standard
infant interaction in drug-abusing women. Journal edition of the complete works of Sigmund Freud (Vol
of Substance Abuse and Treatment, 14(4), 307–317. 20.). (p. 87–195). London: Hogarth Press.
Fish, M., Stifter, C., & Belsky, J. (1993). Early patterns Freud, S. (1964). An outline of psycho-analysis. In
of mother-infant dyadic interaction: Infant, mother J.Strachey. (Ed and Trans.) (Ed.), The standard edi-
and family demographic antecedents. Infant Behavior tion of the complete works of Sigmund Freud (Vol 23.).
and Development, 16, 1–18. (p. 141–207). London: Hogarth Press.
Fitzgerald, H., Lester, B., & Zuckerman, B. (1995). Friedman, S., Jacobs, B., & Werthman, M. (1982).
Children of poverty: Research, health and poverty is- Preterms of low medical risk: Spontaneous behav-
sues. New York: Garland Inc. iours and soothability at expected date of birth.
Flick, L.H., & McSweeney, M. (1987). Measures of Infant Behavior and Development, 5, 3–10.
mother-child interaction: A comparison of three Friedman, S.L., & Amadeo, J.A. (1999). The child care
methods. Research in Nursing and Health, 10(3), environment: Conceptualizations, Assessments, and
129–137. Issues. In S.L.Friedman & T.D.Wachs (Eds.), Meas-
Fogel, A., & Thelen, E. (1987). Development of early uring environment across the lifespan. (p. 127–165).
expressive and communicative action: Reinterpret- Washington, DC: American Psychological Associa-
ing the evidence from a dynamic systems perspec- tion Press.
tive. Developmental Psychology, 23, 747–761.
71
THE IMPORTANCE OF CAREGIVER–CHILD INTERACTIONS FOR THE SURVIVAL AND HEALTHY DEVELOPMENT OF YOUNG CHILDREN
Frodi, A., & Thompson, R.A. (1985). Infant’s affective George, C. (1996). A representational perspective of
responses in the strange situation. Child Develop- child abuse and prevention: internal working mod-
ment, 56, 1280–1290. els of attachment and caregiving. Child Abuse and
Gagan, R.J., Cupoli, J.M., & Watkins, A.H. (1984). The Neglect, 20(5), 411–424.
families of children who fail to thrive: Preliminary George, C., Kaplan, N., & Main, M. (1985). The Adult
investigations of parental deprivation among organic Attachment Interview. Berkeley, CA: University of
and non-organic cases. Child Abuse and Neglect, 8(1), California.
93–103. Gergely, G., & Watson, J.S. (1996). The social biofeed-
Galler, J.R., Harrison, R.H., Biggs, M.A., Ramsey, F., & back theory of parental affect-mirroring: the devel-
Forde, V. (1999). Maternal moods predict breast- opment of emotional self-awareness and self-control
feeding in Barbados. Journal of Developmental and in infancy. International Journal of Psychoanalysis,
Behavioral Pediatrics, 20(2), 80–87. 77(6), 1181–1212.
Galler, J.R., Harrison, R.H., Ramsey, F., Forde, V., & Gewirtz, J. (1969). Mechanisms of social learning. In
Butler, S.C. (2000). Maternal depressive symptoms D.A.Goslin (Ed.), Handbook of socialization theory
affect infant cognitive development in Barbados. and research. (p. 57–212). Chicago, Illinois: Rand
Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry and Allied McNally.
Disciplines, 41(6), 747–757. Gewirtz, J.L. (1972). Attachment and dependence and
Galler, J.R., & Ramsey, F. (1985). The influence of early a distinction in terms of stimulus control. In
malnutrition on subsequent behavioural develop- J.Gewirtz (Ed.), Attachment and dependency. (p. 139–
ment: VI. The role of the microenvironment of the 177). Washington, D.C.: Winston.
household. Nutrition and Behavior, 2, 161–173. Gewirtz, J.L. (1991). Social influence on child and
Galler, J.R., Ricciuti, H., Crawford, M., & Kucharski, parent via stimulation and operant-learning mecha-
L. (1984). The role of the mother-infant interaction nisms. In Michael Lewis & Saul Feinman (Eds.),
in eating disorders. In J.Galler (Ed.), Nutrition and Social influences and socialization in infancy. (p. 137–
behaviour (Vol 5.). New York : Plenum Press. 163). New York: Plenum Press.
Garbarino, J. (1988). Preventing childhood injury: Gewirtz, J., & Boyd, E. (1977). Experiments on mother-
Developmental and mental health issues. American infant interaction underlying mutual attachment
Journal of Orthopsychiatry, 58, 25–45. acquisition: The infant condition the mother. In
Garbarino, J., & Sherman, D. (1980). High risk T.Alloway, P.Pliner, & L.Kramer (Eds.), Advances in
neighborhoods and high risk families: The human the study of communication and affect. (p. 109–143).
ecology of child maltreatment. Child Development, New York: Plenum Press.
51, 188–198. Gewirtz, J.L., & Pelaez-Nogueras, M. (1992). Social
Garber, J., & Dodge, K.A.E. (1991). The development referencing as a learned process. In Saul Feinman
of emotion regulation and dysregulation. New York: (Ed.), Social referencing and the social construction of
Cambridge University Press. reality in infancy. (p. 151–173). New York: Perseus.
Gardner, D.B., Hawkes, G.R., & Burchinal, L.G. (1961). Gilgun, J.F. (1991). Resilience and the intergenerational
Noncontinuous mothering in infancy and develop- transmission of child sexual abuse. In M.Q.Patton
ment in later childhood. Child Development, 32, (Ed.), Family sexual abuse: Frontline research and
225–234. evaluation. (p. 93–105). Thousand Oaks, CA, US:
Sage Publications.
Garmezy, N. (1985). Broadening research on develop-
mental risk: Implications from studies of vulner- Giovannoni, J.M., & Billingsley, A. (1970). Child ne-
able and stress-resistant children. In W. glect among the poor: A study of parental adequacy
Frankenburg, R.Emde, & J.Sullivan (Eds.), Early in families of three ethnic groups. Child Welfare, (4),
identification of children at risk: an international per- 196.
spective. (p. 45–58). New York: Plenum Press. Glaser, K., & Eisenberg, L. (1956). Maternal depriva-
Garmezy, N. (1988). Stressors of childhood. In tion. Pediatrics, 626–642.
N.Garmezy & M.Rutter (Eds.), Stress, coping and Goldberg, S. (1972). Infant care and growth in urban
development in children. (p. 43–84). New York: Zambia. Human Development, (15), 77–89.
McGraw Hill. Goldberg, S. (1978). Prematurity: Effects on parent-
Garmezy, N. (1991). Resiliency and vulnerability to infant interaction. Journal of Pediatric Psychology, 3,
adverse developmental outcomes associated with 137–144.
poverty. American Behavioral Scientist, 34, 416–430.
72
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Goldberg, S. (1979). Infant development and mother- Gottfried, A.E. (1988). Maternal employment and chil-
infant interaction in urban Zambia. In M.Lewis & dren’s development: Longitudinal research. New York:
L.A.Rosenblum. (Eds.), The child and its family. (p. Plenum Press.
211–243). New York: Plenum. Gottfried, A.W. (1984). Home environment and early
Goldberg, S. (1988). Risk factors in infant-mother at- cognitive development: Longitudinal research. New
tachment. Canadian Journal of Psychology, 42(2), York: Academic Press.
173–188. Gottlieb, G. (1976). Conceptions of prenatal develop-
Goldberg, S., Lojkasek, M., Gartner, G., & Corter, C. ment: Behavioural embryology. Psychological Review,
(1989). Maternal responsiveness and social devel- 83, 215–234.
opment in preterm infants. In M.Bornstein (Ed.), Grantham-McGregor, S., Desai, P., & Buchanan, E.
Maternal responsiveness: Characteristics and conse- (1977). The identification of infants at risk of mal-
quences. (p. 89–103). San Francisco: Jossey Bass Inc. nutrition in Kingston, Jamaica. Tropical and Geo-
Goldberg, S., Perrotta, M., Minde, K., & Corter, C. graphical Medicine, 29(2), 165–171.
(1986). Maternal behavior and attachment in low- Grantham-McGregor, S., Powell, C.A., Walker, S.,
birth-weight twins and singletons. Child Develop- Chang, S., & Fletcher, P. (1994). The long-term
ment, 57, 34–46. follow-up of severely malnourished children who
Goldsmith, H.H., & Alansky, J.A. (1987). Maternal and participated in an intervention program. Child De-
infant temperamental predictors of attachment: A velopment, 65, 428–439.
meta-analytic review. Journal of Consulting and Clini- Grantham-McGregor, S., Powell, C.A., Walker, S.P., &
cal Psychology, 55( 6), 805–816. Himes, J.H. (1991). Nutritional supplementation,
Goldstein, F.C., & Rollins, H.A. (1983). Maternal teach- psychosocial stimulation, and mental development
ing styles, children’s response patterns, and mother- of stunted children: The Jamaican study. Lancet, 338,
child reflection-impulsivity. Journal of Genetic 1–5.
Psychology, 142(2), 315–316. Grantham-McGregor, S., Schonfield, W., & Powell, C.
Gomby, D.S., Larner, M.B., Stevenson, C.S., Lewit, (1987). Development of severely malnourished chil-
E.M., & Behrman, R.E. (1995). Long term outcomes dren who received psychosocial stimulation: Six-
of early childhood programs: Analysis and recom- year follow-up. Pediatrics, 79, 247–254.
mendations. The future of children, 5( 3), 6–24. Grantham-McGregor, S., Walker, S.P., Chang, S.M., &
Goodall, J. (1979). A social score for kwashiorkor: Powell, C.A. (1997). Effects of early childhood sup-
Explaining the look in the child’s eyes. Developmen- plementation with and without stimulation on later
tal Medicine and Child Neurology, 21, 374–384. development in stunted Jamaican children. Ameri-
Goodman, S.H., Brogan, E., Lynch, M.E. & Fielding, can Journal of Clinical Nutrition, 66, 247–253.
B. (1993). Social and emotional Competence in Graves, P. (1976). Nutrition, infant behavior, and ma-
Children of Depressed Mothers. Child Development, ternal characteristics: A pilot study in West Bengal,
64, 516–531. India. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition, 29, 305–
Goodman, S.H., & Gotlib, I.H. (1999). Risk for psy- 319.
chopathology in the children of depressed moth- Graves, P. (1978). Nutrition and infant behaviour: A
ers: A developmental model for understanding replication study in the Katmandu Valley. American
mechanisms of transmission. Psychological Review, Journal of Clinical Nutrition, 31, 541–551.
106(3), 458–490. Graves, P. (1989). The functioning fetus. In S.Green-
Goodnow, J.J. (1988). Parents’ ideas, actions and feel- span & G.Pollock (Eds.), The course of life (Vol 1.).
ings: Models and method from developmental and (p. 433–465). Madison: International Universities
social psychology. Child Development, 59, 286–320. Press.
Gopaldas, T., Patel, P., & Bakshi, M. (1988). Selected Green, A.H. (1981). Core affective disturbance in
socioeconomic, environmental, maternal and child abused children. Journal of the American Academy of
factors associated with the nutritional status of in- Psychoanalysis, 9(3), 435–446.
fants and toddlers. Food and Nutrition Bulletin, 10. Greenfield, P. (1994). Independence and interdepend-
Gordon, B.N. (1983). Maternal perception of child tem- ence as developmental scripts: Implications for
perament and observed mother-child interaction. theory, research and practice. In P.Greenfield &
Child Psychiatry and Human Development, 13(3), R.Cocking (Eds.), Cross-cultural roots of minority child
153–167. development. (p. 1–37). Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence
Erlbaum Associates.
73
THE IMPORTANCE OF CAREGIVER–CHILD INTERACTIONS FOR THE SURVIVAL AND HEALTHY DEVELOPMENT OF YOUNG CHILDREN
Greenough, W.T., & Black, J.E. (1992). Induction of Halfon, N. (2001). Primary care services promoting
brain structure by experience: Substrates for cog- optimal child development from birth to age 3 years:
nitive development. In M.R.Gunnar & C.A.Nelson Review of the literature. Archives of Pediatrics and
(Eds.), Minnesota Symposia on Child Psychology: De- Adolescent Medicine, 155, 1311–1322.
velopmental neuroscience, Vol. 24. (p. 155–200). Halfon, N., Mendonca, A., & Berkowitz, G. (1995).
Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates. Health status of children in foster care. The experi-
Grieve, K., & Richter, L. (1990). A factor analytic study ence of the Center for the Vulnerable Child. Archives
of the Home Screening Questionnaire for infants. of Pediatrics and Adolescent Medicine, 149(4), 386–
South African Journal of Psychology, 20, 277–281. 392.
Grolnick, W.S., Bridges, L.J., & Connell, J.P. (1996). Halliday, M. (1975). Learning how to mean – Explora-
Emotion regulation in two-year-olds: Strategies and tions in the development of language. London: Arnold.
emotional expression in four contexts. Child Devel- Halliday, S., & Leslie, J.C. (1986). A longitudinal semi-
opment, 67(3), 928–941. cross-sectional study of the development of mother-
Grossmann, K., Grossmann, K.E., Spangler, G., Seuss, child interaction. British Journal of Developmental
G., & Unzner, L. (1985). Maternal sensitivity and Psychology, 4(3), 211–222.
newborns’ orientation responses as related to qual- Halpern, R. (1990). Poverty and early childhood
ity of attachment in northern Germany. In I.Brether- parenting: Toward a framework for intervention.
ton & E.Waters (Eds.), Growing points in attachment American Journal of Orthopsychiatry, 60(1), 6–18.
theory and research. (p. 233–256).
Halpern, R., & Larner, M.B. (1987). Lay family sup-
Grossmann, K.E., & Grossmann, K. (1990). The wider port during pregnancy and infancy: the child
concept of attachment in cross-cultural research. survival/Fair Start initiative. Infant Mental Health
Human Development, 33, 31–47. Journal, 8(2), 130–143.
Grossmann, K.E., & Grossmann, K. (1991). Attach- Hamilton, A.B., & Zeltzer, L.K. (1994). Visceral pain
ment quality as an organizer of emotional and in infants. Journal of Pediatrics, 125(6 Pt 2), 95–102.
behavioral responses in a longitudinal perspective.
Hamilton, C.E. (2000). Continuity and discontinuity
In C.M.Parkes & J.Stevenson-Hinde (Eds.), Attach-
of attachment from infancy through adolescence.
ments across the life cycle. (p. 93–114). London:
Child Development, 71(3), 690–694.
Routledge.
Hammen, C., Burge, D., & Stansbury, K. (1990). Rela-
Guedeney, A. (1995). Kwashiorkor, depression and
tionship of mother and child variables to child out-
attachment disorders. Lancet, 346, 1293.
comes in a high-risk sample: A causal modeling
Guedeney, A. (2000). Infant depression and with- analysis. Developmental Psychology, 26(1), 24–30.
drawal: Clinical assessment. In J.Osofsky &
Harlow, H.F. (1958). The nature of love. American Psy-
H.Fitzgerald (Eds.), WAIMH Handbook of infant men-
chologist, 13, 673–685.
tal health (Vol 4.) Infant mental health in groups at
high risk. New York: John Wiley and Son. Harlow, H.F., & Harlow, M. (1962). The social depri-
vation of monkeys. Scientific American, 207, 136–
Gunnar, M.R. (1998). Quality of early care and buffer-
146.
ing of neuroendocrine stress reactions: potential
effects on the developing human brain. Preventa- Harlow, H.F., & Harlow, M. (1969). Effects of various
tive Medicine, 27(2), 208–211. mother-infant relationships on rhesus monkey be-
haviours. In B.Foss (Ed.), Determinants of infant be-
Gunnar, M., Mangelsdorf, S., Larson, M., & Hertsgaard,
haviour. (p. 15–36). London: Methuen.
L. (1989). Attachment, temperament, and adreno-
cortical activity in infancy: A study of psycho- Harmon, R.J., Wagonfeld, S., & Emde, R.N. (1982).
endocrine regulation. Developmental Psychology, Anaclitic depression: A follow-up from infancy to
25(3), 355–363. puberty. Psychoanalytic Study of the Child, 37: 67–94.
Guskin, K.A., Mumme, D.L., Nolen-Hoeksema, S., & Hart, S.N., & Brassard, M.R. (1991). Psychological
Wolfson, A. Mastery problem-solving in children of maltreatment: Progress achieved. Development and
depressed mothers. (un pub) Psychopathology, 3(1), 61–70.
Haft, W.L., & Slade, A. (1989). Affect attunement and Hart, S., Field, T.M., Jones, N.A., & Yando, R. (1999).
maternal attachment: A pilot study. Infant Mental Intrusive and withdrawn behaviours of mothers
Health Journal, 10(3), 157–172. interacting with their infants and boyfriends. Jour-
nal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry and Allied Dis-
Haith, M. (1981). Rules that newborns look by. Hillsdale,
ciplines, 40(2), 239–245.
NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
74
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Hart, S., Field, T.M., & Roitfarb, M. (1999). Depressed Hinde, R.A. (1991). Relationships, attachment and
mothers’ assessments of their neonates’ behaviors. culture: A tribute to John Bowlby. Infant Mental
Infant Mental Health Journal, 20(2), 200–210. Health Journal, 12, 154–163.
Hart, S., Jones, N.A., Field, T.M., & Lundy, B. (1999). Hinde, R.A. (1994). Developmental psychology in the
One-year-old infants of intrusive and withdrawn context of other behavioural sciences. In R.Parke,
depressed mothers. Child Psychiatry and Human P.Ornstein, J.Riese, & C.Zahn-Waxler (Eds.), A cen-
Development, 30(2), 111–120. tury of developmental psychology. (p. 617–643). New
Hay, D. (1979). Cooperative interactions and sharing York: American Psychological Association.
between very young children and their parents. Hinde, R.A., & Tamplin, A. (1983). Relations between
Developmental Psychology, 15, 647–653. mother-child interaction and behaviour in pre-
Hayes, A., Goodnow, J.J., & Murray, J. (1984). school. British Journal of Developmental Psychology,
Analyzing states in the behavior of mother and in- 1(3), 231–257.
fant. In R.A.Glow (Ed.), Advances in the behavioral Hofer, M.A. (1996). On the nature and consequences
measurement of children: A research annual. (p. 1– of early loss. Psychosomatic Medicine, 58(6), 570–
27). Greenwich: JAI Press Inc. 581.
Haynes, C.F., Cutler, C., Gray, J., & Kempe, R.S. (1984). Holmes, J. (1993). John Bowlby and attachment theory.
Hospitalized cases of nonorganic failure to thrive: London: Routledge.
The scope of the problem and short-term lay health Homel, R., Burns, A., & Goodnow, J.J. (1987). Paren-
visitor intervention. Child Abuse and Neglect, 8(2), tal social networks and child development. Journal
229–242. of Social and Personal Relationships, 4, 159–177.
Heckhausen, J. (1988). Becoming aware of one’s com- Honig, A.S. (2000). Cross-cultural study of infants and
petence in the second year: Developmental progres- toddlers. In A.L.Comunian & U.P.Gielen (Eds.),
sion within the mother-child dyad. International International perspectives on human development. (p.
Journal of Behavioral Development, 11(3), 305–326. 275–308). Lengerich, Germany: Pabst Science Pub-
Hepner, R., & Maiden, N. (1971). Growth rate, nutri- lishers.
ent intake and “mothering” as determinants of mal- Hoogsteder, M., Maier, R., & Elbers, E. (1996). The
nutrition in disadvantaged children. Nutrition architecture of adult-child interaction: Joint prob-
Reviews, 29, 219–223. lem solving and the structure of cooperation. Learn-
Herbert, M., Sluckin, W., & Sluckin, A. (1982). Mother- ing and Instruction, 6(4), 345–358.
to-infant ‘bonding’. Journal of Child Psychology and Hopkins, J. (1990). The observed infant of attachment
Psychiatry, 23(3), 205–221. theory. British Journal of Psychotherapy, 6(4), 460–
Hernandez-Reif, M., Field, T.M., Del Pino, N., & Di- 470.
ego, M.A. (2000). Less exploring by mouth occurs Hopkins, B., & Westra, T. (1989). Maternal expecta-
in newborns of depressed mothers. Infant Mental tions of their infants’ development: some cultural
Health Journal, 21(3), 204–210. differences. Developmental Medicine and Child Neu-
Hertsgaard, L., Gunnar, M., Erickson, M.F., & rology, 31, 384–390.
Nachmias, M. (1995). Adrenocortical response to Hopkins, B., & Westra, T. (2002). Motor development,
the Strange Situation in infants with disorganized/ maternal expectations, and the role of handling.
disoriented attachment relationships. Child Devel- Infant Behavior and Development, 13, 117–122.
opment, 66, 1100–1106.
Hornik, R., & Gunnar, M.R. (1988). A descriptive
Hess, R.D., Kashiwagi, K., Azuma, H., Price, G.G., & analysis of infant social referencing. Child Develop-
Dickson, W.P. (1980). Maternal expectations for ment, 59, 626–634.
mastery of developmental tasks in Japan and the
Horns, K.M. (1998). Being-in-tune caregiving. Journal
United States. International Journal of Psychology, 15,
of Perinatal and Neonatal Nursing, 12(3), 38–49.
259–271.
Horowitz, F. (1987). Exploring developmental theories:
Hewlett, B. (1992). Father-child relations, cultural and
Toward a structural/behavioural model of development.
biosocial contexts. Hawthorne, NY: Aldine de
Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
Gruyter.
Hubbard, F.O.A., & van Ijzendoorn, M.H. (1991).
Hinde, R.A. (1976). On describing relationships. Jour-
Maternal unresponsiveness and infant crying across
nal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 17, 1–19.
the first 9 months: A naturalistic longitudinal study.
Infant Behavior and Development, 14, 299–312.
75
THE IMPORTANCE OF CAREGIVER–CHILD INTERACTIONS FOR THE SURVIVAL AND HEALTHY DEVELOPMENT OF YOUNG CHILDREN
Hubert, N.C., Wachs, T.D., Peters-Martin, P., & Johnson, D.E. (2000). Medical and developmental se-
Gandour, M.J. (1982). The study of early tempera- quelae of early childhood institutionalization in
ment: Measurement and conceptual issues. Child Eastern European adoptees. In C. A. Nelson (Ed.),
Development, 53, 571–600. The Minnesota symposia on child psychology, Vol 31:
Hubley, P., & Trevarthen, C. (1979). Sharing a task in The effects of early adversity on neurobehavioral de-
infancy. In I.C.Uzgiris (Ed.), Social interaction and velopment. (p. 113–162). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence
communication during infancy. (p. 57–75). San Fran- Erlbaum Associates.
cisco: Jossey-Bass. Jones, N.A., Field, T.M., & Davalos, M. (1998). Mas-
Hundeide, K. (1991). Helping disadvantaged children. sage therapy attenuates right frontal EEG asymme-
London: Jessica Kingsley. try in one-month-old infants of depressed mothers.
Infant Behavior and Development, 21(3), 527–530.
Hundeide, K. The indigenous approach to early depriva-
tion and development. (un pub) Jones, N.A., Field, T.M., & Davalos, M. (2000). Right
frontal EEG asymmetry and lack of empathy in pre-
Hunt, J.M. (1976). Environmental programming to
school children of depressed mothers. Child Psy-
foster competency and prevent mental retardation
chiatry and Human Development, 30(3), 189–204.
in infancy. In R.Walsh & W.Greenough (Eds.), En-
vironments as therapy for brain dysfunction. New York: Jones, N.A., Field, T.M., Hart, S.N., Lundy, B., &
Plenum Press. Davalos, M. (2001). Maternal self-perceptions and
reactions to infant crying among intrusive and with-
Huston, A.C., McLoyd, V.C., & Garcia-Coll, C.T.
drawn depressed mothers. Infant Mental Health Jour-
(1994). Children and poverty: Issues in contempo-
nal, 22(5), 576–586.
rary research. Child Development, 65, 275.
Juffer, F., Hoksbergen, R.A.C., Riksen-Walraven, J.M.,
Isabella, R.A. (1993). Origins of attachment: Maternal
& Kohnstamm, G.A. (1997). Early intervention in
interactive behaviour across the first year. Child
adoptive families: Supporting maternal sensitive
Development, 64, 605–621.
responsiveness, infant-mother attachment, and in-
Isabella, R.A., & Belsky, J. (1991). Interactional syn- fant competence. Journal of Child Psychology and
chrony and the origins of infant-mother attachment: Psychiatry and Allied Disciplines, 38(8), 1039–1050.
A replication study. Child Development, 62, 373–384.
Kagan, J. (1979). Reflections on infancy. Young Chil-
Isabella, R.A., Belsky, J., & von Eye, A. (1989). Ori- dren, 6, 4–10.
gins of infant-mother attachment: An examination
Kagan, J. (1982). Psychological research on the human
of interactional synchrony during the infant’s first
infant: An evaluative summary. New York: W.T. Grant
year. Developmental Psychology, 25(1), 12–21.
Foundation.
Izard, C.E., Haynes, O.M., Chisholm, G., & Baak, K.
Kagan, J. (1983). Stress and coping in early develop-
(1991). Emotional determinants of infant-mother
ment. In N.Garmezy & M.Rutter (Eds.), Stress, cop-
attachment. Child Development, 62, 906–917.
ing and development in children. (p. 191–216). New
Izuora, G.I., & Ebigbo, P. (1983). Emotional reactions York: McGraw-Hill.
of adult Africans to children with severe kwash-
Karen, R. (1994). Becoming attached: Unfolding the mys-
iorkor. Child Abuse and Neglect, 7(3), 351–356.
tery of the infant-mother bond and its impact on later
Jackson, J.F. (1993). Multiple caregiving among Afri- life. New York: Warner Books, Inc.
can Americans and infant attachment: The need for
Katz, L.C. (1999). What’s critical for the critical pe-
an emic approach. Human Development, 36, 87–102.
riod in visual cortex? Cell, 99, 673–676.
Jacobson, S.W., & Frye, K.F. (1991). Effect of mater-
Kaufman, J., & Charney, D. (2001). Effects of early
nal social support on attachment: Experimental
stress on brain structure and function: implications
evidence. Child Development, 62, 572–582.
for understanding the relationship between child
Jacobvitz, D., Morgan, E., Kretchmar, M.D., & Morgan, maltreatment and depression. Development and Psy-
Y. (1991). The transmission of mother-child bound- chopathology, 13(3), 451–471.
ary disturbances across three generations. Develop-
Kaufman, J., Plotsky, P.M., Nemeroff, C.B., & Charney,
ment and Psychopathology, 3, 513–527.
D.S. (2000). Effects of early adverse experiences on
Jacobvitz, D., & Sroufe, L.A. (1987). The early brain structure and function: clinical implications.
caregiver-child relationship and attention deficit Biological Psychiatry, 48(8), 778–790.
disorder with hyperactivity in kindergarten: A pro-
Kaufman, J., & Zigler, E.F. (1988). Do abused chil-
spective study. Child Development, 58, 1496–1503.
dren become abusive parents? Annual Progress in
Child Psychiatry and Child Development, 591–600.
76
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Kaufman, J., & Zigler, E.F. (1989). The intergenera- Kessen, W., & Leutzendorff, A. (1963). The effects of
tional transmission of child abuse. In D.Cicchetti non-nutritive sucking on movement in the human
& V.Carlson (Eds.), Child maltreatment: Theory and newborn. Journal of Comparative Physiology and Psy-
research on the causes and consequences of child abuse chology, 56, 69–72.
and neglect. (p. 129–150). New York, NY, US: Cam- Kilbride, P., & Kilbride, J. (1974). Sociocultural fac-
bridge University Press. tors and the early manifestation of sociability
Kaye, K. (1982). The mental and social life of babies: How behavior among Baganda infants. Ethos, 2, 296–314.
parents create persons. Chicago: The Harvester Press. Kimble, C. (1992). Nonnutritive sucking: adaptation
Kearney, J.A. (1997). Emotional development in in- and health for the neonate. Neonatal Network – Jour-
fancy: theoretical models and nursing implications. nal of Neonatal Nursing, 11(2), 29–33.
Journal of Child and Adolescent Psychiatric Nursing, Kimchie, J., & Schaffner, B. (1990). Childhood pro-
10(4), 7–17. tective factors and stress risk. In L.Arnold (Ed.),
Keating, D., & Hertzman, C. (2005). Developmental Childhood stress. (p. 476–500). New York: John
health and the wealth of nations. New York: The Wiley and Son.
Guilford Press. Kindermann, T., & Skinner, E.A. (1988). Developmen-
Keller, H., Chasiotis, A., Risau-Peters, J., Voelker, S., tal tasks as organizers of children’s ecologies: Moth-
Zach, U., & Restemeier, R. (1996). Psychobiological ers’ contingencies as children learn to walk, eat, and
aspects of infant crying. Early Development and dress. In J.Valsiner (Ed.), Social co-construction and
Parenting, 5(1), 1–13. environmental guidance in development. (p. 66–105).
Keller, H., Miranda, D., & Gauda, G. (1984). The na- Stamford, CT: Ablex Publishing Corp.
ive theory of the infant and some maternal attitudes: Kjellberg, K. (1953). A brief review of W.H.O. activi-
A two-country study. Journal of Cross Cultural Psy- ties. In M.Senn (Ed.), Problems in infancy and child-
chology, 15(2), 165–179. hood. Transactions of the Sixth Conference 1952:
Keller, H., & Schölmerich, A. (1987). Infant vocal- Josiah Macy Foundation.
izations and parental reactions during the first 4 Klaus, M., & Kennell, J. (1976). Maternal-infant bond-
months of life. Developmental Psychology, 23(1), 62– ing. St Louis: Mossy.
67. Klein, P., & Hundeide, K. (1989). Manual for MISC
Keller, H., Schölmerich, A., & Eibl-Eibelsfeldt, I. Programme. Sri Lanka: UNICEF.
(1988). Communication patterns in adult-infant Klein, P.S. (1991). Improving the quality of parental
interactions in Western and non-Western cultures. interaction with very low birth weight children: A
Journal of Cross Cultural Psychology, 19, 427–445. longitudinal study using a mediated learning expe-
Kennedy, J.H., & Bakeman, R. (1984). The early rience model. Infant Mental Health Journal, 12(4),
mother-infant relationship and social competence 321–337.
with peers and adults at three years. The Journal of Klein, P.S. (2001). Seeds of hope: Twelve years of early
Psychology, 116, 23–34. intervention in Africa. Oslo: Unipub forlag.
Kennell, J., & Klaus, M. (1983). Early events: Later Klinnert, M.D., Campos, J.J., Sorce, J.F., Emde, R.N.,
effects on the infant. In J.D.Call, E.Galenson, & & Svedja, M. (1983). The development of social
R.Tyson (Eds.), Frontiers of Psychiatry, (Vol 2.). (p. referencing in infancy. In R.Plutchik & H.Kellerman
7–16). New York: Basic Books. (Eds.), Emotions, theory, research and experience:
Keren, M., Feldman, R., & Tyano, S. (2001). Diagnoses Vol 2. Emotion in early development. New York: Aca-
and interactive patterns of infants referred to a com- demic Press.
munity-based infant mental health clinic. Journal Kochanska, G. (1991a). Patterns of inhibition to the
of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psy- unfamiliar in children of normal and affectively ill
chiatry., 40, 27–35. mothers. Child Development, 62, 250–263.
Kermoian, R., & Liederman, P.H. (1986). Infant at- Kochanska, G. (1991b). Socialization and temperament
tachment to mother and child caretaker in an east in the development of guilt and conscience. Child
African community. International Journal of Development, 62, 1379–1392.
Behavioral Development, 9, 455–469.
Kochanska, G. (1994). Beyond cognition: Expanding
Kerr, M., Bogues, J., & Kerr, D. (1978). Psychosocial the search for the early roots of internalization and
functioning of mothers of malnourished children. conscience. Developmental Psychology, 30(1), 20–22.
Pediatrics, 62, 778–784.
77
THE IMPORTANCE OF CAREGIVER–CHILD INTERACTIONS FOR THE SURVIVAL AND HEALTHY DEVELOPMENT OF YOUNG CHILDREN
Kochanska, G., & Thompson, R.A. (1997). The emer- Lamb, M.E. (1977). Father-infant and mother-infant
gence and development of conscience in interaction in the first year of life. Child Develop-
toddlerhood and early childhood. In J.E.Grusec ment, 48, 167–181.
(Ed.), Parenting and children’s internalization of val- Lamb, M.E. (1981). Developing trust and perceived
ues: a handbook of contemporary theory. (p. 53–77). effectance in infancy. In L.P.Lipsitt & C.K.Rovee-
New York: John Wiley and Sons, Inc. Collier (Eds.), Advances in Infancy Research. (p. 101–
Konner, M. (1977). Infancy among the Kalahari Desert 127). Norwood, New Jersey: Ablex Publishing
San. In P.Liederman, S.Tulkin, & A.Rosenthal (Eds.), Corporation.
Culture and infancy: Variations in the human experi- Lamb, M.E. (1983). The effects of the social context
ence. (p. 69–109). New York: Academic Press. on dyadic interaction. In M.Lamb, S.Suomi, &
Kopp, C.B. (1982). Antecedents of self-regulation: A G.Stephenson (Eds.), Social interaction analysis. (p.
developmental perspective. Developmental Psychol- 253–268). Wisconsin: University of Wisconsin
ogy, 18(2), 199–214. Press.
Kop.C.B. (1989). Regulation of distress and negative Lamb, M.E. (1987a). Predictive implications of indi-
emotions: A developmental view. Developmental vidual differences in attachment. Journal of Consult-
Psychology, 25( 3), 343–354. ing and Clinical Psychology, 55, 817–824.
Kopp, C.B., & Kaler, S.R. (1989). Risk in infancy. Lamb, M.E. (1987b). Strange situation behaviour of
American Psychologist, 44, 224–230. infants with adolescent mothers. Infant Behavior and
Kuhn, C.M., & Schanberg, S.M. (1998). Responses to Development, 10, 39–48.
maternal separation: Mechanisms and mediators. Lamb, M.E., Gaensbauer, T.J., Malkin, C., & Schultz,
International Journal of Developmental Neuroscience, L.A. (1985). The effects of child maltreatment on
16(3–4), 261–270. security of infant-adult attachment. Infant Behavior
Kumar, R., & Hipwell, A.E. (1996). Development of a and Development, 8, 35–45.
clinical rating scale to assess mother-infant interac- Lamb, M.E., Morrison, D.C., & Malkin, C. (1987). The
tion in a psychiatric mother and baby unit. British Development of infant social expectations in face-
Journal of Psychiatry, 169(1), 18–26. to-face interaction: A longitudinal study. Merrill
Kurstjens, S., & Wolke, D. (2001). Effects of maternal Palmer Quarterly, 33(2), 241–254.
depression on cognitive development of children Lamb, M.E., Thompson, R.A., Gardner.W.P., Charnov,
over the first 7 years of life. Journal of Child Psychol- E.L., & Estes, D. (1984). Security of infantile at-
ogy and Psychiatry, 42, 623–636. tachment as assessed in the “strange situation”: Its
Kysela, G.M., & Marfo, K. (1983). Mother-child inter- study and biological interpretation. The Behavioral
actions and early intervention programmes for and Brain Sciences, 7, 127–171.
handicapped infants and young children. Educa- Lamontagne, J.F., Engle, P.L., & Zeitlin, M.F. (1998).
tional Psychology, 3(3–4), 201–212. Maternal employment, child care, and nutritional
Labouvie-Vief, G., Hakim-Larson, J., DeVoe, M., & status of 12–18-month-old children in Managua,
Schoeberlein, S. (2002). Emotions and self- Nicaragua. Social Science and Medicine, 46(3), 403–
regulation:A life span view. Human Development, 32, 414.
279–299. Lanata, C. (2001). Children’s health in developing
Lachenmeyer, J.R., & Davidovicz, H. (1987). Failure countries: Issues of coping, child neglect and inter-
to thrive: A critical review. In B.B.Lahey & national marginalisation. In D.Leon & G.Walt
A.E.Kazdin (Eds.), Advances in clinical child psychol- (Eds.), Poverty, inequality and health: An international
ogy. (p. 335–358). New York: Plenum Press. perspective. (p. 137–158). Oxford: Oxford Univer-
sity Press.
Ladden, M., & Damato, E. (1992). Parenting and sup-
portive programs. NAACOGS.Clin.Issu.Perinat. Landau, R. (1989). Affect and attachment: Kissing,
Womens Health Nurs., 3(1), 174–187. hugging and patting as attachment behaviours. In-
fant Mental Health Journal, 10, 59–69.
Lakatos, K., Toth, I., Nemoda, Z., Ney, K., Sasvari-
Szekely, M., & Gervai, J. (2000). Dopamine D4 Laucht, M., Esser, G., & Schmidt, M.H. (2001). Dif-
receptor (DRD4) gene polymorphism is associated ferential development of infants at risk for psycho-
with attachment disorganization in infants. Molecu- pathology: the moderating role of early maternal
lar Psychiatry, 5(6), 633–637. responsivity. Developmental Medicine and Child Neu-
rology, 43(5), 292–300.
78
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Lawhon, G. (1997). Providing developmentally sup- infant-child risk in the presence of maternal men-
portive care in the newborn intensive care unit: an tal illness. Child Abuse and Neglect, 21(7), 589–606.
evolving challenge. Journal of Perinatal and Neonatal Lozoff, B. (1989). Nutrition and behaviour. American
Nursing, 10(4), 48–61. Psychologist, 44, 231–236.
Lay, K., Waters, E., & Park, K. (1989). Maternal re- Lutz, W.J., & Hock, E. (1995). Maternal separation
sponsiveness and child compliance: The role of anxiety: relations to adult attachment representa-
mood as a mediator. Child Development, 60, 1405– tions in mothers of infants. Journal of Genetic Psy-
1411. chology, 156(1), 57–72.
Leavitt, L.A. (1999). Research to practice: emotional Lyons-Ruth, K., Aspen, L., & Repacholi, B. (1993).
development and maternal/infant attachment. Jour- Disorganized attachment classification and mater-
nal of Pediatric Health Care, 13(3), S4–S7. nal psychosocial problems as predictors of hostile-
Lennenberg, E. (1976). Biological functions of language. aggressive behaviour in the preschool classroom.
New York: John Wiley and Son. Child Development, 64, 572–585.
Leonard, M., Rhymes, J., & Solnit, A. (1966). Failure Lyons-Ruth, K., Connell, D.B., Grunebaum, H., &
to thrive infants: A family problem. American Jour- Botein, S. (1990). Infants at social risk: Maternal
nal of Diseases of Children, 111, 600–612. depression and family support services as media-
Lewis, M., Feiring, C., McGuffog, C., & Jaskir, J. tors of infant development and security of attach-
(1984). Predicting psychopathology from early so- ment. Child Development, 61, 85–98.
cial relations. Child Development, 55, 123–136. Lyons-Ruth, K., Connell, D.B., Grunebaum, H., Botein,
Lewis, M., & Goldberg, S. (1969). Perceptual-cogni- S., & Zoll, D. (1984). Maternal family history,
tive development in infancy: A generalized expect- maternal caretaking, and infant attachment in multi-
ancy model as a function of the mother-infant problem families. Journal of Preventative Psychiatry,
interaction. Merrill Palmer Quarterly, 15, 81–100. 2, 403–425.
Lewis, M., & Ramsay, D. (1999). Soothing and stress. Lyons-Ruth, K., Connell, D.B., Zoll, D., & Stahl, J.
NJ:Mahwah: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Inc., (1987). Infants at social risk: Relations among in-
Publishers. fant maltreatment, maternal behavior, and infant
attachment behavior. Developmental Psychology,
Lewis, M., & Ramsay, D. (1999). Effects of maternal
23(2), 223–232.
soothing on infant stress response. Child Develop-
ment, 70, 11–20. Lyons-Ruth, K., Easterbrooks, M.A., & Cibelli, C.D.
(1997). Infant attachment strategies, infant mental
Liebermann, A. (1977). Preschoolers’ competence with
lag, and maternal depressive symptoms: predictors
a peer: Relations with attachment and peer experi-
of internalizing and externalizing problems at age
ence. Child Development, 48, 1277–1287.
7. Early Human Development, 33(4), 681–692.
Lindskog, U., Bjorksten, B., & Gebre-Medhin, M.
Lyons-Ruth, K., Repacholi, B., McLeod, S., & Silva, E.
(1994). Infant care in rural Malawi. A prospective
(1991). Disorganized attachment behaviour in in-
study of morbidity and growth in relation to envi-
fancy: Short-term stability, maternal and infant cor-
ronmental factors. Annals of Tropical Paediatrics,
relates, and risk-related subtypes. Development and
14(1), 37–45.
Psychopathology, 3, 377–396.
Lis, S. (2000). Characteristics of attachment behaviour
Lyons-Ruth, K., Zoll, D., Connell, D.B., & Grunebaum,
in institution-reared children. In P.M.Crittenden &
H. (1986). The depressed mother and her one-year-
A.H.Claussen (Eds.), The organization of attachment
old infant: Environment, interaction, attachment,
relationships. (p. 141–189). Cambridge: Cambridge
and infant development. In E.Z.Tronick & T.Field.
University Press.
(Eds.), Maternal depression and infant disturbance. (p.
Little, C. The expression of affect in late infancy: The role 61–82). San Francisco: Jossey-Bass Inc., Publish-
of dyadic regulation and emotional availability. (un pub) ers.
Lombardi, K.L. (1990). Depressive states and somatic Maccoby, E.E. (1983). Social-emotional development
symptoms. In B.B.Wolman & G.Stricker (Eds.), and response to stressors. In N.Garmezy (Ed.),
Depressive disorders: Facts, theories, and treatment Stress, coping, and development in children. (p. 217–
methods. (p. 149–161). New York: John Wiley & 234). Baltimore, MD: The Johns Hopkins Univer-
Sons. sity Press.
Louis, A., Condon, J., Shute, R., & Elzinga, R. (1997). Maccoby, E.E. (1992). The role of parents in the
The development of the Louis MACRO (Mother and socialization of children: an historical overview.
Child Risk Observation) forms: assessing parent- Developmental Psychology, 28, 1006–1017.
79
THE IMPORTANCE OF CAREGIVER–CHILD INTERACTIONS FOR THE SURVIVAL AND HEALTHY DEVELOPMENT OF YOUNG CHILDREN
Maccoby, E.E., & Martin, J. (1983). Socialization in (Eds.), Attachment in the preschool years. theory, re-
the context of the family: Parent-child interaction. search, and intervention. (p. 161–182). Chicago:
In P.Mussen (Ed.), Handbook of child psychology. (p. University of Chicago Press.
1–101). New York: John Wiley. Main, M., Kaplan, N., & Cassidy, J. (1985). Security in
Maccoby, E.E., & Masters, J. (1970). Attachment and infancy, childhood, and adulthood: A move to the
dependency. In P.Mussen (Ed.), Carmichael’s manual level of representation. In I.Bretherton & E.Waters
of child psychology. New York: John Wiley and Son. (Eds.), Growing points of attachment theory and re-
MacDonald, K.B. (1992). Warmth as a developmental search. (p. 66–104). Monographs of the Society for
construct: An evolutionary analysis. Child Develop- Research on Child Development.
ment, 63, 753–773. Main, M., & Solomon.J. (1986). Discovery of an inse-
Macy, T., Harmon, R.J., & Easterbrooks, M.A. (1987). cure-disorganized/disoriented attachment pattern.
Impact of premature birth on the development of In T.B.Brazelton & M.W.Yogman (Eds.), Affective
the infant in the family. Journal of Consulting and development in infancy. (p. 95–124). Norwood, New
Clinical Psychology, 55, 846–852. Jersey: Ablex.
Madden, J., O’ Hara, J., & Levenstein, P. (1984). Home Main, M., Tomasini, L., & Tolan, W. (1979). Differ-
again: Effects of the mother-child home program ences among mothers of infants judged to differ in
on mother and child. Child Development, 55(2), security. Developmental Psychology, 15, 472–473.
636–647. Malatesta, C.Z. (1982). The expression and regulation
Madu, S.N., & Onya, H.E. (1998). Separation fever in of emotion. In T.M.Field & A.Fogel (Eds.), Emo-
a 22 month old child in Nigeria. In S.N.Madu, P.K., tions and early interaction. Hillsdale, N.J.: Lawrence
& aguma (Eds.), In quest for psychotherapy for mod- Erlbaum.
ern Africa. (p. 286–294). Sovenga, South Africa: Malatesta, C.Z. Facial expressions of infants and mothers
UNIN Press. during early interaction. (un pub)
Magnus, K.B., Cowen, E.L., Wyman, P.A., Fagen, D.B., Malone, C.A., & Drotar, D. (1988). Failure to thrive:
& Work, W.C. (1999). Parent-child relationship Preliminary report of a family-oriented prospective
qualities and child adjustment in highly stressed study. In E.J.Anthony & C.Chiland (Eds.), The child
urban black and white families. Journal of Commu- in his family, Vol. (p. 243–261). New York: John
nity Psychology, 27(1), 55–71. Wiley & Sons.
Mahler, M., Pine, F., & Bergman, A. (1975). The psy- Mangelsdorf, S.C., & Frosch, C.A. (1999). Tempera-
chological birth of the human infant. New York: Basic ment and attachment: one construct or two? Ad-
Books. vances in Child Development and Behavior, 27,
Main, M. (1983). Exploration, play, and cognitive func- 181–220.
tioning related to infant-mother attachment. Infant Mangelsdorf, S.C., Gunnar, M., Kestenbaum, R.,
Behavior and Development, 6, 167–174. Lang.R., & Andreas, D. (1990). Infant proneness-
Main, M. (1990). Cross-cultural studies of attachment to-distress temperament, maternal personality, and
organization: Recent studies, changing methodolo- mother-infant attachment: Associations and good-
gies, and the concept of conditional strategies. Hu- ness of fit. Child Development, 61(3), 820–831.
man Development, 33, 48–61. Marcovitch, S., Goldberg, S., Gold, A., & Washington,
Main, M. (2002). Cross-cultural studies of attachment J. (1997). Determinants of behavioural problems
organization: Recent studies, changing methodolo- in Romanian children adopted in Ontario. Interna-
gies, and the concept of conditional strategies. Hu- tional Journal of Behavioral Development, 20(1), 17–
man Development, 33, 48–61. 31.
Main, M., & Goldwyn, R. (1984). Predicting rejection Martin, J. (1981). A longitudinal study of the conse-
of her infant from mother’s representation of her quences of early mother-infant interaction: A
own experience: Implications for the abused-abus- microanalytic approach. Monographs of the Society
ing intergenerational cycle. Child Abuse and Neglect, for Research in Child Development, (3, Serial No
8, 203–217. 190)(46), 1–58.
Main, M., & Hesse, E. (1990). Parents’ unresolved trau- Martin, J. (1989). Personal and interpersonal compo-
matic experiences are related to infant disorganized nents of responsiveness. In M.Bornstein (Ed.), Ma-
attachment status: Is frightened and/or frightening ternal responsiveness: Characteristics and consequences.
parental behaviour the linking mechanism? In (p. 5–14). San Francisco: Jossey Bass Inc.
M.T.Greenberg, D.Cicchetti, & E.M.Cummings
80
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Martini, M., & Kirkpatrick, J. (1981). Early interac- McLennan, J.D., & Kotelchuck, M. (2000). Parental
tions in the Marquesas Islands. In T.M.Field, prevention practices for young children in the con-
A.Sostek, P.Vietze, & P.Liederman (Eds.), Culture and text of maternal depression. Pediatrics, 105(5),
early interactions. (p. 189–213). Hillsdale: Lawrence 1090–1095.
Erlbaum. McLennan, J.D., Kotelchuck, M., & Cho, H. (2001).
Martins, C., & Gaffan, E.A. (2000). Effects of early Prevalence, persistence, and correlates of depres-
maternal depression on patterns of infant-mother sive symptoms in a national sample of mothers of
attachment: A meta-analytic investigation. Journal toddlers. Journal of the American Academy of Child
of Child Psychology and Psychiatry and Allied Disci- and Adolescent Psychiatry, 40(11), 1316–1323.
plines, 41(6), 737–746. McLennan, J.D., & Offord, D.R. (2002). Should post-
Marvin, R.S., VanDevender, T.L., Iwanaga, M.I., LeVine, partum depression be targeted to improve child
S., & LeVine, R.A. (1977). Infant-caregiver attach- mental health? Journal of the American Academy of
ment among the Hausa of Nigeria. In H.McGurk Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 41(1), 28–35.
(Ed.), Ecological factors in human development. (p. McLoyd, V.C. (1990). The impact of economic hard-
247–260). Amsterdam: North Holland Publishers. ship on Black families and children: Psychological
Masten, A.S., & O’ Connor, M.J. (1989). Vulnerability, distress, parenting and socioemotional develop-
stress, and resilience in the early development of a ment. Child Development, 61, 311–346.
high risk child. Journal of the American Academy of McLoyd, V.C. (1995). Poverty, parenting, and policy:
Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 28(2), 274–278. Meeting the support needs of poor parents. In
Matas, L., Arend, R.A., & Sroufe, L.A. (1978). Conti- H.Fitzgerald, B.Lester, & B.Zuckerman (Eds.), Chil-
nuity of adaptation in the second year: The relation dren of poverty: Research, health and poverty issues.
between quality of attachment and later compe- (p. 269–299). New York: Garland Inc.
tence. Child Development, 49, 547–556. McLoyd, V.C., & Flanagan, C. (1990). Economic stress:
McCarthy P.L., Cicchetti, D., Sznajderman, S.D., Effects on family life and child development. San Fran-
Forsyth, B.C., Baron, M.A., Fink, H.D., Czarkowski, cisco: Jossey Bass Inc.
N., Bauchner, H., & Lustman, F.K. (1991). Demo- Meins, E., Fernyhough, C., Fradley, E., & Tuckey, M.
graphic, clinical, and psychosocial predictors of the (2001). Rethinking maternal sensitivity: Mental
reliability of mothers’ clinical judgments. Pediatrics, processes predict security of attachment at 12
88, 1041–1046. months. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry,
McCarton, C.M., Wallace, I.F., & Bennett, F.C. (1995). 42, 637–648.
Preventive interventions with low birth weight pre- Melson, G., Fogel, A., & Mistry, J. (1986). The study
mature infants: an evaluation of their success. Semi- of nurturant interactions. In A.Fogel & G.Melson.
nars in Perinatology, 19(4), 330–340. (Eds.), Origins of nurturance: Developmental, biologi-
McCollum, J. (1984). Social interaction between par- cal and cultural perspectives on caregiving. (p. 69–90).
ents and babies: validation of an intervention pro- Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
cedure. Child: Care, Health and Development, 10, Meltzoff, A., & Moore, M. (1977). Imitation of facial
301–315. and manual gestures by human neonates. Science,
McDonough, S. (1995). Promoting positive early par- 198, 75–78.
ent-infant relationships through interactions guid- Menahem, S. (1994). Conservation-withdrawal reac-
ance. Child and Adolescent Psychiatirc Clinics of North tion in infancy: An under described entity. Child:
America, 4, 661–672. Care, Health & Development, 20, 15–26.
McGillicuddy-DeLisi, A.V. (1982). Parental beliefs Mercer, B.M., Goldenber, R.L., Das, A., Moawad, A.H.,
about developmental processes. Human Develop- Iams, J.D., Meis, P.J., Copper, R.L., Johnson, F.,
ment, 25, 192–200. Thom, E., Mc Neilis, D., Miodovnik, M., Menard,
McGowan, R., & Johnson, D.E. (1984). The mother- M.K., Caritis, S.N., Thurnau, G.R., Bottoms, S.F.,
child relationship and other antecedents of child- & Roberts, J. (1991). The preterm prediction study:
hood intelligence: A causal analysis. Child clinical risk assessment system. American Journal of
Development, 55, 810–820. Obstetrics and Gynecology, 174(6), 1885–1893.
McKay, H., Sinisterra, L., McKay, K., Gomez, H., & Merrill, B. (1946). A measurement of mother-child
Lloreda, P. (1978). Improving cognitive ability in interaction. Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychol-
chronically deprived children. Science, 200, 270–278. ogy, 1946–1949.
81
THE IMPORTANCE OF CAREGIVER–CHILD INTERACTIONS FOR THE SURVIVAL AND HEALTHY DEVELOPMENT OF YOUNG CHILDREN
Messer, D., & Vietze, P. (1988). Does mutual influence Murray, L. (1985). Emotional regulation of interactions
occur during mother-infant social gaze? Infant two-month-olds and their mothers. In T.M.Field &
Behavior and Development, 11, 97–110. N.A.Fox (Eds.), Social perception in infancy. (p. 177–
Milberger, S., Biederman, J., Faraone, S.V., Chen, L., 197). Norwood, New Jersey: Ablex.
& Jones, J. (1996). Is maternal smoking during Murray, L. (1991). Intersubjectivity, object relations
pregnancy a risk factor for Attention Deficit Hyper- theory, and empirical evidence from mother-infant
activity Disorder in children? American Journal of interactions. Infant Mental Health Journal, 12, 219–
Psychiatry, 153(9), 1138–1142. 232.
Miller, A.R., Barr, R.G., & Eaton, W.O. (1993). Crying Murray, L. (1992). The impact of postnatal depression
and motor behavior of six-week-old infants and on infant development. Journal of Child Psychology
postpartum maternal mood. Pediatrics, 92(4), 551– and Psychiatry, 33(3), 543–561.
558. Murray, L., Hyswell, A., & Hooper, R. (1996). The
Miller, B.D., Hollingsworth, E., & Sander, L.W. (1985). cognitive development of 5-year-old children of
Assessment of infant-caregiver interaction using postnatally depressed mothers. Journal of Child Psy-
cardiac, respiratory, and behavioral monitoring: chology and Psychiatry, 73, 27–35.
Conceptual and Technical issues in a new method- Murray, L., Kempton, C., Woolgar, M., & Hooper, R.
ology. Journal of the American Academy of Child Psy- (1993). Depressed mothers’ speech to their infants
chiatry, 24(3), 286–297. and its relation to infant gender and cognitive de-
Miller, G., Galanter, E., & Pribram, K. (1960). Plans velopment. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychia-
and the structure of behaviour. New York: Holt, try, 31(7), 1083–1101.
Rinehart and Winston. Murray, L., Sinclair, D., Cooper, P.A., Ducournau, P.,
Miller, J.E. (1998). Developmental screening scores & Turner, P. (1999). The socioemotional develop-
among preschool-aged children: The roles of pov- ment of 5-year-old children of postnatally depressed
erty and child health. Journal of Urban Health, 75(1), mothers. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry,
135–152. 40, 1259–1271.
Mitchell, R., & Trickett, E. (1980). Task force report: Murray, L., Stanley, C., Hooper, R., King, F., & Fiori-
Social networks as mediators of social support. Cowley, A. (1996). The role of infant factors in post-
Community Mental Health Journal, 16, 27–44. natal depression and mother-infant interactions.
Mitchell, S.A. (1998). Attachment theory and the psy- Developmental Medicine and Child Neurology, 38 (2),
choanalytic tradition: Reflections on human 109–119.
relationality. British Journal of Psychotherapy, 15(2), Murray, L., & Trevarthen, C. (1986). The infant’s role
177–193. in mother-infant communications. Journal of Child
Moore, C., & Dunham, P.J.E. (1995). Joint attention: Its Language, 13, 15–29.
origins and role in development. Hillsdale, NJ: Law- Myers, B. (1984). Mother-infant bonding: The status
rence Erlbaum Associates, Inc. of this critical-period hypothesis. Developmental
Moustakas, C., Sigel, I.E., & Sachalock, H. (1956). An Review, 4, 240–274.
objective method for the measurement and analy- Myers, R. (1992). The twelve who survive: Strengthening
sis of chid-adult interaction. Child Development, 27, programmes of early childhood development in the third
109–134. world. New York: Routledge.
Mundy-Castle, A. (1980). Perception and communi- Nakamichi, M., Silldorff, A., & Sexton, P. (2002).
cation in infancy: A cross-cultural study. In Behavioral responses of an infant gorilla to mater-
D.R.Olson (Ed.), The social foundations of language nal separation in a captive social group of lowland
and thought: Essays in honor of Jerome Bruner? (p. gorillas. Primates, 42(3), 245–252.
231–253). New York: W.W. Norton & Company. Narayan, D., & Petesch, P. (2002). Voices of the poor:
Munoz-Hoyos, A., Augustin-Morales, M.C., Ruiz- From many lands. Washington, DC: Oxford Univer-
Cosano, C., Molina-Carballo, A., Fernandez-Garcia, sity Press and the World Bank.
J.M., & Galdo-Munoz, G. (2001). Institutional Nelson, C.A.E., & Bloom, F.E. (1997). Child develop-
childcare and the affective deficiency syndrome: ment and neuroscience. Child Development, 68, 970–
consequences on growth, nutrition and develop- 987.
ment. Early Human Development, 65 Suppl, 145–
Nelson, C.A.E., & Luciana, M. (2001). Handbook of
152.
developmental cognitive neuroscience. Cambridge, MA:
The MIT Press.
82
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Nelson, K. (1973). Structure and strategy in learning Implications for prevention. American Journal of
to talk. Monographs of the Society for Research in Child Public Health, 79(9), 1295–1296.
Development, 38(1–2), 136. Osborn, A. (1990). Resilient children: A longitudinal
Newson, J. (1979). The growth of shared understand- study of high achieving socially disadvantaged chil-
ings between infant and caregiver. In M.Bullowa dren. Early Child Development and Care, 62, 23–47.
(Ed.), Before speech: the beginning of interpersonal Osofsky, J.D. (1976). Neonatal characteristics and
communication. (p. 207–222). Cambridge: Cam- mother-infant interaction in two observational situ-
bridge University Press. ations. Child Development, 47, 1138–1147.
Nugent, J.K., & Brazelton, T.B. (1989). Preventative Osofsky, J.D. (1993). Applied Psychoanalysis: How
interventions with infants and families: The NBAS research with infants and adolescents at high psy-
Model. Infant Mental Health Journal, 10(2), 84–99. chosocial risk informs psychoanalysis. Journal of the
Nugent, J.K., Lester, B.M.E., & Brazelton, T.B. (1991). American Psychoanalytic Association Supplement, 41,
The cultural context of infancy, Vol. 2: Multicultural 193-207.
and interdisciplinary approaches to parent-infant rela- Osofsky, J.D., & Danzger, B. (1974). The relationships
tions. Stamford, CT: Ablex Publishing Corp. between neonatal characteristics and mother-infant
O’Connor, M.E., & Szekely, L.J. (2001). Frequent interactions. Developmental Psychology, 10, 124–130.
breastfeeding and food refusal associated with fail- Osofsky, J.D., & Eberhart-Wright, A. (1988). Affective
ure to thrive. A manifestation of the vulnerable child exchanges between high risk mothers and infants.
syndrome. Clinical Pediatrics, 40(1), 27–33. International Journal of Psychoanalysis, 69, 221–231.
O’ Connor, T.G. (2002). Annotation: The “effects” of Otieno, P.A., Nduati, R.W., Musoke, R.N., & Wasunna,
parenting considered: Findings, challenges and ap- A.O. (1999). Growth and development of aban-
plications. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychia- doned babies in institutional care in Nairobi. East
try, 43, 555–572. African Medical Journal, 76(8), 430–435.
O’ Connor, T.G., Bredenkamp, D., & Rutter, M. (1999). Owens, E.B., Shaw, D.S., & Vondra, J.I. (1998). Rela-
Attachment disturbances and disorders in children tions between infant irritability and maternal re-
exposed to early severe deprivation . Infant Mental sponsiveness in low-income families. Infant Behavior
Health Journal, 20(1), 10–29. and Development, 21(4), 761–777.
O’Hara, M.T., Church, C.C., & Blatt, S.D. (1998). Paine, B.J., Makrides, M., & Gibson, R.A. (1999). Du-
Home-based developmental screening of children ration of breast-feeding and Bayley’s Mental Devel-
in foster care. Pediatric Nursing, 24(2), 113–117. opmental Index at 1 year of age. Journal of Paediatrics
Ogbu, J. (1981). Origins of human competence: a cul- and Child Health, 35(1), 82–85.
tural-ecological perspective. Child Development, 52, Panksepp, J., Nelson, E., & Bekkedal, M. (1997). Brain
413–429. systems for the mediation of social separation-dis-
Ogbu, J. (1994). From cultural differences to differ- tress and social-reward. Evolutionary antecedents
ences in cultural frame of reference. In P.Greenfield and neuropeptide intermediaries. In C.S.Carter &
& R.Cocking (Eds.), Cross-cultural roots of minority I.I.Lederhendler (Eds.), The integrative neurobiology
child development. (p. 365–391). Hillsdale, NJ: Law- of affiliation. (p. 78–100). New York: New York
rence Erlbaum Associates. Academy of Sciences.
Okagaki, L., & Divecha, D. (1993). Development of Papous̆ek, H. (2000). Intuitive parenting. In J.Osofsky
parent beliefs. In T.Luster & L.Okagaki (Eds.), & H.Fitzgerald (Eds.), WAIMH Handbook of infant
Parenting: An ecological perspective. (p. 35–68). mental health, Vol. 3: Parenting and child care. New
Hillsdale: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates. York: John Wiley and Son.
Olson, S.L., Bates, J.E., & Bayles, K. (1982). Maternal Papous̆ek, H., & Papous̆ek, M. (1979). Early ontogeny
perceptions of infant and toddler behavior: A lon- of human social interactions: Its biological roots and
gitudinal, construct validation study. Infant Behavior social dimensions. In K.Foppa, W.Lepenies, &
and Development, 5(4), 397–410. D.Ploog (Eds.), Human Ethology. (p. 456–489). New
Olson, S.L., Bates, J.E., & Kaskie, B. (1992). Caregiver- York: Cambridge University Press.
infant interaction antecedents of children’s school- Papous̆ek, H., & Papous̆ek, M. (1981). How human is
age cognitive ability. Merrill Palmer Quarterly, 38(3), the human newborn, and what else is to be done?
309–330. In K.Bloom (Ed.), Prospective issues in infancy re-
Orr, S.T., James, S.A., Burns, B.J., & Thompson, B. search. (p. 137–155). Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence
(1989). Chronic stressors and maternal depression: Erlbaum Associates.
83
THE IMPORTANCE OF CAREGIVER–CHILD INTERACTIONS FOR THE SURVIVAL AND HEALTHY DEVELOPMENT OF YOUNG CHILDREN
Papous̆ek, H., & Papous̆ek, M. (1983). Interactional Patel, R.B. (1989). Care of low birth weight babies in
failures: Their origins and significance in infant psy- slums. Indian Journal of Pediatrics, 56(2), 231–237.
chiatry. In J.D.Call, E.Galenson, & R.Tyson (Eds.), Patel, V. (2002). Gender, poverty and postnatal depres-
Frontiers of psychiatry Vol 2. (p. 31–37). New York: sion: A study of mothers in Goa, India. American
Basic Books. Journal of Psychiatry, 159.
Papous̆ek, H., & Papous̆ek, M. (1986). Structure and Penman, R., Meares, R., Baker, K., & Milgrom-Fried-
dynamics of human communication at the begin- man, J. (1983). Synchrony in mother-infant inter-
ning of life. European Archives of Psychiatry and Neu- action: A possible neurophysiological base. British
rological Science, 236(1), 21–25. Journal of Medical Psychology, 56, 1–7.
Papous̆ek, H., & Papous̆ek, M. (1997). Preverbal com- Perry, B.D., Pollard, R.A., Blakley, T.L., Baker, W.L., &
munications in humans and the genesis of culture. Vigilante, D. (1995). Childhood trauma, the neu-
In U.C.Segerstrale & P.Molnar (Eds.), Nonverbal robiology of adaptation, and “use-dependent” de-
communication: Where nature meets culture. (p. 87– velopment of the brain: How “states” become
107). Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Inc. “traits”. Infant Mental Health Journal, 16, 271–291.
Papous̆ek, H., & Papous̆ek, H. (1991). Early Peters, K.L. (1998). Neonatal stress reactivity and cor-
verbalizations as precursors of language develop- tisol. Journal of Perinatal and Neonatal Nursing, 11(4),
ment. In M.E.Lamb & H.Keller (Eds.), Infant devel- 45–59.
opment: Perspectives from German-speaking countries.
Peterson, G.H., & Mehl, L.E. (1978). Some determi-
(p. 299–328). Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum
nants of maternal attachment. American Journal of
Associates, Inc.
Psychiatry, 135(10), 1168–1173.
Papous̆ek, H., & Papous̆ek, H. (1996). Infantile per-
Petterson, S.M., & Albers, A.B. (2001). Effects of pov-
sistent crying, state regulation, and interaction with
erty and maternal depression on early child devel-
parents: A systems view. In M.H.Bornstein &
opment. Child Development., 72(6), 1794–1813.
J.L.Genevro (Eds.), Child development and behavioral
pediatrics. Crosscurrents in contemporary psychology. Phillips, A. (1987). Winnicott. London: Fontana.
(p. 11–33). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Asso- Phillips, A. (1988). Winnicott: An introduction. Brit-
ciates, Inc., Publishers. ish Journal of Psychiatry, 155, 612–618.
Paret, I. (1983). Night waking and its relationship to Phillips, N.K. (1985). Mother-child interaction group:
mother-infant interaction in nine-month-old in- Model for joint treatment. Social Casework, 66(2),
fants. In J.D.Call, E.Galenson, & R.Tyson (Eds.), 91–97.
Frontiers of psychiatry. (p. 171–177). New York: Ba- Piaget, J. (1936). The origins of intelligence in children.
sic Books. 2nd Ed. (1952). New York: International Universi-
Parke, R.D. (1978). Parent-infant interaction: Para- ties Press.
digms, and problems. In G.P.Sackett. (Ed.), Observ- Pierrehumbert, B., Iannotti, R.J., Cummings, E.M., &
ing behavior Vol. 1. Theory and application in mental Zahn-Waxler, C. (1989). Social functioning with
retardation. (p. 69–94). Baltimore: University Park mother and peers at 2 and 5 years: The influence of
Press. attachment. International Journal of Behavioral De-
Parkes, C., & Stevenson-Hinde, J. (1982). The place of velopment, 12(1), 85–100.
attachment in human behavior. New York: Basic Pike, K. (1974, 1954). Language in Relation to a Unified
Books. Theory of the Structure of Human Behavior. The
Parks, P.L., Lenz, E.R., & Jenkins, L.S. (1992). The Hague: Mouton.
role of social support and stressors for mothers and Pinneau, S.R. (1955). Reply to Dr. Spitz. Psychological
infants. Child: Care, Health and Development, 18, Bulletin, 52(2), 459–462.
151–171.
Pinneau, S.R. (1955). The infantile disorders of hospi-
Parmalee, A.H., Howard, J., & Beckwith, L. (1984). talism and anaclitic depression. Psychological Bulle-
Infant mental health and biological risk. Child Abuse tin, 52(5), 429–452.
and Neglect, 8, 219–226.
Plunkett, J.W., Meisels, S.J., Stiefel, G.S., Pasick, P.L.,
Pascoe, J.M., Loda, F.A., Jeffries, V., & Earp, J.A. (1981). & Roloff, D.W. (2002). Patterns of attachment
The association between mothers’ social support and among preterm infants of varying biological risk.
provision of stimulation to their children. Develop- Journal of the American Academy of Child Psychiatry,
mental and Behavioral Pediatrics, 2(1), 15–19. 25(6), 794–800.
84
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Polan, H., & Ward, M. (1994). Role of the mother’s Pridham, K.F., Schroeder, M., & Brown, R. (1999). The
touch in failure to thrive: A preliminary investiga- adaptiveness of mothers’ working models of
tion. Journal of the American Academy of Child and caregiving through the first year: infant and mother
Adolescent Psychiatry, 33, 1098–1105. contributions. Research in Nursing and Health, 22(6),
Polansky, N.A., Borgman, R., & DeSaix, C. (1972). 471–485.
Roots of futility. London: Jossey-Bass. Pridham, K.F., Becker, P., & Brown, R. (2000). Effects
Polansky, N.A., Gaudin, J.M., Ammons, P.W., & Davis, of infant and caregiving conditions on an infant’s
K.B. (1985). The psychological ecology of the ne- focused exploration of toys. Journal of Advanced
glectful mother. Child Abuse and Neglect, 9, 265–275. Nursing, 31(6), 1439–1448.
Poley-Strobel, B.A., & Beckman, C.A. (1987). The ef- Pridham, K.F., Lin, C.Y., & Brown, R. (2001). Moth-
fects of a teaching-modeling intervention on early ers’ evaluation of their caregiving for premature and
mother-infant reciprocity. Infant Behavior and De- full-term infants through the first year: contribut-
velopment, 10, 467–476. ing factors. Research in Nursing and Health, 24(3),
157–169.
Pollitt, E. (1975). Failure to thrive: Socioeconomic,
dietary intake and mother-child interaction data . Provence, S., & Lipton, R. (1962). Infants in institu-
Federation Proceedings, 34, 1593–1597. tions. New York: International Universities Press.
Pollitt, E., Durnin, J.V., Husaini, M., & Jahari, A. Provence, S., & Ritvo, S. (1961). Effects of depriva-
(2000). Effects of an energy and micronutrient sup- tion on institutionalized infants. Psychoanalytic Study
plement on growth and development in undernour- of the Child, 16, 189–205.
ished children in Indonesia: methods. European Puckering, C. (1989). Annotation: Maternal depres-
Journal of Clinical Nutrition, 54, S16–S20. sion. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 30(6),
Pollitt, E., Eichler, A.W., & Chan, C.-K. (1975). Psy- 807–817.
chosocial development and behavior of mothers of Puckering, C. (1995). Mother-child interaction and the
failure-to-thrive children. American Journal of Or- cognitive and behavioural development of four-year-
thopsychiatry, 45(4), 525–537. old children with poor growth. Journal of Child Psy-
Pollitt, E., Jahari, A., & Walka, H. (2000). A develop- chology and Psychiatry, 36, 573–595.
mental view of the effects of an energy and micro- Radke-Yarrow, M., & Brown, E. (1993). Resilience and
nutrient supplement in undernourished children in vulnerability in children of multiple-risk families.
Indonesia. European Journal of Clinical Nutrition, 54, Development and Psychopathology, 5, 581–592.
107–113. Ragozin, A., Basham, R., Crnic, K., Greenberg, M.T.,
Portes, P.R., Franke, S., & Alsup, R. (1987). Parent- & Robinson, N. (1982). Effects of maternal age on
child interaction: Processes related to scholastic parenting role. Developmental Psychology, 18, 627–
achievement in urban elementary children. Journal 634.
of Human Behavior and Learning, 4(1), 2–9. Rahman, A., Harrington, R., & Bunn, J. (2002). Can
Posada, G., Jacobs, A., Carbonell, O.A., Alzate, G., maternal depression increase infant risk of illness
Bustamante, M.R., & Arenas, A. (1999). Maternal and growth impairment in developing countries?
care and attachment security in ordinary and emer- Child: Care, Health and Development, 28(1), 51–56.
gency contexts. Developmental Psychology, 35(6), Rahmanifar, A., Kirksey, A., Wachs, T., McCabe, G., &
1379–1388. Bishry, Z. (1993). Diet during lactation associated
Powell, C., & Grantham-McGregor, S. (1989). Home with infant behaviour and caregiver-infant interac-
visiting of varying frequency and child develop- tion in a semirural Egyptian village. Journal of Nu-
ment. Pediatrics, 84(1), 157–164. trition, 123, 164–175.
Price, G.M. (1983). Sensitivity in mother-infant inter- Ramey, C.T., Bryant, D.M., Wasik, B.H., Sparling, J.J.,
actions: The AMIS scale. Infant Behavior and Devel- Fendt, K.H., & LaVange, L.M. (1992). Infant Health
opment, 6, 353–360. and Development Program for low birth weight,
Pridham, K.F. (1984). Information needs and problem premature infants: program elements, family par-
solving behavior of parents of infants. Birth Defects ticipation, and child intelligence. Pediatrics, 89(3),
Original Article Series, 20(5), 125–165. 454–465.
Pridham, K.F. (1998). Guided participation and de- Ramey, C.T., & Ramey, S.L. (1998). Early intervention
velopment of care-giving competencies for families and early experience(:History, theory, findings, and
of low birth-weight infants. Journal of Advanced contemporary issues.). American Psychologist, 53(2),
Nursing, 28(5), 948–958. 109–120.
85
THE IMPORTANCE OF CAREGIVER–CHILD INTERACTIONS FOR THE SURVIVAL AND HEALTHY DEVELOPMENT OF YOUNG CHILDREN
Ratner, N., & Bruner, J. (1978). Games, social exchange Richter, L.M. (1994). Economic stress and its influ-
and the acquisition of language. Journal of Child ence on the family and caretaking patterns. In
Language, 5, 391–401. A.Dawes & D.Donald (Eds.), Childhood and Adver-
Reading, R., & Reynolds, S. (2001). Debt, social dis- sity in South Africa: Psychological Perspectives from
advantage and maternal depression. Social Science South African Research. (p. 28–50). Cape Town:
and Medicine, 53(4), 441–453. David Philip.
Reddy, S.N. (1987). Parental deprivation and mental Richter, L.M. (1995). Are early adult-infant interac-
health status. Child Psychiatry Quarterly, 20(3–4), tions universal? A South African view. Southern Af-
85–96. rican Journal of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 7(1),
2–18.
Reed, B.A., Habicht, J.P., & Niameogo, C. (1996). The
effects of maternal education on child nutritional Richter, L.M. (1998). The role of care in the health of
status depend on socio-environmental conditions. infants and young children. Southern African Jour-
International Journal of Epidemiology, 25(3), 585– nal of Child and Adolescent Mental Health, 9, 95–106.
592. Richter, L.M. (1999). Parenting in poverty: Young chil-
Reed, G., & Liederman, P.H. (1981). Age-related dren and their families in South Africa. In L.Eldering
changes in attachment behaviour in polymatrically & P.Leseman (Eds.), Effective early education: Cross-
reared infants: The Kenyan Gusii. In T.M.Field, cultural perspectives. (p. 191–211). New York:
A.Sostek, & P.Vietze (Eds.), Culture and early inter- Falmer Press.
actions. (p. 215–234). Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Richter, L.M., Bac, M., & Hay, I. (1990). Psychological
Erlbaum Associates. aspects of the health care of young children. South
Regalado, M., & Halfon, N. (2001). Primary care serv- African Family Practice, 11, 490–497.
ices promoting optimal child development from Richter-Strydom, L.M., Griesel, R.D., & Glatthaar, I.
birth to age 3 years: Review of the literature. Ar- (1985). Effects of a nutrition education programme
chives of Pediatrics and Adolescent Medicine, 155, on the psychological performance of malnourished
1311–1122. children. A 3-year follow-up study. South African
Reifsnider, E. (1995). The use of human ecology and Medical Journal, 68(9), 659–662.
epidemiology in nonorganic failure to thrive. Pub- Richter, L.M. & Griesel, R. D. (1994). Malnutrition,
lic Health Nursing, 12(4), 262–268. low birthweight and related influences on psycho-
Reifsnider, E. (1998). Reversing growth deficiency in logical development. In A.Dawes & D.Donald
children: the effect of a community-based interven- (Eds.), Childhood and Adversity in South Africa: Psy-
tion. Journal of Pediatric Health Care, 12(6 Pt 1), chological Perspectives from South African Research.
305–312. (p. 66–91). Cape Town: David Philip.
Reis, J. (1988). Child rearing expectations and devel- Richter, L.M. & Grieve, K. (1991). Home environment
opmental knowledge according to maternal age and and cognitive development of black infants in im-
parity. Infant Mental Health Journal, 9, 287–304. poverished South African families. Infant Mental
Health Journal, 12, 88–102.
Resnick, M.B., Armstrong, S., & Carter, L. (1988).
Developmental intervention program for high-risk Richter, L.M., Grieve, K.W., & Austin, D. (1988). Scaf-
premature infants: Effects on development and par- folding by Bantu mothers during object play with
ent-infant interactions. Journal of Developmental and their infants. Early Child Development and Care, 34,
Behavioral Pediatrics, 9(2), 73–78. 63–75.
Rhodes, S., & Hennessy, E. (2000). The effects of spe- Richters, J.E., Waters, E., & Vaughn, B.E. (1988).
cialized training on caregivers and children in early- Empirical classification of infant-mother relation-
years settings: An evaluation of the foundation ships for interactive behavior and crying during
course in playgroup practice. Early Childhood Re- reunion. Child Development, 59, 512–522.
search Quarterly, 15(4), 559–576. Ricks, M. (1985). The social transmission of parental
Ricciuti, H. (1981). Adverse environmental and nutri- behavior: Attachments across generations. In
tional influences on mental development: A per- I.Bretherton & E.Waters (Eds.), Growing points in
spective. Journal of the American Dietetic Association, attachment theory and research. (p. 211–230).
79, 115–120. Chicago: Monographs of the Society for Research in
Child Development.
Richards, M.P.M. (1974). The integration of a child into
a social world. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge Univer- Robertson, J. (1953). A two-year-old goes to hospital
sity Press. [Film]. Tavistock Child Development Research Unit.
86
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Robertson, J., & Robertson, J. (1989). Separation and Rutter, M. (1979). Protective factors in children’s mes-
the very young. London: Free Association Books. sages to stress and disadvantage. In M.W. Kent and
Roggman, L.A., Langlois, J.H., & Hubbs-Tait, L. (1987). J.E. Rolf (Eds.), Primary Prevention of Psychopathol-
Mothers, infants, and toys: Social play correlates of ogy, Vol. 3: Social Competence in Children. (p. 49–
attachment. Infant Behavior and Development, 10, 74). Hanover, NH: University Press of New England.
233-237. Rutter, M. (1980). Maternal deprivation, 1972–1978:
Roggman, L.A., & Peery, J.C. (1988). Caregiving, emo- New findings, new concepts, new approaches. Child
tional involvement, and parent-infant play. Early Development, 50, 283–305.
Child Development and Care, 34, 191–199. Rutter, M. (1987). Continuities and discontinuities
Rogoff, B. (1991). The joint socialization of develop- from infancy. In J.D.Osofsky. (Ed.), Handbook of in-
ment by young children and adults. In M. Lewis & fant development. (p. 1256–1296). New York.: John
S. Feinman (Eds.), Social influences and socialization Wiley.
in infancy. (p. 253–280). New York: Plenum Press. Rutter, M. (1989). Pathways from childhood to adult
Rogoff, B., Malkin, C., & Gilbride, K. (1984). Interac- life. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 30(1),
tion with babies as guidance in development. In 23–51.
B.Rogoff & J.V.Wertsch (Eds.), Children’s learning in Rutter, M. (1990a). Commentary: Some focus and proc-
the “Zone of Proximal Development”. (p. 31–44). San ess considerations regarding effects of parental de-
Francisco: Jossey-Bass. pression on children. Developmental Psychology,
Rogoff, B., & Wertsch, J.V. (1984). Children’s learning 26(1), 60–67.
in the “zone of proximal development”. San Francisco: Rutter, M. (1990b). Psychosocial resilience and pro-
Jossey-Bass Inc. tective mechanisms. In J.Rolf, A.S.Masten, D.Cicchetti,
Roosa, M.W., Fitzgerald, H.E., & Carlson, N.A. (1982). K.N.Nuechterlein, & S.Weintraub (Eds.), Risk and
Teenage parenting and child development: A litera- protective factors in the development of psychopathol-
ture review. Infant Mental Health Journal, 3(1), 4–18. ogy. (p. 181–214). Cambridge: Cambridge Univer-
sity Press.
Rosen, K.S., & Rothbaum, F. (1993). Quality of paren-
tal caregiving and security of attachment. Develop- Rutter, M. (1995). Clinical implications of attachment
mental Psychology, 29(2), 358–367. concepts: retrospect and prospect. Journal of Child
Psychology and Psychiatry, 36(4), 549–571.
Rosenblatt, J. (1989). The physiological and evolution-
ary background of maternal responsiveness. In Rutter, M., & Quinton, D. (1984). Long-term follow-
M.Bornstein (Ed.), Maternal responsiveness: Charac- up of women institutionalized in childhood: Fac-
teristics and consequences. (p. 15–30). San Francisco: tors promoting good functioning in adult life. British
Jossey Bass Inc. Journal of Developmental Psychology, 2, 191–204.
Rosenfeld, H.M. (1981). Whither interactional syn- Rutter, M., Shaffer, D., & Shepherd, M. (1975). A multi-
chrony? In K.Bloom (Ed.), Prospective issues in in- axial classification of child psychiatric disorders. Ge-
fancy research. (p. 71–97). Hillsdale, New Jersey: neva: World Health Organization.
Lawrence Erlbaum. Saavedra, J.M., Henderson, R.A., Perman, J.A., Hutton,
Rossetti-Ferreira, M. (1978). Malnutrition and mother- N., Livingston, R.A., & Yolken, R.H. (1995). Lon-
infant asynchrony: Slow mental development. In- gitudinal assessment of growth in children born to
ternational Journal of Behavioural Development, 1, mothers with human immunodeficiency virus in-
207–219. fection. Archives of Pediatrics and Adolescent Medi-
cine, 149(5), 497–502.
Rossi, A.S., & Rossi, P.H. (1990). Of human bonding:
Parent-child relations across the life course. Hawthorne, Saco-Pollitt, C., Triana, N., Harahap, H., Husaini, M.,
NY: Aldine de Gruyter. Jahari, A.B., & Pollitt, E. (2000). The eco-cultural
context of the undernourished children in a study
Rothbaum, F., Weisz, J., Pott, M., Miyake, K., & Morelli,
on the effects of early supplementary feeding in
G. (2000). Attachment and culture: Security in the
Indonesia. European Journal of Clinical Nutrition, 54,
United States and Japan. American Psychologist,
S11–S15.
55(10), 1093–1104.
Sagi, A. (1990). Attachment theory and research from
Rutter, M. (1962). Deprivation of maternal care: A re-
a cross-cultural perspective. Human Development,
assessment of its effects. World Health Organization
33, 10–22.
Public Health Papers.
Sagi, A., & Hoffman, M. (1976). Empathic distress in
Rutter, M. (1981). Maternal deprivation reassessed.
newborns. Developmental Psychology, 12, 175–176.
Harmondsworth: Penguin Books.
87
THE IMPORTANCE OF CAREGIVER–CHILD INTERACTIONS FOR THE SURVIVAL AND HEALTHY DEVELOPMENT OF YOUNG CHILDREN
Saint-Anne Dargassies, S. (1977). Long-term neuro- Sawin, D., Langlois, J.H., & Leitner, W. (1977). What
logical follow-up of 286 truly premature infants. 1: do you do after you say hello? Observing, coding
Neurological sequelae. Developmental Medicine and and analyzing parent-infant interactions. Behavior
Child Neurology, 19, 462–478. Research Methods and Instrumentation, 9, 425–428.
Salt, P., Galler, J.R., & Ramsey, F.C. (1988). The influ- Sayre, J.M., Pianta, R.C., Marvin, R.S., & Saft, E.W.
ence of early malnutrition on subsequent behavioral (2001). Mothers’ representations of relationships
development. VII. The effects of maternal depres- with their children: relations with mother charac-
sive symptoms. Developmental and Behavioral teristics and feeding sensitivity. Journal of Pediatric
Pediatrics, 9(1), 1–5. Psychology, 26(6), 375–384.
Sameroff, A.J. (1975a). Early influences on develop- Scarr, S. (1992). Developmental theories for the 1990’s:
ment: Fact or fancy? Merrill-Palmer Quarterly of Development and individual differences. Child De-
Behaviour and Development, 21, 267–294. velopment, 63, 1–19.
Sameroff, A.J. (1975b). Transactional models in early Scarr, S. (1993). Biological and cultural diversity: The
social relations. Human Development, 18, 65–79. legacy of Darwin for development. Child Develop-
Sameroff, A.J., & Chandler, M.J. (1975). Reproductive ment, 64, 1333–1353.
risk and the continuum of caretaking casualty. In Scarr, S., Phillips, D., & McCartney, K. (1990). Facts,
F.D Horowitz, M.Hetherington, S.Scarr-Salapatek, fantasies and the future of child care in the United
& G.Siegel (Eds.), Review of child development re- States. Psychological Science, 1, 26–35.
search. (p. 187–244). Chicago: University of Chi- Schaefer, E.S. (1989). Dimensions of mother-infant
cago. interaction: Measurement, stability, and predictive
Sameroff, A.J., & Emde, R.N. (1989). Relationship dis- validity. Infant Behavior and Development, 12, 379–
turbances in early childhood: A developmental ap- 393.
proach. New York: Basic Books. Schaffer, H.R. (1962). Activity level as a constitutional
Sameroff, A.J., & Fiese, B.H. (2000). Transactional determinant of infantile reaction to deprivation.
regulation: The developmental ecology of early in- Child Development, 37, 595–602.
tervention. In J.P.Shonkoff. & S.J.Meisels (Eds.), Schaffer, H.R. (1977). Early interactive development.
Handbook of early childhood intervention. 2nd Ed. (p. In H.R.Schaffer (Ed.), Studies in mother-infant inter-
119–159). New York, NY: Cambridge University action. (p. 3–16). London: Academic Press.
Press.
Schaffer, H.R., & Emerson, P.E. (1964). The develop-
Sander, L.W. (1969). The longitudinal course of early ment of social attachments in infancy. Monographs
mother-child interaction – Cross case comparison of the Society for Research in Child Development 29,
in a sample of mother-child pairs. In B.M.Foss. No. 94.
(Ed.), The determinants of behavior. (p. 189–227).
Schellenberg, A., Abdulla, N., Mukasa, S., Marchant,
London: Methuen & Company, Ltd.
T., Tanner, M., & Lengeler, C. (2002). Risk factors
Sander, L.W. (1987). Awareness of inner experience: a for child mortality in rural Tanzania. Tropical Medi-
systems perspective on self-regulatory process in cine and International Health, 7, 506–511.
early development. Child Abuse and Neglect, 11(3),
Scheper-Hughes, N. (1984). Infant mortality and in-
339–346.
fant care: Cultural and economic constraints on
Sander, L.W. (1989). Investigation of the infant and its nurturing in Northeast Brazil. Social Science and
caregiving environment as a biological system . In Medicine, 19(5), 535–546.
S.I.Greenspan & G.H.Pollock (Eds.), The course of
Scheper-Hughes, N. (1992). Death without weeping: the
life. (p. 359–391). Madison: International Univer-
violence of everyday life in Brazil. Berkeley, CA: Uni-
sities Press, Inc.
versity of California Press.
Sandler, J., & Rosenblatt, B. (1962). The concept of
Schmale, A., & Engel, G. (1975). The role of conser-
the representational world. Psychoanalytic Study of
vation-withdrawal in depressive reactions. In
the Child, 17, 128–145.
E.Anthony & T.Benedek (Eds.), Depression and hu-
Sartorius, N. (1974). Depressive illness as a worldwide man existence. (p. 183–198).
phenomenon. In P.Keilholz (Ed.), Depression in eve-
N, A.N. (1998). The experience-dependent matura-
ryday practice. Berne, Switzerland: H. Huber .
tion of an evaluative system in the cortex. In
Satter, E. (1990). The feeding relationship: problems K.H.Pribram (Ed.), Brain and values: Os a biological
and interventions. [Review] [45 refs]. Journal of science of values possible. (p. 337–358). Mahwah,
Pediatrics, 117(2 Pt 2), S181–S189. New Jersey: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Inc.
88
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Schore, A.N. (2001a). Effects of a secure attachment Sigel, I.E. (1985). Parental belief systems: The psycho-
relationship on right brain development, affect regu- logical consequences for children. (1st Ed.). Hillsdale,
lation, and infant mental health. Infant Mental Health NJ: Erlbaum.
Journal, 22(1–2), 7–66. Sigman, M., Cohen, S.E., & Beckwith, L. (2000). Why
Schore, A.N. (2001b). The effects of early relational does infant attention predict adolescent intelligence?
trauma on right brain development, affect regula- In D.Muir & A.Slater (Eds.), Infant development: The
tion, and infant mental health. Infant Mental Health essential readings. (p. 239–253). Malden, MA:
Journal, 22(1–2), 201–269. Blackwell Publishers Inc.
Schore, R. (1997). Rethinking the brain: New insights into Sigman, M., Cohen, S.E., Beckwith, L., & Parmalee,
early development. New York: Families and Work A.H. (1981). Social and familial influences on the
Institute. development of preterm infants. Journal of Pediatric
Schölmerich, A., Fracasso, M., Lamb, M., & Broberg, Psychology, 6, 1–13.
A. (1995). Interactional harmony at 7 and 10 Sigman, M., Neumann, C., Baksh, M., Bwibo, N., &
months of age predicts security of attachment as McDonald, M. (1989). Relationship between nu-
measured by Q-sort ratings. Social Development, 4, trition and development in Kenyan toddler. Journal
62–74. of Pediatrics, 115, 357–364.
Scott, D. (1992). Early identification of maternal de- Sigman, M., Neumann, C., Carter, E., Cattle, D.J.,
pression as a strategy in the prevention of child D’Souza, S., & Bwibo.N. (1988). Home interactions
abuse. Child Abuse and Neglect, 16(3), 345–358. and the development of Embu toddlers in Kenya.
Sears, R.R., Maccoby, E.E., & Levin, H. (1957). Pat- Child Development, 59, 1251–1261.
terns of childrearing. New York: Harper. Simner, M. (1971). Newborn’s response to the cry of
Seguin, L., Potvin, L., St.Denis, M., & Loiselle, J. another infant. Developmental Psychology, 5, 136–
(1999). Depressive symptoms fn the late postpar- 150.
tum among low socioeconomic status women. Birth- Singer, L.T., & Zeskind, P.S. (2001). Biobehavioral as-
Issues in Perinatal Care, 26(3), 157–163. sessment of the infant. New York, The Guilford Press.
Shaw, D., & Vondra, J. (1993). Chronic family adver- Skeels, H.M., & Dye, H.B. (1939). A study of the ef-
sity and infant attachment. Journal of Child Psychol- fects of differential stimulation on mentally retarded
ogy and Psychiatry, 34, 1205–1215. children. American Journal of Mental Deficiency,
Shaw, D.S., Owens, E.B., Giovannelli, J., & Winslow, 44, 114–136.
E.B. (2001). Infant and toddler pathways leading Skeels, H.M. (1966). Adult status of children with con-
to early externalizing disorders. Journal of the Ameri- trasting early life experiences. Chicago, Ill.: Mono-
can Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 40(1), graphs of the Society for Research in Child Development.
36–43. Skinner, B.F. (1938). The behavior of organisms. New
Sherry, B., Embree, J.E., Mei, Z., Ndinya-Achola, J.O., York: Appleton-Century-Crofts.
Njenga, S., Muchunga, E.R., Bett, J., & Plummer, Skinner, E.A. (1985). Determinants of mother-sensi-
F.A. (2000). Sociodemographic characteristics, care, tive and contingent-responsive behavior: The role
feeding practices, and growth of cohorts of chil- of child-rearing beliefs and socioeconomic status.
dren born to HIV-1 seropositive and seronegative In I. E. Sigel (Ed.), Parental belief systems: The psy-
mothers in Nairobi, Kenya. Tropical Medicine and chological consequences for children. (p. 51–88).
International Health, 5(10), 678–686. Hilldale, NJ.: Erlbaum.
Shonkoff, J., & Phillips, D. (2000). From neurons to Snow, C., & Ferguson, C. (1977). Talking to children:
neighbourhoods: The science of early childhood devel- Language input and acquisition. Cambridge: Cam-
opment. New York: National Academy Press. bridge University Press.
Siebert, J., Hogan, A., & Mundy, P. (1982). Assessing Sorce, J.F., Emde, R.N., Klinnert, M.D., & Campos,
interactive competencies: The Early Social Commu- J.J. (1981). Maternal emotional signaling: Its effect
nication Scales. Infant Mental Health Journal, 3, 244– on the visual cliff behaviour of one-year-olds. De-
258. velopmental Psychology, 21, 195–200.
Siegel, D.J. (2001). Toward an interpersonal neurobi- Spieker, S.J., & Booth, C.L. (1988). Maternal anteced-
ology of the developing mind: Attachment relation- ents of attachment quality. In J.Belsky &
ships, “mindsight”, and neural integration. Infant T.Nezworski (Eds.), Clinical implications of attach-
Mental Health Journal, 22(1–2), 67–94. ment. (p. 95–135). Hillsdale, N.J.: Lawrence
Erlbaum.
89
THE IMPORTANCE OF CAREGIVER–CHILD INTERACTIONS FOR THE SURVIVAL AND HEALTHY DEVELOPMENT OF YOUNG CHILDREN
Spitz, R.A. (1945). Hospitalism: An Inquiry into the Stein, A., Murray, L., Cooper, P.A., & Fairburn, C.
genesis of psychiatric conditions in early childhood. (1996). Infant growth in the context of maternal
Psychoanalytic Study of the Child, 1, 53–74. eating disorders and maternal depression: a com-
Spitz, R.A. (1947). Grief: A peril in infancy [Film]. New parative study. Psychological Medicine, 26, 569–574.
York University Film Library. Stein, M.T., & Call, J.D. (2001). Extraordinary changes
Spitz, R.A. (1964). The derailment of dialogue: Stimu- in behavior in an infant after a brief separation. Jour-
lus overload, action cycles, and the completion nal of Developmental and Behavioral Pediatrics, 22(2),
gradient. Journal of the American Psychoanalytic As- 11–15.
sociation, 12, 752–775. Stern, D.N. (1974). Mother and infant at play: The
Spitz, R.A. (1965). The first year of life: A psychoana- dyadic interaction involving the facial, vocal and
lytic study of normal and deviant development of ob- gaze behaviours. In M.Lewis & L.Rosenblum (Eds.),
ject relations. Madison: International Universities The effect of the infant on its caregivers. (p. 187–213).
Press. New York: John Wiley and Sons.
Spitz, R.A., & Wolf, K.M. (1946). Anaclitic depression; Stern, D.N. (1977). The first relationship. Cambridge,
an inquiry into the genesis of psychiatric conditions MA: Harvard University Press.
in early childhood, II. Psychoanalytic Study of the Stern, D.N. (1984). Affect attunement. In J.D.Call,
Child, 2, 313–342. E.Galenson, & R.Tyson (Eds.), Frontiers of Infant
Sroufe, L.A. (1979). The coherence of individual de- Psychiatry, Vol. 2. New York: Basic Books.
velopment. American Psychologist, 34, 834–841. Stern, D.N. (1985). The interpersonal world of the in-
Sroufe, L.A. (1983). Infant-caregiver attachments and fant: A view from psychoanalysis and developmental
patterns of adaptation in preschool: The roots of psychology. New York: Basic Books.
maladaption. In M.Perlmutter (Ed.), (p. 41–81). Stern, D.N., Beebe, B., Jaffe, J., & Bennett, S.L. (1977).
Hilldale, NJ.: Erlbaum. The infant’s stimulus world during social interac-
Sroufe, L.A. (1985). Attachment classification from the tion: A study of caregiver behaviours with particu-
perspective of infant-caregiver relationships and lar reference to repetition and timing. In H.R
infant temperament. Child Development, 56, 1–14. Schaffer. (Ed.), Studies in mother-infant interaction.
(p. 177–202). New York: Academic Press.
Sroufe, L.A. (1986). Appraisal: Bowlby’s contribution
to psychoanalytic theory and developmental psy- Stern, D.N., Spieker, S., & MacKain, K. (1982). Into-
chopathology. Journal of Child Psychology and Psy- nation contours as signals in maternal speech to
chiatry, 27(6), 841–849. prelinguistic infants. Developmental Psychology, 18,
727–735.
Sroufe, L.A. (1988). The role of infant-caregiver attach-
ment in adult development. In J.Belsky & Stevenson, M., Ver Hoeve, J., Roach, M., & Leavitt,
T.Nezworski (Eds.), Clinical Implications of attach- L.A. (1986). The beginning of conversation: Early
ment. (p. 18–38). Hillsdale, NJ.: Erlbaum. patterns of mother-infant vocal responsiveness. In-
fant Behavior and Development, 9, 423–440.
Sroufe, L.A. (1989). Relationships and relationship
disturbances. In A.Sameroff & R.Emde (Eds.), Re- Stott, D.H. (1962a). Abnormal mothering as a cause
lationship disturbances in early childhood. (p. 3–17). of mental subnormality: I. A critique of some clas-
Hillsdale, New Jersey: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates. sic studies of maternal deprivation in the light of
possible congenital factors. Journal of Child Psychol-
Sroufe, L.A., & Fleeson, J. (1986). Attachment and the
ogy and Psychiatry, 3(2), 79–91.
construction of relationships. In W.W.Hartup &
Z.Rubin. (Eds.), Relationships and development. (p. Stott, D.H. (1962b). Abnormal mothering as a cause
51–72). Hillsdale, NJ.: Lawrence Erlbaum. of mental subnormality: II. Case studies and con-
clusions. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry,
Sroufe, L.A., & Sampson, M.C. (2000). Attachment
3, 133–148.
theory and systems concepts. Human Development,
43(6), 321–326. Sullivan, J.M. (1997). Learning the baby: a maternal
thinking and problem-solving process. Journal of
Sroufe, L.A., & Waters, E. (1977). Attachment as an
Social and Pediatric Nursing, 2(1), 21–28.
organizational construct. Child Development, 48,
1184–1199. Super, C.M., Herrera, M.A., & Mora, J.O. (1990). Long
term effects of food supplementation and psycho-
Stacey, B. (1980). Infant-mother attachment: A social
social intervention on the physical growth of
psychological perspective. Social Behavior and Per-
Colombian Infants at risk of malnutrition. Child De-
sonality, 8, 33–40.
velopment, 61, 29–49.
90
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Swendsen, J.D., & Mazure, C.M. (2000). Life stress as Trevarthen, C. (1987a). Sharing makes sense. In
a risk factor for postpartum depression: Current R.Steele & T.Threadgold (Eds.), Language topics:
research and methodological issues. Clinical Psychol- Essays in honour of Michael Halliday. (p. 177–199).
ogy-Science and Practice, 7(1), 17–31. Amsterdam: John Benjamins.
Symington, A., & Pinelli, J. (2001). Developmental care Trevarthen, C. (1987b). Universal co-operative mo-
for promoting development and preventing mor- tives: How infants begin to know the language and
bidity in preterm infants. [update of Cochrane Da- culture of their parents. In G.Jahoda & I.Lewis
tabase Syst Rev. 2000;(4):CD001814 ; 11034730.]. (Eds.), Acquiring culture: Cross-cultural studies in child
[Review] [80 refs]. Cochrane Database System Re- development. (p. 37–90). London: Croon Helm.
view, (4), CD001814. Trevarthen, C. (2002). Intrinsic motives for compan-
Tanner, J., & Inhelder, B. (2002). Discussions on child ionship in understanding: Their origin, develop-
development: Proceedings of the WHO Study Group on ment, and significance for infant mental health.
the Psychobiological Development of the Child. New Infant Mental Health Journal, 22(1), 95–131.
York: International Universities Press. Trevarthen, C., & Aitken, K.J. (2001). Infant inter-
Tarabulsy, G.M., Tessier, R., & Kappas, A. (1996). Con- subjectivity: Research, theory, and clinical applica-
tingency detection and the contingent organization tions. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry and
of behavior in interactions: implications for Allied Disciplines, 42(1), 3–48.
socioemotional development in infancy. Psychologi- Trevarthen, C., & Hubley, P. (1978). Secondary inter-
cal Bulletin, 120(1), 25–41. subjectivity: Confidence, confiding and acts of
Tessier, R., Cristo, M., Velez, S., Giron, M., de Calume, meaning in the first year. In A.Lock (Ed.), Action,
Z.F., Ruiz-Palaez, J.G., Charpak, Y., & Charpak, N. gesture and symbol. London: Academic Press.
(1998). Kangaroo mother care and the bonding Trevarthen, C., Murray, L., & Hubley, P. (1981). Psy-
hypothesis. Pediatrics, 102(2), 390–391. chology of infants. In J.Davis & J.Dobbing (Eds.),
Thoman, E.B. (1979). Changing views of the being and Scientific foundations of clinical paediatrics. (p. 211–
becoming of infants. In E.B.Thoman (Ed.), Origins 274). London: Heinemann Medical.
of the infant’s social responsiveness. (p. 445–459). Tronick, E.Z. (1979). Structure of early face-to-face
Thoman, E.B., & Freese, M. (1982). A model for the communicative interactions. In M.Bullowa (Ed.),
study of early mother-infant communication. In Before Speech. Cambridge: Cambridge University
R.Bell & W.Smotherman (Eds.), Maternal influences Press.
and early behaviour. (p. 375–402). New York: Spec- Tronick, E.Z. (1989). Emotions and emotional com-
trum. munication in infants. American Psychologist, 44(2),
Thompson, R.A. (2001). Development in the first years 112–119.
of life. [Review] [31 refs]. Future Choices, 11(1), 20– Tronick, E.Z., Als, H., Adamson, L.B., Wise, S., &
33. Brazelton, T.B. (1978). The infant’s response to en-
Tomasello, M. (1999). The human adaptation for cul- trapment between contradictory messages in face-
ture. Annual Review of Anthropology, 28, 509–529. to-face interaction. Journal of the American Academy
Tomasello, M. (2001). Cultural transmission: A view of Child Psychiatry, 17, 1–13.
from chimpanzees and human infants. Journal of Tronick, E.Z., & Beeghly, M. (1999). Prenatal cocaine
Cross Cultural Psychology, 32(2), 135–146. exposure, child development, and the compromis-
Trevarthen, C. (1977). Descriptive studies of infant ing effects of cumulative risk. Clinics in Perinatology,
communicative behaviour. In H.Schaffer (Ed.), Stud- 26(1), 151–171.
ies in mother-infant interaction. New York: Academic Tronick, E.Z., & Gianino, A. (1986a). Interactive mis-
Press. match and repair: Challenges to the coping infant.
Trevarthen, C. (1979). Communication and coopera- Zero to Three, 6(3), 1–6.
tion in early infancy: a description of primary Tronick, E.Z., & Gianino, A.F. (1986b). The transmis-
intersubjectivity. In M.Bullowa (Ed.), Before Speech. sion of maternal disturbance to the infant. In
(p. 321–347). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. E.Z.Tronick & T.M.Field (Eds.), Maternal depression
Trevarthen, C. (1980). The foundations of intersubject- and infant disturbance. (p. 5–11). San Francisco:
ivity: Development of interpersonal and coopera- Jossey-Bass Inc.
tive understanding in infants. In D.R.Olson (Ed.), Tulkin, S.R., & Kagan, J. (1972). Mother-child inter-
The social foundations of language and thought. (p. actions in the first year of life. Child Development,
316–342). Toronto: W.W. Norton and Company. 43, 31–41.
91
THE IMPORTANCE OF CAREGIVER–CHILD INTERACTIONS FOR THE SURVIVAL AND HEALTHY DEVELOPMENT OF YOUNG CHILDREN
Tulloch, J. (1999). Integrated approach to child health Vygotsky, L.S. (1978). Mind and society: The develop-
in developing countries. Lancet, 354(Suppl 2), SII ment of higher psychological processes. MA: Cam-
16–20. bridge: Harvard University Press.
Udani, P.M. (1992). Protein energy malnutrition (PEM), Vygotsky, L.S. (1981). The development of higher
brain and various facets of child development. [Re- forms of attention in childhood. In J.V. Wertsch
view] [47 refs]. Indian Journal of Pediatrics, 59(2), (Ed.), The concept of activity in Soviet psychology. (p.
165–186. 134–143). Armonk, NY: Sharpe.
UNICEF. (1990). Strategy for improving nutrition of chil- Wachs, T. (1984). Proximal experience and early cog-
dren and women in developing countries. New York: nitive-intellectual development: The social environ-
UNICEF. ment. In A.Gottfried (Ed.), Home environment and
Uzgiris, I.C., & Kruper, J.C. (1992). The links between early cognitive development. New York: Academic
imitation and social referencing. In Saul Feinman Press.
(Ed.), Social referencing and the social construction of Wachs, T.D. (1992). The nature of nurture. New York:
reality in infancy. (p. 115–148). New York: Perseus. Sage.
Valenzuela, M. (1990). Attachment in chronically un- Wachs, T.D., Bishry, Z., Sobhy, A., McCabe, G., Galal,
derweight young children. Child Development, 61, O., & Shaheen, F. (1993). Relation of rearing envi-
1984–1986. ronment to adaptive behavior of Egyptian toddlers.
Van Goor-Lambo, G., Orley, J., Poustka, F., & Rutter, Child Development, 64, 586–604.
M. (1990). Classification of abnormal psychosocial Wachs, T.D., & Gruen, G. (1982). Early experience and
situations: Preliminary report of a revision of a WHO human development. New York: Plenum Press.
scheme. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, Wahler, R.G. (1967). Infant social attachments: A re-
31, 229–241. inforcement theory interpretation and investigation.
van Ijzendoorn, M.H. (1995). Adult attachment rep- Child Development, 38, 1079–1088.
resentations, parental responsiveness and infant at- Wahler, R.G., & Dumas, J.E. (1989). Attentional prob-
tachment: A meta-analysis on the predictive validity lems in dysfunctional mother-child interactions: An
of the Adult Attachment Interview. Psychological interbehavioral model. Psychological Bulletin, 105(1),
Bulletin, 117, 387–403. 116–130.
van Ijzendoorn, M.H., & Kroonenberg, P. (1988). Walden, T.A. (1988). A developmental approach to
Cross-cultural patterns of attachment: A meta-analy- social behavior. Journal of Social Behavior and Per-
sis of the Strange Situation. Child Development, 59, sonality, 3, 67–84.
147–156.
Walden, T.A. (1991). Infant social referencing. In
van Ijzendoorn, M.H., & Sagi, A. (1999). Cross cul- J.Garber & K.A.Dodge (Eds.), The development of
tural patterns of attachment: Universal and contex- emotion regulation and dysregulation. (p. 69–88). New
tual dimensions. In J.Cassidy & P.Shaver (Eds.), York: Cambridge University Press.
Handbook of attachment: Theory, research and clinical
Walden, T.A. (1993). Communicating the meaning of
applications. (p. 713–734). New York: Guilford
events through social referencing. In A.P.Kaiser &
Press.
D.B.Gray (Eds.), Enhancing children’s communication:
Vazir, S., Naidu, A.N., & Vidyasagar, P. (1998). Nutri- research foundations for intervention. (p. 187–199).
tional status, psychosocial development and the Baltimore, MD: Paul H. Brookes Publishing.
home environment of Indian rural children. Indian
Walker-Andrews, A.S. (1988). Infants’ perception of
Pediatrics, 35(10), 959–966.
the affordances of expressive behaviors. Advances
Vickers, A., Ohlsson, A., Lacy, J.B., & Horsley, A. in Infancy Research, 173–221.
(2000). Massage for promoting growth and devel-
Walker-Andrews, A.S. (1997). Infants’ perception of
opment of preterm and/or low birth-weight infants.
expressive behaviors: Differentiation of multimodal
[Review] [22 refs]. Cochrane Database System Re-
information. Psychological Bulletin, 121(3), 437–456.
view, (2), CD000390.
Walker-Andrews, A.S., & Dickson, L.R. (1997). Infants’
Violato, C., & Russell, C. (2000). Effects of non-
understanding of affect. In S.Hala (Ed.), The devel-
maternal care on child development: A meta-analy-
opment of social cognition. (p. 161–186). East Sus-
sis of published research. In C.Violato &
sex, UK: Psychology Press.
E.Oddone-Paolucci (Eds.), The changing family and
child development. (p. 268–301). Aldershot, England: Walters, J., Connor, R., & Zunich, M. (1964). Interac-
Ashgate Publishing Ltd. tion of mothers and children from lower-class fami-
lies. Child Development, 35(2), 433–440.
92
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Ward, M., Kessler, D., & Altman, S. (1993). Infant- Weinfield, N., Sroufe, L.A., & Egeland, B. (2000). At-
mother attachment in children with failure to thrive. tachment from infancy to early adulthood in a high-
Infant Mental Health Journal, 14, 208–220. risk sample: Continuity, discontinuity and their
Wasik, B.H., Ramey, C.T., Bryant, D.M., & Sparling, correlates. Child Development, 71, 695–702.
J.J. (1990). A longitudinal study of two early inter- Weissman, M., Paykel, E., & Klerman, G. (1972). The
vention strategies: Project CARE. Child Development, depressed woman as a mother. Social Psychiatry, 7,
61, 1682–1696. 98–108.
Waters, E. (1978). The reliability and stability of indi- Wendland-Carro, J., Piccinini, C.A., & Millar, W.S.
vidual differences in infant-mother attachment. (1999). The role of an early intervention on enhanc-
Child Development, 49, 483–494. ing the quality of mother-infant interaction. Child
Waters, E. (1981). Traits, behavioral systems, and re- Development, 70(3), 713–721.
lationships: Three models of infant-mother attach- Werner, E. (1988). A cross-cultural perspective on in-
ment. In K.Immelman, G.Barlow, L.Petrinovitch, & fancy: Research and social issues. Journal of Cross
M.Main (Eds.), Behavioral Development: The Bielefeld Cultural Psychology, 19(1), 96–113.
Interdisciplinary Project. (p. 621–650). New York: Werner, E. (1989). High-risk children in young adult-
Cambridge University Press. hood: A longitudinal study from birth to age 32.
Waters, E., & Cummings, E.M. (2000). A secure base American Journal of Orthopsychiatry, 59, 72–78.
from which to explore close relationships. Child Werner, E., & Smith, R. (1992). Overcoming the odds:
Development, 71(1), 164–172. High risk children from birth to adulthood. Ithaca, New
Waters, E., Kondo-Ikemura, K., Posada, G., & Richters, York.: Cornell University Press.
J.E. (1991). Learning to love: Mechanisms and mile- Werner, H., & Kaplan, B. (1963). Symbol formation.
stones. In M. Gunnar & L. A. Sroufe (Eds.), Self- New York: John Wiley and Sons.
processes and development. Hillsdale, N.J.: Lawrence
Wertsch, J.V., & Tulviste, P. (1992). L.S. Vygotsky and
Erlbaum Associates.
contemporary developmental psychology. Develop-
Waters, E., Merrick, S., Treboux, D., Crowell, J., & mental Psychology, 28, 543–553.
Albersheim, L. (2000). Attachment security in
Westphal, R., Phillips, G., & Irwig, L.M. (1981). In-
infancy and early adulthood: A twenty-year longi-
fant care and feeding in an urban black population.
tudinal study. Child Development, 71(3), 684–689.
South African Medical Journal, 60(20 ), 778–781.
Watson, J. (1979). Perception of contingency as a de-
Whitt, J.K., & Casey, P.H. (1982). The mother-infant
terminant of social responsiveness. In E.Thoman
relationship and infant development: The effect of
(Ed.), The origin of social responsiveness. (p. 33–64).
pediatric intervention. Child Development, 53, 948–
Hillsdale, New Jersey: Lawrence Erlbaum and As-
956.
sociates.
Widlocher, D. (1983). Psychomotor deprivation: Clini-
Watson, K.W. (1997). Bonding and attachment in adop-
cal, theoretical and psychometric aspects. Psychiat-
tion: Towards better understanding and useful defi-
ric Clinics of North America, 6, 27–40.
nitions. Marriage and Family Review, 25(3–4),
159–173. Williams, C. (1933). A nutritional disease of childhood
associated with a maize diet. Archives of Diseases of
Watson, K.W., & Kemper, K. (1995). Maternal factors
Childhood, 8, 423–433.
and child’s health care use. Social Science and Medi-
cine, 40, 623–628. Winn, S., Tronick, E.Z., & Morelli, G. (1991). The
infant and the group: A look at Efe caretaking prac-
Webb, G., Sanson-Fisher, R., & Bowman, J. (1988).
tices in Zaire. In J.K.Nugent, B.Lester, & T.B.Brazel-
Psychosocial factors related to parental restraint of
ton (Eds.), The cultural context of infancy, Vol 1.
preschool children in motor vehicles. Accidents
Biology, culture and infant development. Norwood, NJ:
Analysis and Prevention, 20, 87–94.
Ablex Publishing.
Webster, M., & Foschi, M. (1992). Social referencing
Winnicott, D.W. (1956). Primary maternal occupation.
and theories of status and social interaction. In Saul
In Anonymous, Collected Papers. (p. 300–305). New
Feinman (Ed.), Social referencing and the social con-
York: Basic Books.
struction of reality in infancy. (p. 269–294). New York:
Plenum Press. Winnicott, D.W. (1960). The theory of the parent-in-
fant relationship. The International Journal of Psy-
Webster, M.L., Thompson, J.M.D., Mitchell, E.A., &
choanalysis, 41, 585–595.
Werry, J.S. (1994). Post-natal depression in a com-
munity cohort. Australian & New Zealand Journal of
Psychiatry, 28(1), 42–49.
93
THE IMPORTANCE OF CAREGIVER–CHILD INTERACTIONS FOR THE SURVIVAL AND HEALTHY DEVELOPMENT OF YOUNG CHILDREN
Winnicott, D.W. (1965). The maturational processes and Young, J. (1964). A model for the brain. London: Ox-
the facilitating environment. London: Hogarth Press. ford University Press.
Winnicott, D.W. (1971). Playing and reality. London: Young, M. (1996). Early child development: Investing in
Tavistock Press. the future. New York: World Bank.
Wise, S., & Grossman, F.K. (1980). Adolescent moth- Young, M. (2002). From early child development to hu-
ers and their infants: Psychological factors in early man development: Investing in our children’s future.
attachment and interaction. American Journal of Washington, DC: World Bank.
Orthopsychiatry, 50( 3), 454–468. Zahn-Waxler, C., & Radke-Yarrow, M. (1990). The
Wohlwill, J., & Heft, H. (1977). Environments fit for origins of empathic concern. Motivation and Emo-
the developing child. In H.McGurk (Ed.), Ecologi- tion, 14, 107–130.
cal factors in human development. (p. 125–137). Zahn-Waxler, C., Radke-Yarrow, M., Wagner, E., &
Amsterdam: North Holland. Chapman, M. (1992). Development of concern for
Wood, D. (1980). Teaching the young children: Some others. Developmental Psychology, 28( 1), 126–136.
relationships between social interaction, language, Zaman, S., Jalil, F., & Karlberg, J. (1993). Early child
and thought. In D.R.Olson (Ed.), The social founda- health in Lahore, Pakistan: IV. Child care practices.
tions of language and thought. (p. 280–296). New Acta Paediatrica Supplement, 390, 39–46.
York: W.W. Norton & Company.
Zaslow, M., & Rogoff, B. (2002). The cross-cultural
Woodhead, M. (1988). When psychology informs pub- study of early interaction: Implications from re-
lic policy: The case of early childhood intervention. search on culture and cognition. In T.Field.,
American Psychologist, 43(June), 443–454. A.Sostek, P.Vietze, & P.Liederman (Eds.), Culture and
Woodson, R., Reader, J., & Chamberlain, G. (1981). early interactions. (p. 237–256). Hillsdale, N.J.: Law-
Blood pH and crying in the newborn infant. Infant rence Erlbaum.
Behavior and Development, 4, 41–45. Zeanah, C.H. (1996). Beyond insecurity: a reconcept-
World Health Organization. (1955). Study Group on the ualization of attachment disorders of infancy. Jour-
child in hospital. Geneva: World Health Organiza- nal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 64(1),
tion. 42–52.
World Health Organization Expert Committee. Child Zeanah, C.H., & Anders, T.F. (1987). Subjectivity in
Mental Health and Psychological Development. (1977). parent-infant relationships: A discussion of inter-
Anonymous. Geneva: WHO. Technical Report Se- nal working models. Infant Mental Health Journal,
ries 613. 8(3), 237–250.
World Health Organization. (1978). WHO activities Zeanah, C.H., Anders, T.F., Seifer, R., & Stern, D.N.
in child mental health and psychosocial develop- (1989). Implications of research on infant develop-
ment. International Journal of Mental Health, 7(1– ment for psychodynamic theory and practice. Jour-
2), 148–157. nal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent
Wright, C.M., Callum, J., Birks, E., & Jarvis, S. (1998). Psychiatry, 28(5), 657–668.
Effect of community based management in failure Zeanah, C.H., & Barton, M.L. (1989). Introduction:
to thrive: randomised controlled trial. British Medi- Internal representations and parent-infant relation-
cal Journal, 317(7158), 571–574. ships. Infant Mental Health Journal, 10(3), 135–141.
Wyatt, D.T., Simms, M.D., & Horwitz, S.M. (1997). Zeanah, C.H., Boris, N.W., & Larrieu, J.A. (1997). In-
Widespread growth retardation and variable growth fant development and developmental risk: a review
recovery in foster children in the first year after ini- of the past 10 years. Journal of the American Acad-
tial placement. Archives of Pediatrics and Adolescent emy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 36(2), 165–
Medicine, 151(8), 813–816. 178.
Yamada, H., Sadato, N., Konishi, Y., Muramoto, S., Zeanah, C.H., Boris, N.W., & Scheeringa, M.S. (1997).
Kimura, K., Tanaka, M., Yonekuyra, Y., Ishii, Y., & Psychopathology in infancy. Journal of Child Psychol-
Itoh, H. (1977). A milestone for normal develop- ogy and Psychiatry, 38(1), 81–99.
ment of the infantile brain detected by functional Zeanah, C.H., & Zeanah, P.D. (1989). Intergenerational
MRI. Neurology, 55, 218–223. transmission of maltreatment: Insights from attach-
Yarrow, L.J. (1961). Maternal deprivation: Toward an ment theory and research. Psychiatry: Journal for the
empirical and conceptual re-evaluation. Psychologi- Study of Interpersonal Processes, 52(2), 177–196.
cal Bulletin, 58, 459–490.
94
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Zeitlin, M., Ghassemi, H., & Mansour, M. (1990). Posi- Zigler, E., Taussig, C., & Black, K. (1992). Early child-
tive deviance in child nutrition. Tokyo: United Na- hood intervention: A promising preventative for
tions University Press. juvenile delinquency. American Psychologist, 47,
Zero to Three. (1994). Diagnostic Classification of Men- 997–1000.
tal Health and Developmental Disorders of Infancy and Zuravin, S. (1989). The ecology of child abuse and
Early Childhood. Arlington, VA: Zero to Three/Na- neglect: Review of the literature and presentation
tional Centre for Clinical Infant Programs. of data. Violence and Victims, 4, 101–120.
Zhou, Q., Eisenberg, N., Losoya, S., Fabes, R., Reiser,
M., Guthrie, I., & et al. (2002). The relations of
parental warmth and positive expressiveness to chil-
dren’s empathy-related responding and social func-
tioning. Child Development, 73, 893–915.
95
For further information please contact: